Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2011 A Dutch Woman in an English World: The Legacy of Alida Livingston of New York Melinda M. Mohler West Virginia University Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Mohler, Melinda M., "A Dutch Woman in an English World: The Legacy of Alida Livingston of New York" (2011). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 4755. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/4755 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A Dutch Woman in an English World: The Legacy of Alida Livingston of New York Melinda M. Mohler Dissertation submitted to the College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Jack Hammersmith, Ph.D., Chair Mary Lou Lustig, Ph.D. Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, Ph.D. Kenneth Fones-World, Ph.D. Martha Pallante, Ph.D. Department of History Morgantown, West Virginia 2011 Keywords: Alida Livingston, Robert Livingston, Livingston Manor, Dutch America Copyright 2011 Melinda M. Mohler ABSTRACT A Dutch Woman in an English World: The Legacy Of Alida Livingston of New York Melinda M. Mohler In 1674, at the conclusion of the Third Dutch War, the Treaty of Westminster placed the Dutch New Netherlands permanently under English control. For the many businesswomen of Dutch heritage who resided in the New Netherlands during the late seventeenth century, this shift in colonial power resulted in a drastic loss of economic freedom and, in many cases, brought an end to their public business ventures. As Dutch businesswomen increasingly retreated from the public sphere, their need to document daily activities dwindled and records of their personal lives all but disappeared. A study of the correspondence of Alida Schuyler Livingston of New York, a member of the Schuyler family by birth and the Van Rensselaer and Livingston families by marriage, illuminates the life of an elite Dutch businesswoman during this transitional phase. Alida’s husband, Robert Livingston, is recognized historically for his political and mercantile ventures. However, it was his wife who managed the couple’s vast resources, including 160,000 acres of manorial land, a bakery, brewery, gristmill and sawmill. The Livingstons’ agreement to settle – and victual – Palatine refugees at Livingston Manor during the early eighteenth century resulted in disastrous financial consequences for the Livingstons and deplorable conditions for the Palatines. Alida’s administration of the manor’s industries bolstered the family’s finances and permitted them to continue to trade during the worst economic experience of their marriage. Alida Schuyler Livingston did not own land independently, write a joint will with her spouse or operate a business in her own name. However, her letters reveal that she managed and sold slaves, independently negotiated the price of wheat, supervised millers, bakers and brewers and conducted trade with local Indians during her lengthy marriage – as her husband’s equal partner. Viewed through the lens of the twenty-first century, it is tempting to pity Alida’s years of hard work that resulted in a business empire attributed to her husband. In reality, Alida Livingston did what her mother and ancestors before her had done – labored to provide financial security for her family, but under the constraints of English common law. It is through a study of her daily activities and relationships – with her husband, children, tradesmen, slaves and employees – that the extent of Alida Livingston’s contribution to the Livingston family legacy is revealed. For Mark iii Acknowledgements This project is the result of much guidance, wisdom and encouragement from a number of individuals. I would like to thank Dr. Mary Lou Lustig, my advisor, for her support and direction throughout my entire program of doctoral study. I would also like to thank committee members Dr. Jack Hammersmith, Dr. Kenneth Fones-Wolf, Dr. Elizabeth Fones-Wolf and Dr. Martha Pallante for their insightful suggestions on enhancing and strengthening my investigation of the life of Alida Livingston. In addition, I would like to offer special thanks to Dr. Martin Berger, Dr. Lowell Satre, Dr. Martha Pallante, Dr. Les Domonkos and Dr. Saul Friedman of Youngstown State University for their direction and encouragement as I began my graduate studies. The Dean’s office of the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences at West Virginia University, and the Department of History, provided generous funding for my research. Librarian Peter Thayer of Marietta College provided special assistance in the procurement of hard-to-find articles and other information. My colleagues at Marietta College, in particular Dr. Mike Tager, Dr. Matt Young, Dr. Katy McDonald and Dr. Jim O’Donnell, provided numerous opportunities for personal and professional growth. The Gilder-Lehrman Institute of American History and the Colonial Dames of America provided substantial financial assistance toward the completion of this project. I would also like to offer special thanks to the archivists at the Roosevelt Library in Hyde Park, New York, for their patience and support. iv Many friends and family members contributed not only to the completion of this project but also to the years of schooling upon which it rests. First and foremost, I thank my Lord and Savior for the abilities, and opportunities, He has given me. My parents, Clyde and Nellie Hicks, deserve far greater thanks than can possibly be offered in a few lines. They worked long hours and sacrificed a number of material things throughout the years to pay for my schooling. I hope to someday become the teacher my mother was. Thanks to my sister, Stephanie, for being “super sis” during some very trying times. Special thanks to James DePalma, Chuck Keeney, Katharine Antolini, Mark Myers, Eugene Van Sickle and Cathy Rodabaugh for the support and friendship that made graduate school one of the most enjoyable and memorable experiences of my life. Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Mark. It is difficult to marry someone who is in the middle of the dissertation process, but your love, support and encouragement never wavered. We did it! v TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER ONE: THE TIES THAT BIND ............................................................ 17 CHAPTER TWO: THE ALBANY YEARS ........................................................... 40 CHAPTER THREE: ALIDA AND THE PALATINES ............................................ 60 CHAPTER FOUR: THE MANOR YEARS: SURVIVAL ...................................... 78 CHAPTER FIVE: MARRIAGE AND THE MATRIARCH ..................................... 95 CHAPTER SIX: ALIDA AS MOTHER .............................................................. 126 AFTERWORD .................................................................................................. 157 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 168 vi INTRODUCTION In March of 1664, King Charles II of England granted to his brother James, the Duke of York, an extensive portion of land in the New World that included the Dutch colony referred to as the New Netherlands. The Dutch trading power served as a persistent threat to the English, who certainly did not want their rival prospering in the New World. The colony, which consisted of a conglomeration of settlers who “communicated in 18 languages,” did not have the social cohesion or military support to defend itself against a British assumption of power.1 In a bloodless confrontation, the New Netherlands became New York and in 1674, the Treaty of Westminster ended the Third Dutch War, placing the New Netherlands permanently under British control. If the British had expected the newly conquered Dutch to transition rapidly to English customs, however, they were to be sorely disappointed. The clannishness of Dutch communities and their powerful trade networks suppressed the assumption of English ways in parts of New York for generations. The exception to this rule was the prompt reduction of legal freedoms for Dutch women under English law. Dutch women, once known for their management skills and business savvy, quickly became femme coverts. Though Dutch 1 For Dutch violation of the English Navigation Acts, see Russell Shorto The Island at the Center of the World (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 294-300; Michael Kammen, Colonial New York: A History (New York: KTO, 1978), 56-57 and 71-72; George Louis Beer, British Colonial Policy 1754-1765 (Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1958), 116-117. The colony briefly fell back under British control and was again established under the British in