Karszt es Barlang, Special Issue 1989. p. 3— 16. Budapest

DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF KARST REGIONS IN HUNGARY

Dr. At til a Hevesi

I. Location and lithology occur along the marginal faults. This type includes the type karsts of the Aggtelek-Rudabanya Moun­ Open karst regions only cover 1,350 km2 area tains, of the Biikk and Mecsek. in Hungary (1.45 per cent of total area). They form a much larger share of the area of low and me­ 2. Bakony-type karsts dium-height mountains (ca 20,000 km2 — almost These are characterised by rows or groups of 7 per cent). For this reason and because of their mountains, dismembered by rectangular fault sys­ characteristic features and plant associations they tems into numerous, more or less isolated limestone strongly influence the landscape of most of our and dolomite blocks elevated or subsided into va­ mountains. rious elevations. They are poor in surface karst Among the limestones the oldest is Carbonife­ features, usually only lapies fields, sporadically rous, while the youngest are of Pannonian (Upper karst marginal ponors, gorges and rarely dolines Miocene) age (Fig. 1). The widest spread karst or doline-like negative forms. The latter are not rocks in Hungary are Mesozoic limestones and aligned along valley floors. They are moderately dolomites, particularly of Triassic and Jurassic rich in karst hollows of cold water origin and parti­ age. The most important karst regions are situated- cularly rich (even in the dolomite and marl moun­ in the NE part of the North Hungarian Moun­ tains) in karst caverns dissolved or transformed by tain Range ( Biikk and Aggtelek-Rudabdnya Moun­ thermal waters. Travertine deposits from thermal tains), in the Western Mecsek Mountains and the water are also abundant. They have preserved a Transdanubian Mountains, which are also rich in good part of their Cretaceous-Paleocene paleokarst Eocene limestones. features — mostly under Cretaceous-Paleocene bauxitic or Eocene coal-bearing sediments. The II. Evolution group includes the karsts of the Transdanubian Mountains (Bakony, Vertes, Gerecse, Pilis and The karsts of Hungary, irrespective of the rock Buda Mountains), the Western Cserhat and the type, fall into two basic groups according to their Villany Mountains. features: Both the different and the similar characteristics of the two groups are explained by geologic evolu­ 1. Aggtelek-type karsts tion. The Mesozoic and Paleocene histories were These are little fractured, extensive limestone substantially identical. Marine sedimentation in a plateaus. They are equally rich in surface and sub­ position at much lower latitude (20—35° N) had surface karst features. The latter mostly include stopped by the Mid-Jurassic. The folded and im­ swallow, spring and through caves or the remnants bricated structures of the Early Kimmeridgian of these (shafts, passages and rock arches). Besides orogeny with local overthrusts uplifted in the middle gorges and lapies fields on outcrops, other features Jurassic and under the hot humid tropical climate such as solution and swallow dolines and uvalas are karstic peneplains developed on the rocks. Pene- found on their surface. A small proportion of doli­ planation, karstification and the formation of late- nes are aligned on summits, below summits, and on rite and bauxite continued undisturbed until the the floors of shallow to medium deep, dry, limestone advent of Austrian orogeny (in the Mid-Cretaceous). valleys. Rows of dolines along valley floors are the When this tectonic activity declined, a second phase most marked feature of the Aggtelek-type karsts. of these processes began and lasted to the beginning The forms of Cretaceous-Paleocene paleokarsts of the Sub-Hercynian orogenic movements (in the have been almost completely destroyed by now. Upper Cretaceous). Since our karst regions were Hollows created by the solution effect of ascending located between 25—30° N in the Paleocene and thermal waters and precipitated travertines only Eocene, next to seas, climate remained favourable.

3 Then, however, the processes affected the imbricated Since the Mid-Eocene the evolution of the two and more dissected surfaces left over by Cretaceous types of karst diverged. Tertiary-Quaternary tectonic tectonic movements. movements dismembered the Bakony-type karsts Cretaceous to Paleocene bauxites have been pre­ into horsts along an ever denser network of faults, served in the Bakony and Vertes in considerable while the Aggtelek-type was much less affected by amounts and smaller patches are also found in the fractures. The small tectonic units of Bakony-type Gerecse, the Buda Mountains, the limestone blocks karsts of chequerboard fault pattern began to move of the Western Cserhat and the Villany Mountains. vertically in opposite directions or in the same di­ Cretaceous kaolinite traces are known from the rection but at different rates beginning in the Mid- Keszthely Mountains. The paleokarst features of the Eocene. Consequently, during the marine trans­ open-cast bauxite pits of the Bakony and Vertes gressions from the Mid-Eocene to the late Oligo- Mountains attest to the karst regions being the cene, sediments of varying nature and thickness areas with the most varied topography in the en­ covered the blocks and paleokarsts of the Bakony- virons of flat planated surfaces in the Cretaceous type karsts. After regression and uplift the sedi­ and Paleocene. The low peneplains were staked by mentary cover and the locally exhumed paleokarst cockpit and tower karsts embracing giant dolines, were eroded or preserved to various degrees. As a intramontane karst levels and coastal karst plains result, the marine transgression from the middle with isolated cones and towers on the margin of Eocene to the late Oligocene changed the originally peneplains (see Fig. 2). Having close surface and typical open mixed non-independent karsts (Table drainage links with their non-karstic neighbour­ 1, 2.1.1.) into non-independent karst covered to hood, as a whole they must have been true open various extents (Table 1, 2). After the sea mixed karsts (Table 1, 2.1.1.) with marginal ponors receded, they turned into partly covered, locally and caves in addition to the mentioned forms. exhumde open mixed non-independent karsts (Table Under the imbrications of thinner, jointed and 1, 2.3.). non-karstic rocks non-independent cryptokarsts The less fractured Aggtelek-type karsts were formed (Table 1, 2.2.1.), while on top of limestone much less affected by sea-level fluctuations. Al­ vaults and imbrications typical open independent though it is possible that for a short period of time karsts (Table 1, 1.1.1.) could form in isolated spots. the whole of the Biikk was submerged under the As deep boreholes have traversed Mesozoic lime­ Upper Eocene sea at its largest extent but it is more stones with bauxite and karst hollows in several probable that it remained land even then. It is a places, Cretaceous-Paleocene karsts must have fact, however, that between the Upper Eocene and occupied much larger areas than remain now. Middle Miocene the Biikk experienced a much

4 KARSTS FORMED BY PERCOLATING COID WATER

1 authigenic karsts UrnK/ 2. allogenic Varsts /A IK / 23. partial paleokarst AIK 1.1. open AuK 1.2. buned AuK

1.1.1 t/u« open AuK 1.12. exhumed open AuK 2 3 1 partial paleokarst AIK 2 34. partial paleokar. t formed on ongmally intact AIK formed on original'y ^ \ rock capable of karstification open and subsequent! \ buried mixed AIK 1.1.11 naked true 1 11 2 true open 1121. naked 1.1 2 2 eihumed open AuK open AuK AuK w ith vegetation eihumed open AuK with vegetation and soil mantle 2 3 3 partial paleokarst AIK \ and soil mantle formed on originally open and subsequently buried AuK 1.1.111 naturally 1 l.l.i‘2. artificially 2 3 2 partial paleokarst AIK formed 1.12.11 naturally naked 1.121 2 artificially naked naked true open AuK naked true open AuK eihumed open AuK / exhumed open AuK on originally allogenic cryptokarst

2.1 open mued AIK 2 3.2.1. partia l paleokarst AIK 2 3 2 2. partial paleokarst AIK formed on originally homogeneous formed on originally mued allogeme cryptokarst allogeme cryptokarst

2.12. eihumed open mued AIK 211 true open mued AIK

211.1.1 naked 2112 true open mixed AIK 2.1.2.1 naked eihumed true open mixed AIK with vegetation and soil mantle 2 12 2 open mixed AIK w ith open mixed AIK vegetation and soil mantle 2 2 allogenic paleokarst

2.1 1 1 1. naturally 2 1112 artificially naked true open naked true 2 12 11 naturally 21212 artificially naked 2 2 1 allogeme mixed AIK open mued AIK naked eihumed exhumed open mued AIK cryptokarst 2 2 2 buried AIK mued AIK V * I V

2 211 homogeneous 2212 mixed 2 2 2 1 buned 2 2 2 2. buried 2 2 2.3. buned partta allogeme cryptokarst allogeme allogeme open mixed AIK paleokarst AIK cryptokarst cryptokarst

Classification of karsts formed by percolating cold water longer land period and provided a setting for longer Aggtelek-type karsts took place without major denudation than accumulation. There are no traces dismemberment by faults, only marginal faults of early Tertiary sedimentary cover in the Aggtelek- reactivated and grew in number. The trend of Rudabanya and Mecsek Mountains. Their Creta- tectonic activity remained the same for Bakony-type ceous-Paleocene paleokarsts retained their typical karsts also, dismembering continued and covering open mixed non-independent karst nature all over the became uneven again. Eocene and Oligocene, while karstification went on. By the Badenian burial had slowed down in all By the late Upper Oligocene and Lower Miocene Hungarian karst regions and stopped by the Sarma- both types of karsts had reached their Carpathian tian. Under the mediterranean climate of the Upper locations and integrated into that. Both were land Sarmatian — Lower Pannonian subaerial denuda­ surfaces at that time. As a consequence, as attested tion exhumed small parts of non-independent karsts. by borehole data, the area of partly covered and Since Lower Pannonian animal bones were reco­ exhumed open mixed non-independent karsts ex­ vered from the Esterhazy Cave (Vertes) at 204 m panded over their present area. altitude and in a doline at 370 m altitude the SE Left without a cover, the bauxite mantle and Biikk margin Lower Pannonian marine clay of ori­ features of Aggtelek-type tropical karsts have been ginal bedding was discovered, it seems certain that eroded by the late Oligocene—early Miocene or the rejuvenation of the karsts in Hungary, gave modified under the influence of climatic change continuous Tertiary-Quaternary karstification dating caused by the northward shift. This explains why back to the Upper Sarmatian. In that period the only traces of bauxite or cockpit or tower karst can present drainage of the low and medium-height be found in the Biikk, Aggtelek-Rudabanya and mountains and the then mostly covered karst re­ Mecsek Mountains. gions began to evolve. The Ottnangian-Carpathian stages of the Middle The Pannonian transgression laid deposits over Miocene were periods of marine transgression and the margins of karst exhumed in the Upper Sarma­ burial in all Hungarian karst regions. The open tian — Lower Pannonian. Ar the same time in the mixed non-independent karst of the Biikk, Pilis, inner parts, due to reduced relief and aridification Western Cserhat and Aggtelek-Rudabanya Moun­ of climate in the Upper Pannonian, slow exhuma­ tains, mostly exhumed in the Lower Miocene, were tion of cryptokarsts and buried karsts went on. not only covered by marine sediments but pre­ When the Pannonian sea contracted into a lake dominantly by Middle and Upper Miocene tuffs and and climate became more humid in the Pliocene, tufites and, in the Aggtelek-Rudabanya Moun­ exhumation accelerated everywhere. The forces tains, by alluvial fans. The Miocene subsidence of working against it were only basalt effusions and

5 Fig. 2. Karstic surface on dolomite N o f Halimba (Balcony Moun­ tains). 1 = no. of borehole, 2 = line o f levels (m), 3 = uvala, 4 = deepest part of a doline, 5 = doline tephra scatters and dust accumulation in the gla­ posed on the karstic rocks or ponors were formed cials. Since the Upper Pannonian phases of uplift without a previous valley (Fig. 4). and calm alternated, climate fluctuated and the As a result of the rapid drop of karst water levels changes can be detected in the altitude, relative in stages of uplift, the bathycapture of streams of positions, shape and dimensions of karst features, antecedent valleys, and the headward erosion of the and the sediments and paleontological-archaeologi- site of bathycapture characteristic swallow doline cal finds in their fills. rows were produced (Fig. 5). The valleys superim­ Climatic oscillations affected the Aggtelek- and posed over exclusively karstic rocks lost their sur­ Bakony-type karsts equally. In the late Pliocene face catchments (through the erosion of non-karstic and in the Pleistocene interglacials, when tempera­ cover sediments) and became shallow, or medium ture, precipitation, soil and vegetation conditions deep, dry, low-gradient karst valleys with usually were similar to the present day weathering products swallow doline rows. As depressions infilled, their and also karstification were governed by rainwater deeper soils and richer vegetation remained to be and streams. In colder periods karstification went the main lines of karstification and new dolines on at a slower rate, the predominant process of emerged on their floors, particularly solution dolines exhumation was frost action and gelisolifluction. while dried-out sinkholes kept on broadening and The latter played an important role in blocking deepening through solution. ponors and dolines, filling them and destroying In the Aggtelek-Rudabanya Mountains and the uplifted caves. Dust accumulation and permafrost Bukk, dolines are common, both in larger number efficiently to hindered this slow karstification and in antecedent valleys and independent of them. elimination of covered karsts. In the Mecsek dolines not associated with valleys In the impact of tectonism the differences between are rare, they are ‘hanging’ over the valley floor the Aggtelek- and Bakony-type karsts still exist. In doline rows in summit or subsummit positions. the Bakony-type karsts — particularly in the Trans- They constitute, together with the shafts of summit danubian Mountains — faults were rejuvenated, and dry spring caves opening higher than the floors new ones added to them and, consequently, ascend­ of valleys with doline rows, the older generation of ing thermal waters formed more and more caves, features in the Aggtelek-type karsts, already existing not only in limestone but also in dolomite and marl before the Upper Pliocene. blocks. The stages of uplift can be reconstructed As exhumation advanced, the surface drainage of from spring caves located in levels above each other covered karsts was also fed by already existing and terrace-like travertine horizons (Fig. 3). big karst springs. The drainage related to them The unfractured Aggtelek-type karsts show hol­ may have formed by the late Pliocene and inherited lows or travertines along their marginal faults. Over over the limestone surfaces in the early Pleistocene. their extensive plateaus and broad ridges, the ex­ The last date for bathycaptures was the Villanyian humation of covered and partly covered karsts and stage of the Lower Pleistocene. the formation of Pliocene-Quaternary features were As the non-karstic cover became dissected and primarily due to the drainage network formed on diminished, the catchments of antecedent valleys non-karstic cover rocks. Where streams cut down were reduced in area and they and their doline to the karstifying rocks, depending on the position rows became dry for longer periods. (The only ex­ of the karst water table, they were either superim­ ceptions are those valleys or valley sections which

6 as i CAVES Upper Miocene 4 6 0 - ? isznice

4 40

420-|

400-1 Hosszu-vontato caves on 12-7 mill years Nagysomlyo old abrasional terraces 380

Nagysomlyo 360- ipX. Nagysomlyo Mt Margit (- i } | 340 Alsovadacs Pes-ko, Jankovich Dunaszentmiklos 320- Mt Uj. Pocko ■\_ Halyagos caves on 7-4 mill-years Mt Oreg J~ \. Or dog - lyuk old abrasional terraces 300—* Mogyorosbanya ^ Gorba- lyuk, Szelim Mt Ko, Mt Oreg, Kopite K is- ko and pediments 280-j Sutto, Alsovadacs Ko- hegy

260 Vekonycser Dunaalmas caves on 400-700 240 Dunaalmas. Gyurus Budos-iyuk thousand years old Dunaalmas, Mt les fluvial terraces 220- Dunaalmas. Baj. Mt Les Oreg - lyuk 200H

180 - POSITION Dunaalmas Mt Render, Mt. Rez 160 - OF TRAVERTINES Dunaalmas

140 H Dunaalmas

120 - Dunaalmas

t ‘ i '-I fresh-water limestone Dunaalmas 100-* ooooo gravel Fig. 3. Connection of the travertines and cave levels in the Gerecse Mountains (after F. Schweitzer) were superimposed over impermeable non-karstic doline rows there and the sporadic swallow and rock zones.) solution dolines only occur on the most extensive During the glacials dust accumulation and per­ blocks. mafrost conditions reduced the rate of exhumation As for the medium-height mountains of Hungary and they even gained in area temporarily. With no in general, the Plio-Pleistocene uplift of Bakony- infiltration, almost all the meltwater and summer type karsts can also be estimated at 250—400 m. precipitation easily found its way from frozen lime­ Parallel with the multi-stage uplift, relative karst stone slopes into the valleys and revived the rows water levels sank and new spring cave levels formed of sinkholes there. In winters when strong and and dry caves began to be destroyed. In the glacials prolonged frosts precede the formation of snow with intensive frost shattering their remuval was cover, a similar effect of frozen soil (only seasonally particularly rapid, culminating in the last (Wtirm) and for shorter periods) can be observed even today. glacial. After thaw the exhumed open karsts became covered The recent revival of karstification began in the ones usually for 4—5 days, but sometimes for one Atlantic stage of the Holocene (7000 BP). Under or two weeks. The temporary catchments become somewhat warmer and more humid climate than at functioning ones and snowmelt accumulates in present the further exhumation of still covered and ponds and sinks noisely. partially covered karsts started, blocked ponors The exhumation of covered and partly covered opened, infilled dolines cleared of sediment and karsts, governed by surface drainage, is only helped by the C 0 2 produced in the brown or characteristic of the Aggtelek-type karsts. Over the locally black rendzinas and red clay paleosols of small limestone and dolomite horsts of Bakony-type oakwoods with rich undergrowth, surface and sub­ karsts large surface drainage networks could not surface karst features developed further and became develop even under covered conditions. This is the more abundant. These processes, although at a main reason why there are no karst valleys with slower rate, are still active today.

7 III. General description of karst regions, with special regard to their surface features 1. Aggtelek-type karsts

Aggtelek—Rudabanya Mountains This is the Hungarian portion of the most cha­ racteristic and largest karst region of the Carpathian Basin, the Gomor-Torna karst. It is subdivided into the Aggtelek and Szalonna karsts. The more extensive Aggtelek karst is a mostly exhumed, although some remnants are covered, mixed non-independent karst, developed on an ori­ ginally open and then buried mixed non-independent karst (Table 1, 2.3.4). It is built up mainly of Triassic limestone with some dolomite, shale and sandstone. The S margin is mantled by Upper Pannonian marine sediments. The larger part, N of the Kecso and Josva streams, the Haragistya, Nagy-oldal and Also-hegy are SE continuations of the Szilice karst in Slovakia. The surface features — because of its more homogeneous lithology — hardly show its nature of mixed karst. There are ridges at 400—600 m altitude with conspicuous lapies fields, hanging dolines, shafts and some uplifted spring caves. They are divided by broad, dry blind valleys with doline and uvala rows. Coalescing karst valleys often form wider, Fig. 5. Valley of epigenetic water course of covered polje-like sections dotted with a dense network of karst transforming into a row of dolines through dolines and uvalas. The most important shafts and repeated bathycapture (L. Jakucs 1968. A. Hevesi swallow caves are found on the Also-hegy plateau. 1978). 1 = non-karstic rock cover, 2 = limestone

A B Among the high-yielding karst springs at the sou­ thern foot of the Haragistya-Nagy-oldal, the Big and Small Tohonya springs and the Kossuth and Vass Imre caves are worth mentioning. The only permanent water-course of the inner karst area is the Menes stream. It follows a narrow shale zone within limestone terrain and breaks through a splen­ did limestone gorge (Var-volgy) towards the Bodva valley. Its channel is interrupted by fine travertine steps. The smaller portion of the Aggtelek karst S of the Kecso—Josva valley is the Galyasag, a ridge of 300—480 m altitude. The W half is built up of Triassic limestone and encircled by Upper Pan­ nonian marine deposits on the S and SW and Triassic shale and sandstone terrain on the E and SE. Its karst shows the characteristics of both partially exhumed and open mixed non-independent karsts. Major intermittent and permanent water­ courses reach it from the non-karstic neighbourhood and resurgent blind valleys end in typical karst margin ponors (Baba, Ravasz- and Zombor-lyuk, Vizetes ponor). In the past the streams had more abundant water and sediment discharges carved and dissolved the longest through caves with Fig. 4. The ways of inner it a nee of drainage on non- dripstones in Hungary (Baradla, BekeCave— Fig. 6). karstic surface over karstic rock. 1 = non-karstic The inner parts of the limestone ridges of the rock, 2 = limestone, 3 = karst water table; e = Galyasag are characterised by lapies fields, shafts uplift, k = sinking karst water table, v = downcutting and hanging dolines on crests and between the

8 I

sw Mt. Szomor NE Nagy Valley .Bibic” sinkhole IW "9 3.rd

r. ^ x [ r ^ s g j j f l

Fig. 6. Natural entrances of the Beke Cave (Aggtelek Karst)

crests karst valleys with doline rows and uvalas. The Szendro Mountains of Devonian-Carboni­ As with all Aggtelek-type karsts the brown and ferous sedimentary and metamorphic rocks in the black rendzina soils (accordant with present clima­ SE neighbourhood of the Aggtelek-Rudabanya te and vegetation) only occurs on the summits. Mountains is now being exhumed from its Pliocene However it is notable that slopes, karst valley cover by the water system of the Rakaca stream. floors, dolines and uvalas are mantled by rendzina With the exception of some antecedent gorge section with red clay and terra rossa-like paleosols of still cut into Carboniferous crystalline limestone, which debated origin. The swelling red clays are often are not true karst features, no other karst phenome­ compacted into impermeable layers and lead to the na are worth mentioning. formation of lakes in sinkholes, the largest of them are the Aggtelek and Voros Lakes. Biikk A smaller, almost idependent part of the Agg- telek-Rudabanya Mountains lies to the S of the On the Carboniferous-Permian-Triassic-Jurassic Aggtelek karst, stretching from Rudabanya to limestones and dolomites as well as Eocene lime­ Tornaszentandras, the Szalonna karst. It rises to stone and calcareous marl, originally open, then 300—500 m above sea level from its mostly Plio- buried and now exhuming, only partially covered Pleistocene marine-subaerial sedimentary environs, mixed non-independent karsts are found (Table 1, bordered by fault scarps. Its horst is built up of 2.3.4). Most or its karsts were formed on the ex­ Triassic limestone, dolomite and shale and the hot huming planated surface, originally denuded under and lukewarm springs and travertine precipitations the tropical climate of the Cretaceous-Middle Eoce­ at its foot also make it resemble to the largest ne, partly buried and partly further planated in Bakony-type karsts. the early Tertiary and substantially modified in the The tectonically preformed valley of the Bodva S and N Biikk as well as the E and NE margin of divides it into two uneven wings. As a whole, both the Biikk Plateau by abrasion. Even today warm are mostly exhumed, but with small areas still and lukewarm karst springs of large discharge covered mixed non-independent karst, originally issue along the marginal faults and the travertine open mixed, then buried under Pannonian sand, deposits (at Monosbel, Eger, Latorut, Diosgyor, Pliocene gravel and Pleistocene loam (Table 1, Malyinka and Belapatfalva) clearly mark the boun­ 2.3.4). Its small area explains why it shows less daries of the mountains. Travertines deposited from abundance of surface karst features. On the broad cold water are also numerous, one of them, the ridges of its wider NE wing some shafts open (Szar- Lillafiired accumulation incorporates Europe’s hegy) and karst valleys with dolines along their second largest hollow system in travertine. floors start from among the crests of the Szar-hegy The Biikk is well-studied by archaeologists, and Dunna-teto area; on reaching the fault scarp paleontologists and sedimentologists. The distinc­ margin of the karst they continue with intermittent tion between the two spring cave and doline gene­ streams and dry gorges of very high gradient. rations of Aggtelek-type karsts rests mainly on the The dripstone caves below the karst water level results of cave excavations in the Biikk Mountains. in the Esztramos, an isolated hill to the N of the They have identified Upper Pliocene spring cave NE flank, have already been destroyed by stone- and hanging dolines, at least Lower Pleistocene quarrying. valley doline rows and Riss spring caves. The narrower SW flank of the Szalonna karst Among the parts of the mountains, the Biikk shows even less karst phenomena. The only specta­ Plateau and the SE-Biikk are true karst regions, cular feature is the antecedent limestone gorge of while the N- and SW-Bukk are microregions only the Telekes stream, probably developed from a cave. made more diverse by karsts.

9 The uplifted Biikk Plateau of 22 km length and The 450—720 m high SE-Biikk is characterised 0.5—6 km width is the highest lying and largest by broad stripes of Triassic-Jurassic limestone, contiguous karst region (120 km2 area) of Hungary. narrow zones of shales and diabase and porphirite Most of the plateau is built up of easily karstifying of the same age. The water-courses arriving from Triassic-Jurassic limestones. Its Permian bituminous non-karstic terrain mostly reach its NW half. As a and Triassic cherty limestone and dolomite is of whole it was originally open, then buried, and now medium to poor susceptibility to karstification. Its largely exhumed, only in small part covered mixed mixed karst nature is due to Triassic-Jurassic shales, non-independent karst (Table 1, 2.3.4.). The NW Triassic porphirites and diabase appearing in long half has become almost completely exhumed open and narrow stripes. It is in two parts, the Great mixed non-independent karst (Table 1, 2.1.2.). and Little Plateaus, separated by the Garadna The height difference between the floors of valley following Carboniferous-Permian shales and stream valleys and the average karst water level did sandstones. These partially covered, non-inde­ exceed the range of karst water niveau previously pendent karsts differ in their height and, conse­ and in some cases it is still less. Therefore, the quently, in the degree of their exhumation. valleys continue their course over limestone. How­ The 300—400 m higher Great Plateau (at 600— ever, some of the streams are bathycaptured on 950 m above sea level) was mantled once by Middle arriving at the valley section in limestone. The latter to Upper Miocene tuff, tufite and Pleistocene dust, include the resurgent streams with the highest dis­ the remnants of which form red and orange clays charge, the sinkholes are the best-developed karst only preserved in the dolines of karst valleys. It is margin ponors (Penzpatak and Dios-patak ponors). now mostly exhumed open mixed non-independent The streams which reach the limestone terrain at karst (Table 1, 2.1.2.). The lower, E part of the lower altitudes mostly carve gorges, the floors of Little Plateau (350—750 m) is still mantled by which do not have permanent swallow dolines 1—3 m clayey weathering material with intermittent because of the range of karst water levels (in the water-courses and even permanent small streams. Balia and Pazsag valleys). A outstanding example Exhumation, the bathycapture of water-courses of karst water range is the Gvertyan valley cata- and the headward shift of the site of bathycapture votre, which functions as a sinkhole at medium and can be still detected at some places. low karst water levels, while it is a spring, when karst In spite of the differences, the Great and Little water rises substantially above the average niveau. Plateaus show some similar features. Antecedent This is the only catavotre of the mountains and also dry karst valleys of low gradient superimposed of Hungary. over the limestone and bathycaptured through Over the broader limestone zone of the SE part sinkhole rows are the most typical landforms. of the SE-Biikk hardly any water-course arrives Between them on both plateaus, lapies fields, hang­ from non-karstic terrain. Therefore, features here ing dolines, shafts and abandoned spring caves resemble the Biikk Plateau with hanging dolines, are seen on crests and summits. The characteristic shafts on broad flat ridges with dry karst valleys features of the open mixed non-independent karsts with doline rows and hanging valley torsos between (Table 1, 2.1.2.), the blind valleys with resurgent them. streams on karst margins are only secondary, but The entire SE-Bukk is rich in caves of various not insignificant elements (the Javorkut, Bolhas types, abandoned passages and gorges formed from and Letras sinkholes). collapsed caves. At its SE foot karst springs mixed Some ‘records’ from the Biikk Mountains: with thermal waters recharge a spring cave deve­ 1. The deepest cave of the country, the Istvan- loped into a broad, health bath (at Miskolctapolca). lapa cave, is found here (—250 m). Along the S margin is the only important Eocene 2. The highest elevated, now abandoned spring limestone stripe with some dolines and caves. cave (Koris-lyuk, 930 m above sea level), hanging Although Triassic-Jurassic limestones outcrop doline (at Istallos-ko, 950 m), shaft entrance (Kis- only in places in the 400—700 m high SW-Bukk Kohat shaft, 920 m) and active swallow cave between slates and diabase (basalt) and gabbro (Bankuti-visszafolyo, 870 m) are all on the Bukk masses of similar age, this mountain section is rich Plateau. in caves and limestone gorges. As a whole it is a non-independent karst buried under shale series of 3. Due to its uplifted position, the largest number varying thickness and heavily jointed (Table 1, and highest diversity of abandoned caves, hollow 2.2.1. ). In isolation limestone areas rise with karst remnants (stone arches and passage sections), most forms of open mixed non-independent (Table 1, numerous on the face of denudation scarps of mar­ 2.1.1. ), partially covered, exhumed or exhuming ginal crests (Tar-, Harom-, Tamas-, Magos- and Solyom-ko). non-independent (Table 1, 2.3.) and exhuming open independent (Table 1, 1.2.) karsts. 4. The longest active swallow cave of Hungary, The spectacular limestone gorges and the caves the Letras water cave and the only true collapse opening on to them have mostly been destroyed doline, the 15 m deep Udvar-ko are found here. by stone-qaurrying. Some evidence however for the 5. The largest of the karst polje-like features with origin of the gorges through the collapse of caves dolines and uvalas also lie on the plateau (Nagy- still survive. Among the caverns the Hajnoczy cave mezo, Zsido-ret, Letras. indludes the oldest paleontological finds of the

10 Btikk Mountains. The Nadasberc shaft opening Miocene marine transgression, which carved a wide in slate and continuing in limestone provides a abrasional platform into the mountain slopes. perfect demonstration of the cryptokarst nature of After regression, the Triassic limestone body of the the SW-Bukk and the sinking of karst water table W-Mecsek became land as covered karst and was in intermittent karst springs (like the Imo, Vorosko exhuming through the Sarmation down to the and Feketelen springs). From the partly red-clay Pannonian. In the northern lower part the Panno- mantled ridge of the Berva-Cseres crest, uplifted nian sea abraded a new beach and laiddown depo­ above a non-karstic environment, blind valleys sits where they were missing from the Middle ending in ponors and valleys with swallow dolines Miocene cover. start. The karst region, open from the Jurassic to the The Carboniferous-Permian-Triassic limestone mid-Miocene, buried in the Miocene and partially surface of the N-Biikk are of smaller area than those covered today, is a mixed non-independent karst of the SW-Btikk. These karstic areas at 400—600 m (Table 1, 2.3.1.). It is situated on two raised beaches altitude are isolated exhumed open independent above each other. R atification has been continuous karsts (Table 1, 1.1.2.) rising as klippen formed by on the higher and older level since the Sarmatian and selective erosion above their non-karstic environs on the lower and younger one since the Pliocene. (Carboniferous-Permian-Triassic shales, sandstones, The exhumation of the W-Mecsek karst which is Miocene marine sediments and tuffs). Disregarding much lower than the ones mentioned above, could the two dolines of the Kemesnye-hegy, only some only have been much less rapid. This explains why caves and rock niches are known. The most typical the rows of swallow dolines in the antecedent valleys karst process today is continuous travertine deposi­ are much younger (although mostly dry for long tion. A third of the 36 travertine occurrences of the periods), their slopes are steeper and their diameter mountains (11) are located here. Deposition takes is smaller than their counterparts in the Aggtelek place from either karst springs or from confined karst or Btikk Mountains. The NW and N margin groundwater springs of non-karstic rocks, in com­ of the W-Mecsek is a typical non-independent munication with karst water. The travertine steps cryptokarst (Table 1, 2.2.1.), where the doline like of the Szalajka valley are the finest in Hungary. depressions of the loess surface are also present The neighbouring Uppony Mountains contains in the Triassic limestone. On the other hand, the smaller Triassic and semicrystalline Carboniferous S margin of the karst is slowly exhuming, open mixed limestone outcrops. In addition to small caves, the non-independent (Table 1, 2.1.2.), where minor in­ spectacular antecedent gorge of the Csermely termittent and permanent resurgent streams have stream, carved into Carboniferous limestone is blind valleys ending in ponors (Budos-kut and worth mentioning. The Paleozoic rocks are overlain Szuado valleys). The ponors of the higher-lying by Middle Miocene (Badenian) marine sediments S margin and the spring caves of the lower N margin and Sarmatian andesite agglomerate in the E. communicate through more-or-less passable pas­ Agglomerate blocks of the size of houses have slum­ sages. Most of them are active through caves. ped down on sandy-clayey Badenian series and as Lower elevation means that fewer cave levels, a result of slumping have produced zig-zag cavity multistoreyed caves, abandoned caves, subsummit systems closed at the top and dilated at the bottom. avens and hanging dolines are found here. The most extensive non-karstic pseudocave of the The most picturesque limestone gorge in this country developed between the agglomerate blocks karst area is the Nagy-Mely valley and the Meleg- of the Damasa gorge of Banhorvati, as a result of many stream flowing through is famous for its similar slumping only 300 years ago. travertine steps.

Mecsek Mountains 2. Bakony-type karsts This mountain region lies a long distance away Transdanubian Mountains from both the Transdanubian and the North- Although 65 per cent of the rocks forming this Hungarian Mountain Range. The karstifying mountain range are non-karstic, 21 per cent are rocks (Middle Triassic, Middle Jurassic and Middle poorly karstifying dolomite, and limestones of all Miocene limestones) only occur in quantities age only make up 9 per cent, all the members of the sufficient for the evolution of a major karst region range are rich in caves. This paradox situation can in the W part. be explained by the presence of easily karstifying On the Middle Triassic limestone of the W- rocks (Dachstein Limestone 5 per cent, with average Mecsek a 38 km2 karst area has developed. It con­ length of cavities: 25 m/km2; Eocene limestone tinues under Pleistocene loess to the NW and N and 4 per cent; 36 m/km2) almost everywhere and the under Middle Miocene marine deposits to the NE, solution capacity of ascending thermal waters. while on the STriassic slate and sandstone zone The karsts are found on the Mesozoic limestones trancates it down. By position it is a two level mar­ and dolomites of the horsts of the cretaceous-Paleo- ginal karst plateau of 300—500 m altitude. The cene peneplain at different elevations and conse­ paleokarst features of the Cretaceous-Eocene pene­ quently exhumed to various degrees (Fig. 7). plain, fundamentally reshaped during the Oligo- A smaller part'was formed*on late Tertiary-Quater­ cene-Lower Miocene were destroyed by the Middle nary raised beaches on these peneplain remnants,

11 -- 6 E R ECS E — - - — P I L I S

1 WM 2 ill 3 4 — 5 Fig. 7. Geological section of Gerecse and Pilis Mountains (after L. Korpds, 1980). — 1 = Mesozoic and Eocene limestone and dolomite, 2 = Oligocene sandstone, 3 = Oligocene sand with coal desposits, 4 = Oligo- cene clay, 5 = Neogene rocks

Eocene limestones and marls, Miocene limestone as N-Bakony were dissolved by cold waters in Triassic. well as on pediments and river terraces. Jurassic and Eocene limestones and Triassic dolo­ mite. The elevated, totally or almost totally ex­ Bakony humed limestone and dolomite planated horsts contain short abandoned caves and some truncated The 350—700 m high Bakony form the most ex­ shafts (Odvas-ko cave, Nagy-Penz-lik, Haloveto- tensive mountains with one of the most diverse volgyi-atjaro, Gombas> cave, Likas-ko of Tonkolos lithologies in Hungary. From Silurian porphiroids and the Koris-hegy Ordog-lik). Over the mostly and slates to the Holocene, each period (with the covered broader ridges less elevated and mantled exception of the Carboniferous) and from the late by loess and slope loess with red clay intermittent Tertiary each epoch are represented by (usually swallow caves have been and are being produced by sedimentary) rocks. short intermittent water-courses cutting into the Among the three regions the most uniform is the cover layers. The short blind valleys in loess ter­ plateau-like Keszthely Mountains built up predo­ minating in ponors and the related caves are cha­ minantly of Triassic dolomite with Pannonian sand racteristic of the partially covered plateau blocks and sandstone cover on its margins As a conse­ encircled by higher horsts of the N-Bakony (the quence of its lithological composition, the moun­ Tes Plateau, Mellas Plateau of Isztimer and Harskut tains is relatively poor in karst phenomena. Some half-basin). These are also the most extensive karst sinkholes and swallow caves (the Szel-lik of Ederics, features of the whole mountains. The 400—450 m 50.2 m deep) formed on the Triassic limestone zone surface of the Tes Plateau is densely spotted by po­ above Balatonederics. The short rock niches in do­ nors (17 in number). lomite open on the cliffs of narrow gorges (Kigyos, Compared to its richness in caves, disregarding Csider and Szentmiklossy valleys) or on the steep the lapies fields and ponors, the N-Bakony is poor scarp above the Pannonian raised beach. A true in surface karst forms. Well-developed dolines are abrasional cave is the Vadlan-lik of Gyenesdias. only found on the Jurassic limestone of the Nagy- Among the thermal solution caves of Upper Pan­ Som-hegy (650 m) and on the Eocene limestone of nonian age along the W marginal faults of the the area SE of Bakonybel. The red-clay flats of the mountains the Cserszegtomaj well cave is worth Tes Plateau are only shallow embrionic dolines. mentioning. The successors of these thermal springs Spectacular features are the gorge sections, perhaps — mixed with lukewarm karst water — issue today collapsed caves, of the antecedent valleys cutting much to the S and at lower levels, at Heviz. through the limestone-dolomite crests. Their steep, The other two regions of the Bakony, the N- and locally subvertical cliffs or even overhangs are S-Bakony are much more diverse in lithology and spotted by a lot of rock niches, shelters, cave and more fractured. The covered and partially exhumed chimney remnants (Cuha, Gaja, Burok, Var, Sotet- planated horsts make it the microregion richest in horog valleys, Ordog-arok and Ko-arok). The most paleokarst features in the country and even in the abundant marginal karst spring, the Tapolca-fo, Carpathian Basin. The Cretaceous-Paleocene tro­ once feeding the Tapolca stream of Papa, mixed pical karst features exposed by open-cast bauxite with ascending hot waters, supplied Ajka in the late and manganese mining are equally common in sixties and it dried out when the karst water niveau Triassic-Jurassic limestones and Triassic dolomite was reduced for mining. (Halimba, Nyirad, Szoc, Iharkut and Urkut) The 300—600 m high S-Bakony is much poorer (see Fig. 2). The relative uplift of horsts and grab- in elevated caves, avens and spectacular gorges than ens also produced younger, Oligocene to Miocene the N-Bakony. The dry hollows (the Baglyas-hegy, dolines. They are filled by red clay mixed with Biked-teto, Dobogo-teto and Mecsek-hegy caves Miocene gravels instead of bauxite. and the Somos-ko spring cave) are short niches The conditions of more recent, Upper Miocene- and cave fragments. Only the Eocene limestone Pliocene-Quaternary karstification and the forms outcrop adjoining the Pliocene basalt mantle of the produced in the N- and S-Bakony are not always the Kab-hegy to the SW between Padrag, Csekut, Ajka same. Most of the caves in the 350—700 m high and Urkut is a typical karst region. The blind

12 s N NE Mt Oreg- ko 375 m 351 m Mt. Mu25[q

Fig. 8. Geological section of the Mount Oreg-kd (N—Gerecse Mountains) valleys of the intermittent water-courses coming gorges — only minor caves occur (e.g. the Nagy- from the lava terrain and continued in resurgent tiszta swallow cave). streams end partly in ponors (Bujo-lik) of open, mixed, non-independent karsts (Table 1, 2.1.) and Gerecse partly in those (e.g. Macska-lik) beginning in non- karstic rock (here basalt) and continuing in Eocene The 300—630 m high, exhumed and partially limestone characteristic of non-independent crypto­ covered planated horsts are mainly built up of karsts (Table 1, 2.2.1.). Triassic limestone and dolomite as well as Jurassic The S-Bakony is richer in thermal cavities and and Cretaceous limestones. The partially exhumed those of other extraordinary development. To the limestone blocks are locally covered by Eocene- S the Balaton Uplands the Loczy Cave is a system Oligocene sediments, Pliocene travertines or Plei­ of passages solved by thermal water in folded stocene loesses. The highest elevated and totally Triassic limestone, while the largest and most exhumed horsts are classified as exhumed open picturesque is the Tapolca lake cave in Sarmatian mixed non-independent karsts (Table 1, 2.1.2. or limestone. 1.1.2.). As the isolated limestone patches of the lat­ The geysers accompanying Pliocene basalt vol- ter were also part of the Cretaceous-Paleocene canism and also surviving to the Pleistocene pro­ peneplain with much larger open mixed non-inde­ duced several spring hollows (the Forras cave of pendent karsts and then during the exhumation Tihany and the Csucs-hegy spring hollow). Vent after burial became partially covered non-indepen­ chambers of geyserite cones are similar (Aranyhaz, dent karsts, they are also rich in swallow and spring Cser-hegy and Koloska-volgy geyserite cone hol­ caves. lows). The most extensive karst plateau fragments after In other respects Pliocene volcanic activity also the Bakony are found here. Besides lapies fields, contributed to the karst features of the S-Bakony there are some dolines (Nagy-Gerecse and Lukas- karst: the basalt mantles show doline-like depres­ ko) and on the Nagy-Som-hegy even some doline sions with ponds and irregular passages have formed rows. At the terminal point of a small water-course, along the fractures of the lava mantle (Kab-hegy, in a small sinkhole the Arany-lyuk of Szolos opens. Loncsos-teto and Fekete-hegy of Monostorapati The Vertestolna Basin is a loess-filled graben be­ and Laz-hegy of Zsid). tween planated horst series, resembling a tectonic polje. Towards the N the Bitva stream leaves it Vertes through a splendid gorge and and to the S the Tusko-ret-szurdok stream carved its counterpart. The 300—480 m high Vertes is the most uniform The Gerecse is also next to the Bakony as regards member of the Transdanubian Mountains. To the the abundance of karst cavities in the Transdanu­ extensive Triassic dolomite plates only smaller bian Mountains. The number of avens and spring Triassic limestone areas and insignificant patches of caves in summit or subsummit positions is even Jurassic, Cretaceous and Eocene limestones are higher. The precision of cave dating is the highest in added. Therefore, of the Bakony-type karsts it is the the Gerecse as it relies on the paleontological finds poorest in karst features. Although in the neigh­ of travertines deposited from thermal springs. bourhood of Gant Cretaceous-Paleocene paleodoli- Some exhumed horsts are densely spotted by nes have been preserved, outcrops with lapies fields hollows of various dimensions (Fabian-ko, Nagy- are only common on faulted marginal slopes and Somlyo, Nagy-Pisznice, the Turul-hegy of Also- gorge walls (Fani, Kolik, Ugro and Csakbereny galla, Oreg-ko of Bajot, and others). Among the Meszes valleys). uplifted spring caves the Pisznice cave and the The formation of the Csokako spring vent is due Szelim and Jankovich caves, famous for their to the action of ascending hot waters and their paleontological-archaeological finds, are worth calcareous silica cemented the material of some of mentioning. Both have huge, caved-in entrance the marginal cliff towers. In the central part of the chambers and that of the Szelim Cave now resem­ mountains — disregarding the head-waters of bles a collapse doline.

1? w,sw risen aven

inactive sinkhole

flinty intermittent active Cliffs sinkhole on the edge \ of the karst

Fig. 9. General distribution o f the karst features on the horst of Pilis Mountains

The distribution of intermittent swallow caves, SW and W edges and N front are ornamented by mostly active for only some days, is substantially white lapies fields on outcrops of beds, cliffs pre­ more sporadic. The deepest is the Nagy-Kaverna served between caved-in chimneys and abandoned Cave of Dorog (Tokod-altaro Cave no 1) of hot through caves and stone arches (Feher Cliff, Oreg water origin. Cliff, Klastrom and Csev Cliffs, Oszoly, Kis- and The successors of the Pliocene-Pleistocene hot Nagy-Kevely, Solymar Cliff). Most of the cavities springs of the Gerecse, issue mixed with cold karst opening at the foot of the SW and S fault scarp are water in the area of Szomod, Dunaalmas and Tata. spheroidal caves of thermal or partly thermal origin, In addition to Mesozoic limestones, some smaller adorned with extraordinary minerals and clusters karst features also occur in the travertines and of minerals (Csev, Satorko-puszta, Leany, and loesses of the Gerecse. A major joint cave deepens Legeny Caves, Eziist-hegy Caves; Fig. 9). into the travertine of the Mogyoros-hegy Ko-hegy Ascending thermal waters were prominent in the and into the loesses of Neszmely, wells and gorges formation of the Fekete-hegy of Piliscsaba, the are being cut even today. On the loess surface of the Solymar Cliff and the Teve Cliffs of Pilisborosjeno. cryptokarst of the Sorhaz-dulo, Tokod, doline-like The not waters penetrated into the capillary joints negative forms can be detected. of dolomite and decomposed the rock, the walls of their spring vent were made more resistent by Pilis depositing calcareous and siliceous cement. Sub­ sequently erosion controlled by to rock quality A single, 5-tier NW to SE strike horst series with removed the loose dolomite debris from between two adjoining N to S blocks at the middle and the SE end. The Triassic limestone and subordinate the chimneys now solidified into ‘towers’. dolomite tilted planated horsts 230—750 m altitude Since the horst range of the Pilis rises high above are elevated above their surroundings by precipitous- its neighbourhood, numerous shafts open on their fault scarps further emphasised by erosion. The NW ridges and many spring caves below their summits margin is less steep, although mostly not gently and on their walls. sloping, and covered by Eocene limestone and marl The asymmetry of the tilted horsts and sediment and Oligocene sandstone. The highest and broadest cover on the NE and E, the seasonally active spring member, the Fekete-hegy of the Pilis-teto group is caves are concentrated along the NE and E margins divided from its E and NE (Miocene andesite and (Pilis-nyereg, Pomaz and Harapovacs swallow andesite tuff) neighbourhood by precipices. caves and Urom swallow cave, Arany-lyuk). Also the The asymmetry of horst ranges is reflected in the finest limestone gorges carved by water-courses spatial distribution of their karst features. The long arriving from non-karstic terrain are located on this

14 margin (the Pilisszentkereszt Szurdok of the Dera the Sarkany-lyuk and the spheroidal niche of the stream). Zsomlye-lyuk — also contirbuted to the formation of shafts double entrance chimneys, swallow and Buda Mountains spring caves, rock niches and shelters. The Naszaly These form the densest fractured, most heavily sinkhole cave of 407 m length and 171 m depth dismembered representative of Bakony-type karsts, is the fourth deepest in the country. Some small richest in caves of hot water origin. The small shelters are found in the Csovar-hegy. The Oligo­ Triassic limestone and dolomite karsts at 250— cene sandstone cover of the Romhany Block is 550 m altitude are the best examples of horsts and hardly interrupted. due to their tilted position their gentler slopes are often mantled by Eocene limestone and marl, Villany Mountains Oligocene clay, sandstone and Pliocene-Quaternary The 442 m high Villany Mountains lies S of the travertine or loess. Mecsek, isolated in the SE corner of Transdanubia. The majority of caves were dissolved by thermal Heavily imbricated Triassic limestone and dolomite waters ascending along faults and descending cold and Jurassic-Cretaceous limestone (Fig. 1) are waters only played a modifying role. Their plan is separated by sharp faults from their surroundings. zigzag; the spheroidal niches and labyrinths (equally The small extent explains why only bright white in limestone, dolomite, marl and sandstone are lapies fields adorn its surface, but in the inside controlled by faults and joints. The overwhelming relatively major cavities mostly of hot water origin majority of cavities are enclosed by Eocene limestone. have been revealed by stone quarrying. The most The four longest cave system of thermal water famous is the Beremend crystal cave with rich origin are found here. The Pal-volgy Cave, in calcite and aragonite formations. The chimneys Eocene limestone, rich in dripstones, is the third filled with red clay and truncated hollows are fa­ longest cave of the country, while the Szemlo-hegy, mous for extraordinarily abundant Upper Plio­ Ferenc-hegy and particularly the recently explored cene — early Pleistocene animal finds. Jozsef-hegy Caves excel with their rare minerals and clusters of crystals. The remainder of the hot springs issue along the E marginal fault, parallel with the Danube, some through spacious spring caves. In the passages hot waters mix with descending cold karst waters. Particularly on dolomite crests, the same mechanism Dr. Attila HEVESI of tower formation is also common in the Buda geographer Hungarian Natural History Mountains (Tiinder Rock, Ko-hegy of Budaors, Museum Odvas-hegy). Budapest It is characteristic of the Buda Mountains that Kecske utca 22. most of the caves open in areas not at all resembling H —1034 a karst. The main reason is the density of buildings. Barren karst terrain only occurs on steep fault scarps. The Nagy-Kopasz group and neighbouring Remete-hegy where large and broad blocks show a karstic face. Dolines of various size have developed on their flat surfaces (Vorospocsolyas-hat and REFERENCES Remete-hegy) and the gorge of the Ordog-arok BALAZS D. (1963): Karsztgenetikai problemak. — Foldr. £rt. stream is a splendid antecedent one between Reme­ XII. 4. te-hegy and Hosszuerdo-hegy. In the walls of the BALOGH K. (1964) : A Biikkhegyseg foldtani kepzodmenyei. — gorge and along its upper edge most of the cavities MAFI £vkdnyve, XLV1II. 2. p. 719. BARANY I. — JAKUCS L. (1984): Szempontok a karsztok fel- of cold water origin are found. szinformdinak rendszerezesehez. — Foldr. £rt., 33. 3. p. 259 -2 6 5 . W-Cserhat BIRO B. (1969): A halimbai es nyiradi bauxitelofordulasok karsztos fekuje. — Foldt. Kozl., 99. p. 98 — 104. The Mesozoic limestone blocks of the Trans- BULLA B. (1964): Magyarorszdg termeszeti foldrajza. — Tan- danubian Mountains reappear in the three horsts kdnyvkiado, Bp. CHOLNOKY J. (1932): A meszkohegysegek foldrajzi jellem- (Naszaly, Csovar and Romhany Blocks) NE of the vonasa. — Fdldgomb. Danube in the North-Hungarian Mountains. With CHOLNOKY J. (1939): A meszkovidek arculata. — Barlang- the Nezsa bauxite locality, they constitute the only vilag, 3. p. 41 — 53. karst region of Bakony-type in the North-Hunga­ DENES GY. (1971): A fokozatosan lepusztulo vizzaro takaro szerepe az exhumalodo karszt morfologiai fejlodeseben. — rian Mountains. Karszt es Bar long, I. p. 5 —8. The most important karst is found on the Naszaly DUDICH E.-KOMLOSSY GY. (1969): Csfoldrajzi szerkezeti plateau (652 m), mostly exhumed from below Oli­ szempontok a magyar bauxit korkerdesehez. — Foldtani Koz- gocene sandstone. Due to its large limestone mass, lony, 99. p. 155 — 165. ESZTERHAS I. (1986): Barlangkeletkezes lugos oldodassal. — twelve 2—5 m deep dolines 20—50 m across have Nehezipari Muszaki Egyetem Kozlemenyei, Miskolc, I. Banyd- formed. Hot waters — as attested by aragonite in szat, 33. 1 —4. p. 139 — 148.

15 GdCZAN L.-MAROSI S.-PECSI M.-SOMOGYI S.- ( 1960) : Magyarorszag karsztvidekei. — Karszt- es Barlang- SZILARD J. (1959) : Budapest termeszeti foldrajza. — Akade­ kutatds, l.p . 79 — 88. miai Kiado, p. 416. (1987): Karsztformak es karsztjelensegek, Dundntuli- HEVESI A. (1972): Forrasmeszko-kepzodes a Biikkben. kozephegyseg, Termeszeti adottsdgok es eroforrasok. — Aka- Fdldr. Ert., 21. 2 -3 . p. 187-205. demiai Kiado, p. 188 — 195. ( 1977) : A Bukki-videk termeszeti foldrajza, Bukk uti-LO VASZ GY. ( 1971) : Adatok az Abaligeti-karszt geomorfoldgiai kalauz. — Sport, p. 9 —48. es hidroldgiai jellemzesehez. — Fdldr. Izrt. 20. p. 283 —296. ( 1978) : A Bukk szerkezet- es felszinfejlodesenek vdz- (1977): Baranya megye termeszetfoldrajza. — Pecs, lata. — Foldr. Prt., 27. 2. p. 169 — 203. p. 6 2 -6 8 . (1980): Adatok a Biikk hegyseg negyedidoszaki osfold- MARTON E. — MARTON P. (1984): Tectonic and paleoclimatic rajzi kepehez. — Foldr. Kozl., 110. 3 — 4 .p . 540—550. aspectes of paleomagnetism studies in the Transdanubian ( 1986): A Biikk hegyseg felszinfejlodese es karsztja. — Central Mountains. — Acta Geologica. Kezirat, Kandiddtusi ertekezes. OZORAY GY. (1960): Nemkarsztos iiregek genetikaja magyar- (1984): On the Dating of Karst Formations and their orszagi peldak alapjan. — Karszt- es Barlangkutatasi Tajekoz- Significance on the Late Tertiary-Pleistocene of Hungarian tato, jan. —febr. Limestone Mountains the Bukk Mountains. — Geographical PEC SI M. (1964): A magyar kozephegysegek geomorfoldgiai Essays in Hungary, Bp., Geographycal Research Institute of kutatdsanak lijabb kerdesei. — Foldr. Ert. the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. PECSI M. (1987): A Dunantuli-kozephegyseg domborzata. (1986): Hidegvizek letrehozta karsztok osztalyozasa. — A Dunantuli-kozephegyseg. Termeszeti adottsagok es ero­ Foldr. Ert., 35. 3 — 4.p . 231 —254. forrasok. — Akademiai Kiado, p. 140. (1986): Gondolatok dr. Toth Geza „A Kozponti-Bukk RONAKI L. (1971) : A karsztformak iranyitottsaganak vizsga- es geomorfoldgiai korzetei” c. tanulmdny&rdl. — Foldr. £rt., lata a mecseki triaszban. — Karszt es Barlang, 11. p. 6 5 —68. 35. 3 - 4 . p. 375-386. SAG L. (1987): A hegyseget alkoto kepzodmenyek kialakulasa- (1986): A Deli-Biikk karsztja I. Delkeleti-Bukk. — nak tortenete es szerkezeti folepitese. Dunantuli-kozephegyseg, Karszt es Barlang, I. p. 3 — 14. Termeszeti adottsagok es eroforrasok. — Akademiai Kiado (1986): A Deli-Bukk II. Delnyugati-Biikk. — Karszt es p. 122-131. Barlang, II. p. 87 — 94. SCHERF E. (1922): Hevforrasok okozta kozetelvaltozasok a JASKO S. (1959) : A foldtani felepites es a karsztviz elterjedese- Buda —pilisi-hegysegben. — Hidr. Kozl. 2. p. 19 — 88. nek kapcsolata a Dunantuli-kozephegysegben. — Hidr. Kozl. STROM PL G. (1914): A borsodi Biikk karsztja. — Fdldr. Kozl. 39. 4. p. 289-297. XLI l.p. 79-98. JUHASZ A. (1988): A Bakonyvidek domborzatminositese es SZABO PAL Z. ( 1931) : A Mecsek hegyseg formainak ismerete. tajtipusai. — Kezirat, Kandiddtusi ertekezes. LIX. 9-10. p. 165-180. KASSAI F. (1953): A karsztviznivo jelentosege es ezzel kapcso- ( 1953): A Mecsek karsztvizrendszere. — Hidr. Kozl. latos problemak. — MTA Muszaki Tudomanyos Osztalyanak 33. 7-8. p. 241-251. Kozlemenyei, I. ( 1956) : Magyarorszdgi karsztformak klimatorteneti vo- KEREKES J. (1938): Az Eger kornyeki barlangvidek kialaku- natkozasai. — Dundntuli Tudomanyos Gyujtemdny, 14. Idsa. — Barlangkutatas, XVI. 1. p. 90 — 139. (1957) : A karszt, mint klimatikus morfoldgiai problema. KEVEINE BARANY 1. (1986): Ijjabb adatok a karsztdolinak — Dundntuli Tudomanyos Gyujtemeny, 15. kepzodesehez. — Nehezipari Muszaki Egyetem Kozlemenyei, (1961) : A pecsi Mecsek karsztvizenek hidrodinamikai sa- Miskolc, I. Banyaszat, 33. 1 —4. p. 149 — 155. jatossagai. — Dundntuli Tudomanyos Gyujtemeny, Ertekezesek KEZ A. (1959) : A meszkofelszin pusztul&sa. 1960 c. kotete, p. 5 — 49. KORDOS L. (1984): Magyarorszag barlangjai. — Gondolat ( 1963) : A hidrodinamika es a karsztalaktan nehdny osszc- Kiado. fuggese Magyarorszagon. — Dundntuli Tudomanyos Gyujte­ KORPAS E. (1933): A Gerecse hegyseg morfolbgidja. — Foldr. meny. Kozl. LXI. 1-3. p. 1-17. (1966): Ujabb adatok es megfigyelesek a magyarorszagi oskarsztjelensegek ismeretehez. — Dundntuli Tudomanyos KRETZOI M. (1954) : Befejezo jelentes a Csakvari-barlang os- Gyujtemeny. lenytani feltarasdrol. — MAFI Evi jelentese az 1953. evrol, (1968): A magyarorszagi karsztosodds fejlodestorteneti p. 3 7 -6 9 . vazlata. — MTA Dundntuli Intezete, Ertekezesek, p. 13 — 26. LANG S. (1948): Karszttanulmanyok a Dunantuli-Kozephegy- VADASZ E. (1940): A Dunantiil karsztvizei. — Hidr. Kozl. segben. — Hidr. Kozl. 28. 1—4. p. 49—52. 20. p. 120-135. (1952): A Cserhat morfologiaja. — Foldr. Ert. 1. 4. (1949): Termalis ..karsztviz” Delbaranyaban. — Hidr. p. 738-804. Kozl. 20. 3-4. p. 81-83. ( 1952) : Geomorfologiai-karsztmorfol6giai kerdesek. —VENKOVITS I. (1947): Abaliget kornyeki barlangok — MAFI Foldr. Ert. 1. £vi jelentese, 1945-47. II. p. 311-315. (1953) : A Pilis morfoldgiaja. — Foldr. Ert. 2. 3. p. 336 — VITALIS GY. (1970): Foldtani es vizfoldtani megfigyelesek a 369. miskolctapolcai Nagykomdzsdn. — Hidr. Kozl. 50. 2. p. 49 (1954) : Hidrologiai es morfologiai megfigyelesek a 55. Biikkben. — Hidr. Kozl. 34. 1 —2. WE1N GY. (1952): A Mecsek hegyseg hidrogeologiaja. — Fdldr. (1955) : Geomorfologiai tanulmanyok az Aggteleki Ert. I. 2. p. 237-250. karsztvideken. — Foldr. Ert. 4. 1. p. 1 —20. (1959): A mecsekhegysegbeli kisujb&nyai medence karszt- (1955) : A Gerecse peremhegysegi reszeinek geomorfolo- hidrogeologiaja. — Hidr. Kozl. 39. 4. p. 298 —302. giaja. - Foldr. Ert. 4. l .p . 157-194. ZA M B 6 L. (1970): A vorosagyagok es a felszini karsztosodas (1956) : A Kozponti Gerecse geomorfologiaja. — Fdldr. kapcsolata az Aggteleki-karszt delnyugati reszen. — Fdldr. Ert. 5. 3. p. 265-282. Kozl. XVIII. (XCIV), 4. p. 281-293. ( 1958): A Bakony geomorfoldgiai kepe. — Fdldr. Kozl. (1986): Karsztvorosagyagok CO, termelese es a karszt- VI. (LXXXII.) 4. p. 325. korrdzio osszefiiggese. — Nehezipari Muszaki Egyetem Kozle- (1971): A hazai karsztok es kornyekiik lepusztulasanak menyei, Miskolc, I. Banyaszat, 33. 1 —4. p. 125 —238. egyes kerdesei. — Karszt es Barlang I. p. 1 — 4. LANG S .-M IH A L T Z I.-ne — VITALIS GY. (1970) : A miskolc- tapolcai Nagykomazsa dolinainak morfoldgiai es foldtani vizsg£lata. — Fdldr. Ert. 19. l .p . 77 — 85. LEEL-OSSY S. (1953): Geomorfoldgiai es hidroldgiai vizsgala- tok a Szalonnai-karszton. — Fdldr. £rt. 2. 3 — 4. p. 323 —335. ( 1953) : Karszt- es barlangkutatds a Szalonnai-karszton. — Hidr. Kozl. 33. 1 -2 . p. 6 7 - 70. (1954) : A Magas Biikk geomorfoldgiaja. — Fdldr. Ert. 3. 3. p. 323 -3 5 5 . Top: Retek passage in the Baradla Cave ( 1955) : Magyarorszdg karsztmorfoldgiaja. — Kezirat, Kandiddtusi ertekezes. (by Pr. Borzsdk ) (1957) : A Budai-hegyseg barlangjai. — Fdldr. Ert. Bottom: 6. Meander (left) and botryoid p. 155-169. ( 1958) : A Kevely-hegycsoport — karsztmorfoldgiaja.formations (right) in the Szabadsag Cave, Fdldr. trt. 7.l.p .17-32. Aggtelek Karst (by L. Gazdag)

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