HUNGARIAN PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW VOL. 64. (2020/4) The Journal of the Philosophical Committee of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences Credo ut intelligam or Credo quia absurdum? Reason and Beyond Reason in Religious Faith Edited by Gábor Borbély and Gyula Klima Contents Improper, but Not Illegitimate: Mindreading through the Ages. Introduction (Gábor Borbély – Gyula Klima) 5 GYÖRGY HEIDL: Faith, Reason and Touch 9 GYULA KLIMA: Words and What Is Beyond Words 31 JOSHUA P. HOCHSCHILD: Thomas Aquinas, Magister Ludi: The Relation of Medieval Logic and Theology 43 GÁBOR BORBÉLY: The Triumph of Renouncement. Religious Signals, the Secrets of the Heart, Error, Deception and Happiness in Thomas Aquinas’s Summa contra Gentiles 63 NICOLAS FAUCHER: Croyance volontaire et devoir moral chez Pierre de Jean Olivi 133 MAGALI ROQUES: William of Ockham on the Ontology of Social Objects (in His Academic Writings) 154 GYÖRGY GERÉBY: The Changeability of the Past: Medieval and Modern. A Common Theme between Peter Damian and Hans Jonas 179 DÁNIEL SCHMAL: Tradition and Novelty in Early Modern Scholasticism: The Case of Nicolás Martínez and Leonard Lessius 197 Contributors 215 Summaries 217 Improper, but Not Illegitimate: Mindreading through the Ages (Introduction) “Credo ut intelligam or Credo quia absurdum? – Reason and Beyond Reason in Religious Faith”: this title might suggest that the present volume is just an- other contribution that discusses the relationship between religious faith and knowledge in a traditional manner. This is not precisely the case. In a somewhat unusual way, we have turned our focus to those borderline areas of medieval philosophical and religious thought that are marked by improper, but not illegit- imate uses of philosophical language, devised to convey ideas that are impossi- ble to grasp in terms of ordinary, proper language usage. Thus, we are exploring areas of philosophical and theological language which are designed, adopting a metaphor by Descartes he used to characterize our difficulties in talking about God, to (mentally) touch the bark of a huge oak tree that we cannot embrace. The metaphor of touch, although applied in a different context, plays a central role in György Heidl’s paper. Heidl discusses the Biblical and philosophical con- cepts of faith that might have influenced early Christian spirituality and draws a strong connection between “faith” and the metaphor of “touch,” which – in turn – leads to fundamental questions about Christian and Platonic mysticism. Gyula Klima’s paper, “Words and what is beyond words,” directly addresses the extraordinary hermeneutical scenario generated by the improper, but not illegitimate uses of language required to talk about what is beyond the grasp of the ordinary meanings of our ordinary words. To provide a sufficiently gen- eral theoretical framework for the discussion of this hermeneutical scenario, he distinguishes three typical interpretational practices, and argues for what he re- gards as the “the golden mean” between two bad extremes. Joshua Hochschild describes medieval logic using the metaphor of “game” (with reference to Hermann Hesse’s The Glass Bead Game) and the traditional metaphor of “tool”. In spite of being a leisurely activity, something done for its own sake, a game can also serve a purpose outside of itself. Similarly, a tool is not merely instrumental, insofar as it can have its own intrinsic goods and can shape and be shaped by that which it serves. After reviewing some distinctive ways in which theology shaped developments of medieval logic, Joshua Hochschild’s 6 IMPROPER, BUT NOT ILLEGITIMATE: MINDREADING THROUGH THE AGES paper summarizes key examples from the work of Thomas Aquinas where me- dieval logic shaped the articulation and is therefore crucial to a proper under- standing of theological claims and arguments. The purpose of Gábor Borbély’s paper is to explore some of the basic as- sumptions that, he believes, Aquinas’s ambitious work, the Summa contra Gen- tiles greatly depends on. These assumptions appear to form the bedrock of Aqui- nas’s deep personal convictions, and as such they may have been the driving force behind his attempt to manifest the truth and eliminate all human error in this work. By casting light upon these assumptions, Borbély aims to clarify some aspects of his „odd project” that has stubbornly resisted attempts at contextu- alization. Nicolas Faucher’s paper explores the concept of voluntary belief in Peter John Olivi’s work. Voluntary belief is being produced to fulfill the individuals’ moral duties and to promote common human activities. Its concept, however, seems to be at odds with doxastic normativity that we tend to attribute to our or- dinary beliefs. Furthermore, its use seems to lead to an infinite regress. Nicolas Faucher’s paper deals with these issues in the context of the Olivian doctrine of faith. Magali Roques’s paper focuses on one class of social realities in William of Ockham’s academic writings, the class of “voluntary signs,” which includes not only linguistic signs, but also monetary price, property right, and the sacraments. Roques argues that for Ockham these signs have a social function because a mental act is part of their definition, namely, the decision to endow a material object with a social function for the first time or to follow an established social practice. She further argues that the model of the covenant that grounds social reality (economic and other kinds of social exchanges, including linguistic ex- changes) is to be conceived analogously to the model of the covenant between God and human beings (concerning what is required for salvation, and therefore especially the sacraments). György Geréby delves into a common theme shared by Peter Damian and Hans Jonas, namely, the issue of the changeability of the past. Contrary to the common view, Hans Jonas in the twentieth century and Petrus Damiani in the eleventh, independently from each other, argued for the possibility of a retroac- tively changeable past. In the case of Jonas, the changeability is implicit, based on two considerations: the first is the result of his analysis of the conditions of truth in historical statements, while the second is the consequence of his reflections on the theological implications of the shoah. In Damiani’s case, the changeability is explicit, an original idea against the views of Aristotle, Jerome and Augustine, based on his understanding of divine omnipotence, supported by ingenious logical analysis. While Jonas and Damiani reached their conclu- sions independently, both were based on theological considerations, albeit on widely different ones. IMPROPER, BUT NOT ILLEGITIMATE: MINDREADING THROUGH THE AGES 7 Dániel Schmal analyses some literary and argumentative techniques em- ployed by late scholastic writers to integrate new elements into traditional wis- dom. The authors chosen for this study, Nicolás Martínez and Leonard Lessius, illustrate how late scholastic writers treat the Patristic and medieval heritage when they use authoritative texts for innovative purposes. Although ecclesias- tical authority continues to serve as the basis for theological argumentation in their texts, the case studies highlight how making distinctions among meanings allegedly present in the tradition, along with other “techniques of alignment,” are employed to integrate new ideas and fulfil the need for conformity at the same time. Gábor Borbély – Gyula Klima GYÖRGY HEIDL Faith, Reason and Touch The following is a brief overview of the Biblical meanings of “faith,” including a discussion of the philosophical concepts of faith that may have influenced early Christian spirituality. Then, I further characterize the distinctive Christian understanding of “faith” from several points of view. Finally, I draw a strong connection between “faith” and the metaphor of “touch,” which will lead to fundamental questions about Christian and Platonic mysticism.1 I. FAITH AND THE BIBLE The Greek noun pistis, together with the verb pisteuein in its various forms, ap- pears in the Bible in the sense of faithfulness, faith, trust, vow, oath, approval, and truth. Pistis is one of the most important concepts in the New Testament, because it conveys the central message of revelation: Abraham trusted in God, believed in the promises and remained loyal to the one who made the promises, and this trust, faithfulness and faith, in other word pistis, is completed as faith in Christ and faithfulness and trust in Christ (see, Rm 4:3ff; Gal 3:6ff). This means that in the New Testament the concept of pistis undergoes a kind of natural transformation: initially it expresses the trust and faithfulness that serve as the basis of the covenant first made with Abraham, then with Moses, and subse- quently confirmed repeatedly, until at last designating faith in the resurrection of Christ. It is clear from the Old Testament that God is loyal (pistos) to the one he elected and to all the covenants he made (see e.g. Deut. 7:9). Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are faithful servants of God (e.g., 2 Macc. 1:2), and their faithfulness 1 This paper is largely based on the first chapter of my book, Érintés: Szó és kép a korai keresztény misztikában (Touch: Word and Image in the early Christian Mysticism). Kairosz, Buda- pest, 2011. I am greatly indebted to Gyöngyi Pisák and David Baer for the English translation, and to the Hungarian National Research, Development and Innovation Office for supporting my research (NKFI K-128321). 10 GYÖRGY HEIDL are an example to follow for everyone. But human beings are often unfaithful and lose sight of the covenant (e.g., Deut. 32:20; Jer. 7:28, Ps. 76 (77):8). Proph- ets often describe unfaithfulness through the example of infidelity and adultery. God’s faithfulness toward human beings is constant and everlasting, while the faithfulness of the sons of man toward God is unsteady and inconstant. They tend to forget about the covenant and yield to their momentary desires and in- terests.