Wisconsin agazine of History

Tke Wisco-nsin l^ational Guard on the Mexican Border JOHN p. FINNEGAN Robert M. La Follette, Public Prosecutor DAVID p. THELEN Gothic Stylism in Wisconsin Architecture RICHARD W. E. PERRIN Marshall Academy: A History BEULAH FOLKEDAHL English Immigrants in Wisconsin

Published by The State Historical Society of Wisconsin / Vol. XLVII, No. 3 / Spring, 1964 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN

LESLIE H. FISHEL, JR., Director

Officers JOHN C. GEILFUSS, President HERBERT V. KOHLER, Honorary Vice-President E. E. HOMSTAD, Vice-President, Treasurer LESLIE H. FISHEL, JR., Secretary

Board of Curators Ex-Officio JOHN W. REYNOLDS, Governor of the State MRS. DENA A. SMITH, State Treasurer ROBERT C. ZIMMERMAN, Secretary of State FRED H. HARRINGTON, President of the University ANGUS B. ROTHWELL, Superintendent of Public Instruction MRS. JOSEPH C. GAMROTH, President of the Women's Auxiliary

Term Expires, 1964 THOMAS H. BARLAND E. E. HOMSTAD MRS. RAYMOND J. KOLTES FREDERIC SAMMOND Eau Claire Black River Falls Madison Milwaukee M. J. DYRUD GEORGE F. KASTEN CHARLES MANSON FLOYD SPRINGER, JR. Prairie du Chien Milwaukee Madison Milwaukee JIM DAN HILL MRS. VINCENT W. KOCH FREDERICK I. OLSON DR. WILLIAM D. STOVALL Madison Janesville Wauwautosa Madison

Term Expires, 1965 GEORGE BANTA, JR. ROBERT B. L. MURPHY MILO K. SWANTON CEDRIC A. VIG Menasha Madison Madison Rhinelander GEORGE HAMPEL, JR. FOSTER B. PORTER FREDERICK N. TROWBRIDGE CLARK WILKINSON Des Moines Bloomington Green Bay Baraboo PHILIP F. LA FOLLETTE WILLIAM F. STARK ANTHONY WISE Madison Pewaukee Hayward

Term Expires, 1966 SCOTT M. CUTLIP EDWARD FROMM MRS. HOWARD T. GREENE SAM RIZZO Madison Hamburg Genesee Depot Racine W. NORMAN FITZGERALD ROBERT A. GEHRKE ROBERT L. PIERCE CLIFFORD SWANSON Milwaukee Ripon Menomonie Stevens Point MRS. ROBERT E. FRIEND JOHN C. GEILFUSS JAMES A. RILEY Hartland Milwaukee Eau Claire

Honorary Honorary Life Members WILLIAM ASHBY MCCLOY, Winnipeg PRESTON E. MCNALL, Madison MRS. LITTA BASCOM, Madison DOROTHY L. PARK, Madison

Fellouis VERNON CARSTENSEN MERLE CURTI

The Women's Auxiliary Officers MRS. JOSEPH C. GAMROTH, Madison, President MRS. WILLIAM H. L. SMYTHE, Milwaukee, Vice-President MRS. EDWARD H. RIKKERS, Madison, Secretary MRS. WILLIAM E. Hue, Neenah, Treasurer MRS. EDMUND K. NIELSON, Appleton, Assistant Treasurer MRS. W. NORMAN FITZGERALD, Milwaukee, Ex-Officio VOLUME 47, NUMBER 3/SPRING, 1964 Wisconsin Magazine of History WILLIAM CONVERSE HAYGOOD, Editor

PAUL H. HASS, Associate Editor

Er ist in Ordnung 198

Preparedness in Wisconsin: The National Guard and the Mexican Border Incident 199

JOHN P. FINNEGAN

Robert M. La Follette, Public Prosecutor 214

DAVID P. THELEN

"God Raised Us Up Good Friends": English Immigrants in Wisconsin 224

Pointed Arches and Buttressed Walls: Gothic Stylism in Wisconsin Architecture 238

RICHARD W. E. PERRIN

Marshall Academy: A History 249

BEULAH FOLKEDAHL

Book Reviews 261

Contributors 276

Published Quarterly by The State Historical Society of Wisconsin

THE WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY is published not assume responsibility for statements made by contribu­ quarterly by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 816 tors. Second-class postage paid at Madison, Wisconsin, State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. Distributed to mem­ Copyright 1964 by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. bers as part of their dues (Annual membership, S5-00; Fami­ Paid for in part by the Maria L. and Simeon Mills Editorial ly membership, $7.00; Contributing, $10; Business and Pro­ Fund and by the George B. Burrows Fund. Wisconsin news­ fessional, $2 5; Life, $100; Sustaining, $100 or more annual­ papers may reprint any article appearing in the WISCON­ ly; Patron, $1000 or more annually). Single numbers, $1.25. SIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY providing the story carries Microfilmed copies available through University Microfilms, the following credit line : Reprinted from the State Histori­ 313 North First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Communica­ cal Society's Wisconsin Magazine of History for [insert the tions should be addressed to the editor. Th" Society does season and year which appear on the Magazine\. Er Ist In Ordnung

TT'ARLY this spring a member of the Society recently we "operated" the print shop as part *-'' staff was giving an informal orienta­ of the two-day Wisconsin Better Broadcasts tion talk to a group of high school students program. We printed and handed out hun­ when one turned to another and whispered, dreds of copies of the first edition of the Mil­ "Er ist in Ordnung." The high school faculty waukee Sentinel, June 27, 1837. member in charge of this program, Mr. Gerald On one of the days in which the print shop C. Liepert, who reported this whispered con­ was operating, I had an opportunity to take versation, translated it, "That guy is okay." a trade association executive down to watch it. This was a high compliment for the staff He received a copy of the paper but left it on member and for the Society, since these were the table as he rose to leave. I picked it up not ordinary students. The Americans were and offered to dispose of it for him. "No, from Muskego High School and the German no," he said. "This is a prized possession and students were visiting their American hosts I want to keep it." Here is another example for two or three weeks. The trip to the So­ of the fascination which surrounds an histori­ ciety was their first after the visitors' arrival. cal museum. As they toured our museum the Americans Why are people fascinated? What do they were restrained and interested, more so than learn? I am not sure of the answers, but I most visitors of their age. The Germans were can make some educated guesses. The young curious and excited, looking here and poking ones like the novelty and the older ones like there, as if they realized that some of the ques­ the reminiscences—these are truisms. Be­ tions they had about the United States could yond that, the young and old are curious about here be answered. Until fatigue set in, this what "really" happened before they came on was the kind of a group museums are built the scene. How fast did the Model T go? How for. many papers did the 1837 press print? What Another group of high school students ar­ did the druggist's powders taste like? These rived at the museum some days after this visit. are some of the questions which they ask—or These young people were from the Delavan want to ask. School for the Deaf, and I watched them with There is a deeper reason for their inquiry. rising respect. It was not so much that they had The people who come to our museum want to overcome their disability as that they were so learn about their past because they, like all persistently eager to learn. Fingers flying, of us, are not too sure about their future. In their teacher would explain an exhibit panel the present press of problems it is reassuring or a picture or a setting. Questions flew back to discover how previous generations survived at him in the same way, and he patiently an­ and thrived, in spite of the burdens they car­ swered, sometimes with a touch of humor that ried. If the pioneers could live in crowded brought smiles and giggles. When they ap­ cabins, if an old man could invent a typewriter, proached our Model T Ford (vintage 1914), if the gaslight generation could appreciate fine he cautioned them away, but when he learned clothes and good furniture, we can survive that it was permissible for them to climb in, and thrive in our time. the doors flew open and the car rocked under the weight of four or five passengers, all ex­ As the museum enters a new phase of its cited but careful. More questions, more an­ own development under the leadership of Thur­ swers, more faces lighting up with understand­ man Fox, I hope that we will be able to explore ing. these questions further and experiment with new and more telling ways of exhibit and pre­ These reactions are not the sole preroga­ sentation so that our museum visitors can find tive of the high school student. All of you some answers to their questions, spoken and who have visited our building have seen the unspoken. If their response can continue to younger set scattered through the museum, be, in whatever language, "Er ist in Ordnung," some with noses pressed against glass, be­ we will feel that we are moving in the right witched by what was displayed, others tak­ direction. ing in the pioneer cabin, or the print shop, or the Civil War exhibit in one steady look, just L. H. F., JR.

198 PREPAREDNESS IN WISCONSIN^

The National Guard and the Mexican Border Incident

By JOHN P. FINNEGAN the result of the preparedness campaign which swept the United States in 1915 and 1916, providing what a qualified observer TN 1914, as massed conscript armies were has characterized as "one of the most remark­ -'-shattering Europe, an undisturbed America able episodes in our long and generally aber­ under the peace-minded Woodrow Wilson was rant military history."^ The campaign was a content with a regular army of some 93,000 genuine, if somewhat managed public move­ officers and men and with a navy which vied ment, manifesting itself not only in the halls with that of France for third place on the of Congress but also in newspaper articles, seas. These defenses were bolstered by 12- after-dinner speeches, and preparedness pa­ inch coastal guns on disappearing carriages rades. Like so many reforms of the Progres­ at vital harbors, by an organized reserve that sive Era, preparedness was a cause picked up could be (and once was) seated around a by the urban upper-middle class; like a few, dinner table, and by an organized militia of it was a somewhat exaggerated response to 127,000 under the control of the sovereign the pressures of the time. There were indeed states.' The defense budget was less than threats to America's security in this period; half a billion dollars; the country was spend­ our next-door neighbor, Mexico, bubbled ing more money on war pensions than on its over with civil war, and overseas a militant army. Germany threatened both our shipping and the world balance of power. Preparedness was However, by the end of 1916, in reaction designed to meet none of these threats; rather or perhaps over-reaction to events in Europe, it was aimed, as one booster put it, at "no America had not only decided to join in a one! Everyone . . . contingencies." Amer­ naval armaments race but was also develop­ ica's military establishment was to be strength­ ing a strong tendency to turn into a garrison ened to meet the vaguely threatening bogies state, although, remarkably enough, these of European invasion fleets looming off Sandy long-range preparations were not supposed Hook in the future, not against any present to have any direct bearing on the European credible danger. Preparedness served as an War and, in fact, could not be completed in outlet for the real idealism and patriotism of time to have any effect on it. the time, and it did lead to a perhaps overdue This sharp change in defense posture was

^ Report of the Secretary of War, War Depart­ ment Annual Reports, 1914 (Washington, 1914), = Walter MiUis, Arms and Men (New York, 1956), 1:7-8. 191.

199 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 reassessment of our obsolescent defense struc­ a state force, subject to call by the President ture. But the quest for an absolute "prepared­ in the event of invasion or insurrection. The ness" ultimately threatened to lead the coun­ army furnished the guard with equipment try into a panicky militarism rather than a and advice through its Militia Bureau; the balanced military policy. Congress set standards in organization and The primary impulse for preparedness came discipline. However, there was no federal from the big cities of the East, where a host pay involved and no federal control over the of booster organizations for defense sprang personnel. According to the whims of state up. But agitation was intense in Wisconsin, legislatures, officers were sometimes elected too. Milwaukee, with a population of 400,000, by their men, sometimes appointed by the supported the largest branch of the defense- politicians in power. Regulations provided minded National Security League in the Mid­ for only seventy-two hours of drill a year, west outside of Chicago, while the most re­ plus a week at summer camp. Men attended spected newspapers in the state gave the drive drill as they saw fit; they were not compelled wholehearted backing. The citizens of Madi­ to, and they were not paid for doing so. The son did their bit by forming a troop of volun­ system was plagued by inefficiency. Senator teer Minute Men, and 28,000 Milwaukeeans William E. Borah of Idaho claimed that the paraded for the cause of national defense in $8,000,000 annual federal appropriation for the summer of 1916. Not all groups in the the guards of the various states was "shame­ state favored the movement. Farmers seemed fully wasted, and some of it embezzled," while indifferent, while Socialists, some German- in the opinion of a War Department official, Americans, and a hard core of Progressives a third of the guardsmen couldn't fire an army grouped around Senator Robert La Follette, rifle and less than half attended drill on an actively resisted. Nonetheless, preparedness, average.' Just as damaging was the fact that in Wisconsin as elsewhere, seems to have en­ the size and composition of the organized listed the bulk of the business and professional militia force was entirely up to the state. classes in the cities, the elements who judged Nevada maintained no guard at all, and Cole themselves the informed citizenry of the state.'' Blease had once disbanded the entire South Carolina National Guard in a fit of pique at Washington. In case of a foreign war, the S might be expected, the members of the President could not call the guard into serv­ A Wisconsin National Guard were among ice, but could only ask its personnel to volun­ those who took a particular interest in this teer en masse. In short, as one authority has question of national defense. Yet the state pointed out, "the National Guard remained guard occupied a somewhat ambiguous posi­ simply a training school for soldiers who in tion in the preparedness drive. As the only another war would be raised de novo in Fed­ operational military force in the state, the eral volunteer regiments."' organized militia provided a natural rallying point for those interested in defending their Wisconsin was a progressive state, and its country. Many high-ranking guard officers guardsmen were not happy with this ram­ were prominent public advocates of the move­ shackle state of affairs. Charles Boardman, ment. At the same time, as a group with a the former Adjutant General of the Guard vested interest in the defense establishment, who had served under five governors, was a the guard was a citadel of traditional views long-standing advocate of a federalized militia. on military policy. Therefore, while inter­ In this he was joined by the responsible ested in reform, the guard tended to resist militia officers of other states. If Congress dramatic and radical steps which might were to pay the national guardsmen for drill threaten its own position. and camp, it could force minimum qualifica­ It must be remembered that before June 3, tions for officers on the states and determine 1916, the national guard was actually only

; Ibid., April 15, 16, 1916. ^Milwaukee Journal, July 10, 1916. •'Miiiis, Arms and Men, 161.

200 THE NATIONAL GUARD the strength and composition of the state twenty realized that "graduating from West forces by using the power of the purse. Fur­ Point did not automatically make him a ther, it could impose a dual obligation on each better man."' guardsman, making him a federal volunteer, The claims of the national guard to a main subject to the President's call in an emer­ place in the nation's defense could only be gency, as well as a state soldier. In time, the proved or disproved by being put to the test. Hay Bill of June, 1916—passed as a result of If the guardsmen failed or showed defi­ the preparedness campaign—was to meet most ciencies, they would be in serious danger of of Boardman's wishes. Accordingly, many being overrun and overshadowed by the pre­ officers in the Wisconsin guard welcomed the paredness drive they had helped initiate. preparedness campaign as a vindication of Ironically enough, the test was to come not their own efforts. As one Milwaukee officer from the European or Asiatic invaders against said: "For twenty years the national guard which America was supposed to be preparing, has been carrying on a campaign for pre­ but from a pack of Mexican brigands. paredness. It has been laughed at.'" Now at last, the state and nation were taking the T^HE Wisconsin National Guard was per- matter seriously. -*- haps the best prepared of any state in Yet there were menaces for the guardsmen the union to meet a real emergency. Unlike in this preparedness campaign. The army other states, Wisconsin had not blackened general staff openly distrusted the national the reputation of its guards by using them as guard and sought complete federal control strikebreakers. It retained its officers until over any reserve force. In 1915, Secretary of the age of sixty-four, instead of changing War Lindley Garrison proposed a Continental them with every state administration. The Army, a reserve completely under federal men received physical examinations and the supervision, that would have grievously hurt opportunity for target practice, and there the national guard in manpower and in pride were correspondence courses and tactical by reducing it to a second-string force. Gar­ schools for their officers. Federal property rison lost out to the National Guard lobby and was scrupulously administered, and the guard ultimately was to resign, but he had many had the hearty backing of the citizenry. supporters. Guard officers looked askance at Senator Robert M. La Follette felt his state the new civilian training camp at Plattsburg had the best guard in the country. He himself which was ostensibly engaged in turning out had helped to set the Wisconsin guard's effi­ officers for any future war. If there were any cient, nonpolitical tradition when he was future war, the national guard officers wanted governor. The Democratic MilwauJtee Journal to be in charge. Again, there was fear that concurred with La Follette's estimate. The preparedness sentiment might lead to a vast Stalwart Republican Sentinel lavishly praised system of universal military training domi­ the guard, saying that the Milwaukee battalion nated by the "martinets" of West Point. As alone could provide, in the event of war, half a "National Guard Officer of thirty years a dozen regimental commanders, as many experience" wrote, the guardsmen "have battalion commanders, and a dozen company joined because they love their country and commanders. The paper went on to comment want to protect it, and any affectation of a little fatuously: "The battalion could safely superiority by some insolent jackanapes, be placed in line of battle facing almost any strutting around in imitation of an English troops, save those that had been called upon army officer, is disgusting and disenhearten- to fight battles.'" ing." In his opinions the majority of the Despite the quality of this force, the actual regulars were totally inefficient, at least half military contribution of the state to a sup­ were "totally incompetent," and only one in posedly threatened America was not that im­ pressive. In the period 1915-1916, the Wis-

° Milwaukee Journal, March 5, 1916. ' Ibid., December 1, 1915. ' Milwaukee Sentinel, September 22, 1915.

201 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF' HISTORY SPRING, 1964 consin National Guard consisted of three in­ Point graduate, and by a handful of regular fantry regiments, one independent infantry army officers, most of whom were also ad­ company, a hospital and hospital corps, a visors to other states." cavalry troop, and a battery of artillery. The This force was relatively, as well as abso­ First Infantry Regiment had five infantry com­ lutely, small. Despite all of the edifying news­ panies in Milwaukee and one each in Ocono­ paper articles and the preparedness agitation, mowoc, Ft. Atkinson, Neenah, Beloit, Madi­ only two-thirds of one per cent of the eligible son, Whitewater, and Monroe. Two companies men in the state were enlisted. Furthermore, of the Second Infantry were stationed in Osh­ what state residents liked to think of as the kosh, while single companies were located in "best national guard in the union" had qualit­ Fond du Lac, Beaver Dam, Sheboygan, Ripon, ative as well as quantitative problems. Al­ Manitowoc, Appleton, Oconto, Marinette, though the brigade had drilled as a unit, it Marshfield, and Rhinelander. The Third In­ had only been during one week at summer fantry maintained two companies in La Crosse camp. Seventeen armories had gone up since and one each in Sparta, Tomah, Eau Claire, 1906, but some units were still cramped for Superior, Menomonie, Neillsville, Portage, lack of space, and the artillery unit in par­ Wausau, and Mauston. Provisional machine- ticular had no proper facilities for target prac­ gun companies for the regiments were located tice. Despite the fact that the state empha­ respectively in Milwaukee, Ashland, and Rice sized marksmanship and had fielded some Lake, while provisional supply companies good competition rifle teams, nearly 1,100 were in Milwaukee, Green Bay, and Superior. guardsmen had failed to qualify even as The independent infantry company was at second-class shots.'" Chippewa Falls, while cavalry, artillery, and There were other soft spots in this tiny medical units were all at Milwaukee. The organization. Although machine guns had whole brigade, 3,300 men, was under the been invented around the time of the Civil competent supervision of Orlando C. Holway, War, the Wisconsin National Guard had not the Adjutant General, a veteran of the Spanish- managed to acquire any till the spring of 1915 American War. He was assisted by the re­ when the 10th Separate Battalion, which had tired Brigadier General Charles King, a West been leading a lonely, unregimented life up to that time, was broken down into three provisional machine-gun companies, one for each regiment. The companies were sched­ uled to get four Benet-Mercier guns each, along with six horses, four pack mules, and sixteen gun mules. The weapons weighed 300 pounds when packed with their ammunition for travel, and using men to carry them would have been a little impractical. Theoretically, the guns fired 600 rounds a minute; actually, as Mexico was to prove, they quite often did not fire at all. And while the machine gun was then master of Europe, the United States Army allotted only four of them to a whole regiment, as a sort of afterthought. Moreover, all of this was on paper. According to the records, only three guns seem actually to have arrived for the guardsmen by mid-1916. At

" Milwaukee Journal, June 19, 1916. Society's Iconographic Collection " Report of Chief of Militia Bureau, War Depart­ General Orlando Holway, Wisconsin's Adjutant ment Annual Reports, 1916 (Washington, 1916), General. 1139, 1151.

202 THE NATIONAL GUARD that, Wisconsin was comparatively lucky; the guard. In 1915, an extra $42,000 had been militia of the United States averaged a little appropriated to increase the strength of the more than a sixth of the number of automatic guard. At the end of the year, the state weapons they were supposed to have." authorized an increase in the enlisted strength The artillery, too, seems to have been back­ of each company from sixty-five to eighty-one ward in some respects. The Wisconsin battery men, and this was upped still further to 150 owned its own horses, and had received good men late in March, 1916. However, despite marks on its handling of them from the War the preparedness campaign, there was almost Department.'" In January, 1916, federal funds no increase in the guard's actual numerical were provided the unit for four horse-tenders strength. On April 1, 1916, Orlando Holway, and a six-month supply of oats, hay, and the Adjutant General, left for Washington to straw. It had four 3-inch guns capable of get permission for the state to organize and firing six miles, and could load the guns and muster new artillery and signal units. Holway their caissons onto two always-waiting flat- came back successful, bubbling with new cars in fifteen minutes. Only one factor was ideas on military training for high school lacking for it to be a fine, combat-ready out­ students, and with the promise of federal fit: it had no qualified gunners.''' funds for two new batteries and a signal com­ If the state troops lagged in handling these pany, to be equipped out of spare material newer weapons, the Wisconsin cavalry was owned by the state. The cavalry troop would a first-class outfit. Guard Troop A was the be raised to a strength of 130 men, then split, only national guard unit in the country which and a Troop B added to the alphabet. As a owned its own horses, and it had more horses final touch, a trained aviator with a high- in proportion to men than any other troop. powered machine would be stationed at La To accomplish this, the men paid dues every Crosse. Certainly, in the midst of a big pre­ month, turned in their summer camp pay, and paredness campaign, these were modest goals."' had to put down a $5 application fee even to Combat training progressed too. The first get into the troop. Troop A had been given night firing in the history of the Wisconsin a higher recommendation by the War Depart­ National Guard took place later in April, ment than any of the other ninety-seven when the machine gunners of the Milwaukee cavalry organizations in the country." company fired at targets illuminated by lan­ The whole brigade could be mobilized in terns at ranges of 300, 500, and 600 yards. twelve to eighteen hours at Camp Douglas, Flashlights were used only to check the sights Sparta. Mobilization and entrainment plans and windage adjustments, the newspapers re­ were constantly on file. Eleven trains would ported, which is puzzling, if true, since the be required to concentrate 3,500 men. The rear sights were completely useless under first train would leave West Superior at 5 A.M. normal conditions of night fighting. Also, on the appointed day; the last train would under ordinary combat conditions, hostile pull into Camp Douglas no later than 2:30 P.M. troops do not carry lanterns. In May, the the same day. Unlike other states, Wisconsin active machine gunners held a theater party, had picked its training camp for accessibility showing pictures of machine guns in action, and utility, not just as an isolated spot where so they could raise money for a motorcycle the troops could have a rustic vacation far and gun carriage, "state funds not being removed from all communication with the available," as usual.'' outside world.'^ This was a common complaint. Three volun­ The state did not rest content with its teer engineer companies, plus some unmus- tered naval militia units, were floating around in a financial limbo, "encouraged, but not recognized" by the national guard."" There ^"^ Milwaukee Journal, April 9, 1915; June 28, 1916. ^•'Ibid., January 15, 1916. ^''Report of Chief of Militia Bureau, War Depart­ ment Annual Reports, 1916 (Washington, 1916), "Ibid., July 28, 1915; April 9, 1916. Milwaukee 1151. Free Press, March 24, 1916. " Milwaukee Journal, February 9, 1916. "Milwaukee Journal, April 30, May 14, 1916. ^nbid.. May 10, June 26, 1916. "> Ibid., December 7, 1915.

203 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Society's Iconographic Collection Ruins of the Commercial Hotel in Columbus, New Mexico, destroyed by Pancho Villa and his bandits, March, 1916. was a paradoxical quality about the prepared­ for years, and some of the violence had spilled ness drive. A good deal of popular enthusiasm across the border when the forces of embit­ was coupled with a certain carelessness about tered General Pancho Villa, once a president- providing funds. On the other hand, one has maker but now a bandit, raided Columbus, to pay tribute to the spirit manifested by the New Mexico, in March. Brigadier General small groups of volunteers who did try to do John Pershing and the khaki columns of the something in the way of preparedness with­ regular army had chased Villa into Mexico out any concrete encouragements, and by the with determination but without success. The national guardsmen who were willing to turn main result had been to alienate the de facto back their pay or hawk tickets to buy the government of President Venustiano Carranza, military equipment which the government which grew increasingly less interested in should have provided. helping the Americans catch Villa and increas­ So the guardsmen looked to Washington ingly more interested in getting the Americans and dreamed of increased funds and of the out of Mexico. Still, this was the sort of maneuvers to come that summer at Camp unpleasantness which was traditionally han­ Douglas. Under the provisions of the pending dled by the professionals of the regular army; Hay Bill, a middle-of-the-road measure in­ there seemed small chance that the Wisconsin spired by the preparedness campaign, the National Guard would get to do anything as national guard would be federalized and romantic as capturing Pancho Villa. strengthened, and Wisconsin might get money More interest was aroused in May of 1916 enough for three additional regiments of in­ when the militia of three border states was fantry, a regiment of cavalry, and more ar­ called into federal service, but Holway doubted tillery. that Wisconsin troops would be called. In case they were, however, the guard "never was N guard circles, the smouldering situation so prepared for military service as now.'"" I on the Mexican border did cause a little stir. Mexico had been seething with revolt "Ibid., May 24, May 9, 1916.

204 THE NATIONAL GUARD

In every way it was fit for the field, except So the brigade was mobilized, 3,295 officers for the need to procure mounts for the officers. and men. There was one difficulty—the unit The Wisconsin State Journal pointed out that did not have a commander. Adjutant General although the military had requested six na­ Holway would have to stay in Wisconsin tional guard units to reinforce the border organizing the state's contribution and could defenses against further raids, they had not not accompany the troops to the border. asked for the Thirteenth Division, which con­ Brigadier General Charles Boardman, who tained the Wisconsin Brigade.™ Despite this had been an invaluable state adjutant general reassuring outlook, all the dress blue uniforms for seventeen years, did not seem unwilling, were returned to the Camp Douglas quarter­ but he was an old man, as was General King. master on June 3, and the guard was dressed There were two regular army officers who "simply for service, not for parades.""' With might be considered for the post. Senator the signing of the Hay Bill into law that day, John L. Mitchell's son, William, was a captain Wisconsin's guard quota had been increased on the general staff. Captain Lorraine T. to 10,400 men, and it seemed impractical to Richardson, a native of Janesville, was a provide dress uniforms for that many. Mean­ twenty-year man from West Point and was while, very far to the south, tempers were readily available at Madison, where he was one of two infantry instructor-inspectors at­ fast fraying under a summer sun. tached to the guard. After a little persuasion On the eighteenth of June, 1916, General by Holway, who wanted a regular army man Francisco Trevino of the Carranzist forces to command the brigade. General Boardman informed General Pershing that the American endorsed Richardson, who thus exchanged expeditionary force, by then some 300 miles captain's bars and a classroom for the com­ inside Mexico, had better not attempt to go mand of a small army in the field. There was in any direction but north. At the same time, talk of raising a regiment of cavalry to be elements of the United States 3rd Cavalry had commanded by Captain Mitchell, since other­ gone across the border at Brownsville after wise the Wisconsin troop would be isolated another group of Mexican raiders, an action in a non-Wisconsin regiment, and. as General of problematic consequences, since General Alfredo Ricaut at Matamoros had just ordered all Americans crossing the border to be shot. Washington called the national guard into active service, and for a while it looked like war. Governor Emmanuel Philipp of Wisconsin had anticipated the President's order. His secretary had drawn up the necessary procla­ mations, and Philipp, temporarily ill, signed them from a hospital bed in Milwaukee. The next day, June 19, the Proclamation to the People of Wisconsin came out on the first page of every newspaper:

National emergencies occur wlien it is law­ ful for the president to call forth to federal service the militia of the several states. . . . His call is the call of the nation, and as such I transmit it to the National Guard of Wisconsin. . . .''

Society's Iconographic Collection -° Wisconsin State Journal, May 14, 1916. ^' Milwaukee Journal, June 3, 1916. Brigadier General Charles R. Boardman, who served " Ibid., June 19, 1916. as Wisconsin's Adjutant General from 1897 to 1913.

205 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

King pointed out somewhat prematurely, "the America, I Love You and the troop train government will need 60,000 cavalrymen for pulled out."' the invasion of Mexico.'"" In theory, the troops were to have been T>Y June 22, 4,506 men of the Wisconsin assembled at Camp Douglas in twelve to -*-* National Guard were at Camp Douglas. eighteen hours. Actual mobilization took con­ Over 1,000 men had enrolled themselves in siderably longer, since the men had to be units of the guard in response to the gover­ given time to settle their personal affairs. nor's proclamation, and some 200 more were President Wilson had issued his call to the seeking to get into the units now at camp. states Sunday, June 18; the last soldier pulled Even so, the brigade was not up to war into Camp Douglas on June 22. Nevertheless, strength. Interestingly, many of the prepared­ for a military operation involving fifty-one ness advocates refrained from setting an exam­ units from thirty-five towns, the actual troop ple for their fellow Wisconsinites by going to concentration apparently went with surprising the border, even though they were of military smoothness.'^' age. The young and active Willet M. Spooner, Here was a big boost to the spirit of pre­ for example, secretary of the local office of paredness: Americans at bay in Mexico and the hyper-patriotic National Security League, the guard marching down the street. In limited his defense activities, at this moment, Appleton, 500 marched in a preparedness to writing out a check to the Red Cross."" parade, headed by L Company and a band. Nonetheless, there were still more soldiers Twenty followed the colors right into the in Wisconsin than there had been since the guard enlistment office. At La Crosse, the Civil War. Thirty minutes after the last troop mayor organized a send-off party at 6 A.M. train arrived at camp on June 22, a telegram as the troops left from the railroad station. announcing complete mobilization was trans­ Twenty thousand turned out at Madison the mitted to the commanding officer of the Mid­ night before the local company left. Milwau­ western department. Major General Thomas kee, the largest city in the state, provided the Barry, at Fort Sheridan, Illinois."' The next biggest military contingent, and here the de­ day Secretary of War Newton D. Baker or­ parture of the guard was particularly dra­ dered all available militia units to be sent to matic. Four infantry companies assembled in the border immediately, without waiting for city hall square and marched to Union Station, the states to complete mobilization."" The while 50,000 cheered and the Soldier's Home Mexican situation had grown worse; an Band played patriotic airs. Blurred photo­ American cavalry patrol had been wiped out graphs of the scene still remain, and the at Carrizal. To meet the army's urgent need curious can still observe the onlookers dressed for troops, mustered units would be flung with odd formality and overarched with black piecemeal into the gap instead of waiting to umbrellas; the marching troops in campaign be grouped with the other units in their hats and blanket rolls, unburdened by steel states. It looked as if well-prepared Wisconsin helmets or gas masks; the throng of forty had managed to avoid the effect of this order. volunteers trailing untidily behind all-Polish Unfortunately, this did not turn out to be K Company in civilian clothes, clutching bun­ true. dles and suitcases. It all happened a very long time ago, yet from these pictures it is Now, with the brigade at Camp Douglas, perhaps possible to get a little of the spirit the Wisconsin National Guard began to look of the time, a glimpse of the fine patriotism like an object lesson in preparedness, but not of an innocent and idealistic America: the the sort of lesson it had anticipated. It began flags, the slanted weapons, the heads un­ to look like a horrible example of the coun- covered in the rain as the band played

'•'''Milwaukee Journal, June 21, June 22, 1916. -•^Ibid., June 23, 1916; June 30, 1916. ••"Ibid., June 22, June 24, 1916. "' Biennial Report, Adjutant General of Wisconsin, '* Biennial Report, Adfutant General of Wisconsin, 1914-16, (Madison, 1916), 13. 1914^1916 (Madison, 1916), 12. -"Milwaukee Journal, June 23, 1916.

206 THE NATIONAL GUARD try's incapacity for an effective defense effort also began to examine every guardsman. Since even in a time of crisis. This was not really the examinations took fifteen minutes apiece due to incompetency in the guard itself, but and there were only five doctors, the guards­ was mainly the result of the federal govern­ men calculated that it would take a month ment's inability to co-ordinate and deal with for everyone to be processed. Many were dis­ the newly called-up state forces. Even so, qualified. In the sixty-eight-man hospital unit, the confusion and delay did show up the fact for example, seven men were knocked out by that the old-time volunteer concept of prepar­ state doctors, and the federal doctors ac­ edness needed some revamping in an indus­ counted for seven more. Two hundred and trial age. seventy-three men of the Second Infantry To begin with, the brigade was still with­ were disqualified, 20 per cent of the unit." out an official commander. Richardson's nom­ At first, it was decided that all disqualified ination had been submitted to the War De­ men would have to remain behind; then partment and was seemingly lost somewhere it was decided that only those rejected in the machine. There was rumor that the by the national guard doctors could not go War Department would not appoint men on with the troops to the border; and a little detached duty to command state troops. Gov­ later still, that everyone disqualified by any­ ernor Philipp had heard nothing, and Richard­ body on medical grounds would remain at son, lacking an order, walked around Camp Camp Douglas. A small number of people Douglas in captain's bars. Without a comman­ who had been already given medical dis­ der there was some danger, state officials charges were allowed to re-enlist and try to thought, that the brigade might be split up, get past the doctors on their second time which would not only hurt state pride, but around."" would mean that the men would be placed If the men who were being forced out pre­ alongside regiments "probably poorly drilled sented problems, so did the men volunteer­ and incompetent.""" Hugh Scott, the army's ing to come in. A thousand new and un­ Indian-fighting chief of staff, reassured the trained recruits had to be assimilated into state that the brigade would be kept intact. units which were having a hard time just It was not until the fifth of July, however, that Richardson was finally made a briga­ "Ibid., June 27, July 9, 1916. dier general, and he had been promoted to ''• Milwaukee Free Press, July 8, 1916. the rank of major in the regular army by then. This was not the only problem. The Mexi­ cans had picked an awkward time to stage a crisis. The Hay Act had been so recently signed that nobody seemed to know just what oath the newly called troops were supposed to swear. The cavalry troop took the old oath in a body. Immediately afterwards, the War Department issued contrary instructions, so everybody else was administered the new Hay oath, which had different versions for officers and enlisted men.'"' Although the guard had given regular phys­ ical examinations, it now proceeded to re­ examine all of its hastily assembled personnel. Not to be outdone, the federal government called up its own army reserve doctors and

Society's Iconographic Collection General John Pershing and inspection party crossing 'Ibid., June 25, 1916. the Santa Maria River on the Punitive Expedition " Ibid., July 1, 1916. of 1916.

207 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING. 1964 meeting the requirements of the federal gov­ Unfortunately, it turned out that the troop ernment. The new recruits lacked equipment, had owned many of its horses for some time tents, uniforms, and guns—everything but now, and they were rejected by government enthusiasm. Troop A was over-enlisted at inspectors as too old. The government in Milwaukee, so part of it broke off and be­ turn offered $104 apiece for the remaining came Troop B, which then could not go to mounts, a price which Troop A refused to camp because its parent unit had taken all consider. Captain Richardson (for he was the available cavalry tents.'" Troop B was still a captain at the time) could only say that not able to leave for the border till late Sep­ there "must be some mistake.""" But there tember. Two batteries of artillery had been wasn't. So Troop A left for the border with organized at the beginning of June in Green three horses, privately owned by its officers. Bay and Racine, but since they did not have The same thing happened to the battery of "even a belt" in the way of equipment, they field artillery. were never mustered into federal service.'" Other factors helped create confusion. There Along with the First Separate Company at were a good many family men in the guard. Chippewa Falls and another newly organized Governor Philipp had taken early steps to infantry unit at Janesville, they remained in meet their needs. On June 23, he offered to state service and saved Governor Philipp the give an honorable discharge to any married trouble of organizing a whole new State Guard man with a dependent family in the Wiscon­ to handle any domestic disturbances. sin National Guard, before it was mustered The troopers of Troop A had other troubles. Since their outfit was the only cavalry unit in the national guard which owned its own ''"' Milwaukee Journal, June 30, 1916. " Wisconsin State Journal, June 21, 1916. horses, reliable transportation seemed assured. '•'"'Milwaukee Journal, June 29, 1916.

I.iplii. (.ollecllon Encampment of the First Wisconsin Infantry, at Leon Springs, Texas.

208 THE NATIONAL GUARD into federal service. While he would not drive hung around the local guard drill hall since anyone out of the service, no man in this he was just a kid, was company bugler at condition would be forced to stay. It was the age of fifteen. "The boys seem anxious "no disgrace" to resign. Seven days later to get off and more than anxious to experi­ the governor announced that he had just dis­ ence real fighting. They all left their various covered that he could not after all discharge positions amid the enthusiasm and cheers of the guardsmen because of federal law. Be­ fellow employees.""" sides, Adjutant General Holway declared that After seeing the situation, one Milwaukee his investigation had not found anybody who woman wrote: "I spent the five most thrilling wanted a discharge. His investigation was hours of my life at Camp Douglas. There are perhaps not comprehensive; two men from nearly 6,000 men there, and everyone is full the Second Infantry deserted within a week. of enthusiasm. One can't help but feel the The families of the guardsmen were entrusted same way, when, as far as eye could reach, to the care of the Red Cross, the charity of there are these thousands of boys in khaki, their husbands' employers, who had formed all ready for the word to move to the Mexi­ an Organized Militia League to help the guard, can border." Her enthusiasm might have and the mercies of the federal government, been dampened if she had seen the War De­ which had just voted down an attempt to partment's estimate of what to anticipate in pay soldiers' dependents $50 a month on the the event of war with Mexico. Any way grounds that it was a move to "capitalize would be a matter of five years and 500,000 patriotism." Those men whose dependents men. Battles would be won by road-building were in certifiable need would be allowed to and police operations against guerrillas. The apply through channels for discharge when conflict would be another Boer War, only they reached the border, and that was that."'' bigger. Fortunately for morale, the story ran Finally, at the end of July, Senator La Follette on an inside page of the Milwaultee Journal.'" pushed through a $2,000,000 amendment to Enthusiasm could show an uglier side, it the army bill to help those guardsmen with developed. When a man from Company H, families."' Manitowoc, refused to sign the federal muster roll, the men of his company stripped off his uniform, dressed him in overalls and yellow ESPITE the bungling and the interminable ribbons, and marched him from regiment to D'tim e it seemed to take the guard to be regiment with a tin can tied to his pants. mustered into federal service, morale at Camp When eight guardsmen from Sheboygan, Douglas was high. For one thing, the rigors claiming the family responsibilities with which of camp life were mitigated by the fact that Governor Philipp was so concerned, refused it was a popular excursion site; ten special to sign the roll, they were thrown into the trains arrived one Sunday along with 3,000 guardhouse for four hours as an inducement automobilists, and 12,000 visitors sat around to altruistic patriotism. These were only under the trees eating box lunches while the minor incidents, of course. But they were Third Infantry staged a regimental dress pa­ an indication of what could be done to the rade. But there was also genuine eagerness whole state and the whole nation in the name and enthusiasm to serve the country, the same of preparedness or patriotism, once the drive reservoir of sincere patriotism that the whole for the union sacree got going.'" preparedness movement was able to exploit. The Milwaukee Journal commented on the Again, there was the combative naivete of situation in a manner not atypical of the times youths who had no real conception of the in its editorial on "The Joy of Service": "We meaning of war. Six boys from one Milwaukee high school had a very different commence­ ment that year, and Walter Donley, who had

''' Milwaukee Journal, June 21, June 26, October 22, 1916. ' Ibid., June 23, June 25, July 9, 1916. '•"Ibid., June 29, 1916. ' Wisconsin State Journal, July 28, 1916. " Ibid., June 30, 1916.

209 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 can't help remembering the expression and point on would be conducted under rigorous spirit of the man who had been to Plattsburg, censorship, and then proceeded to list the and how glad it had made him to feel that route and timetable. The train inched off he was putting in a little time and work for towards Chicago, St. Louis, and points south his country. That is the privilege of the men at the agonizing and preposterous 30-35 miles at Camp Douglas, only it has come in greater an hour required by government regulations." measure to them."" In this way Wisconsin crawled off to serv­ On July 1, the cavalry troop and artillery ice. For the men aboard, the trip was memor­ battery entrained for San Antonio, having able. Below Chicago, the temperature was been duly mustered into service, inoculated, 102°. The travel rations were completely and having turned in all of their guns and inadequate: a slice of corned beef, a little hard­ equipment, for reasons known only to God tack, and "about a dozen" beans twice a and the Quartermaster General. Here again day. The train kept being rerouted for fear there was trouble. It had been decided that of sabotage, and the engine broke down. the troops would travel to Texas in day There were also other delays in the rapid coaches. General King approved of this, for mobilization of Wisconsin troops on the bor­ he felt that soldiers would be much more com­ der. At Vinta, Oklahoma, for instance, the fortable on a three-day train trip if they mayor met the soldiers with automobiles and travelled three to two seats, instead of using took them to an artesian bathing park where sleeping cars. The travellers did not approve they went swimming in the raw. Afterwards, the idea and later said it was "the equivalent presumably having dressed, the boys visited of trying to kill them." At any rate, the Mil­ the races at the fair grounds and enjoyed an waukee Road turned up with some antiquated afternoon tango party at the principal club coaches. It was around the holiday, so the house, where the society belles danced with road's good equipment would be busy carry­ the troopers. The same amenities were ob­ ing excursion passengers. The troops balked served in other towns.'" at entering the cars, and Captain Westphal cried indignantly that the accommodations At that, the trip offered no more adven­ were not fit for cattle, but after four hours tures than the journeys of some of the other someone gave an order. Balking stopped, and units who came afterwards. The Second Wis­ the men entrained. It seemed that another consin Infantry was delayed for seven hours flaw had been discovered in the guard's pre­ by a train wreck in Texarkana, their loco­ paredness. Although plans had been care­ motive ran over a cow, and three cars fell fully made to get the troops into Camp Doug­ off the rear of their train. Both the First las, no one had apparently paid much atten­ and Second Infantry Regiments, as they ar­ tion to how they would get out.'" rived, complained of inadequate water and insufficient rations. It was not until the At 8:30 that evening, the men pulled into Third Infantry, the last unit of all, was shipped the Milwaukee stockyard tracks and deliver­ that these deficiencies in travel arrangements ance. A new train was waiting for them. In­ were rectified. Even so, the Wisconsin troops stead of battered day coaches, there were were fortunate. The First Pennsylvania In­ twenty cars, nine of them sleepers. Besides fantry, 1,614 men, had to beg the mayor of the passenger equipment, there were stock Kansas City for food since they had been cars, flat cars, and two boxcars for kitchen on half rations for two days and almost with­ facilities, which could carry ranges set in out any rations whatsoever for one."' big galvanized iron boxes. These would pro­ Thus the Wisconsin National Guard came vide the indispensable coffee.''' Milwaukee to Texas, just as the border crisis practically papers announced that all travel from this ended. Cooler heads had prevailed on both

" Ibid., July 2, 1916. ' Ibid. '''Ibid., July 1, July 3, 1916. 'Ibid., July 3, July 5, 1916. ''Ibid., July 2, 1916. 'Ibid., July 16, 1916.

210 THE NATIONAL GUARD sides, and the problem was now in the hands heard tales, mostly trumped up, no doubt, of a Joint High Commission. The guards ar­ of complaint and rebellion and whimpering. rived in olive-drab wool uniforms in 100- We know that these men are profiting. And degree heat, and stayed to pitch tents in six- they have the reward of that glow which inch-deep gumbo, fight insects, and break comes from the knowledge that they are untamed broncos for mounts. "Many recruits doing something for their country.'"" soon became disenheartened and many ex­ pressed the wish that they were back home."" Anyone following the development of the Nasty articles appeared in the Milwaukee Free Journal's views would not have been surprised Press; a man from Neenah telegraphed La when the paper's editorial policies came out Follette, was arrested, then released; and the in favor of spreading this glow by compulsory troops began to drill six hours a day in the military training. sun in preparation for maneuvers. During the summer, the guard drilled and Back in Milwaukee, the Journal was turning trained on the Mexican border. There was out editorials like this: never any fighting, just heat and monotony. Under regular army direction, the guard "Mothers do not complain to have their boys down on the border, for they do not complain, are being physically strengthened. "Ibid., July 15, July 3, 1916. "These things are reassuring when we "Ibid., "Good for the Boys," August 16, 1916.

Soldiers drawing water from an improvised well in Mexico while on the expeditionary mission to capture Villa.

211 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 units hardened into fighting outfits. The Wis­ mitted or face termination of federal funds, consin National Guard stood up better than denied the whole thing. The governor ap­ most. Its members were able to march with­ pealed to President Wilson to release the rest out straggling, and their officers managed to of the Wisconsin men, since there was a peri­ avoid feeding them rations liked the tinned od of low employment ahead, the guard by beef labelled "Manila, 1902" which laid low now was fairly fit, and the change to cold a Connecticut outfit. Morale, however, was weather might adversely affect the men's probably somewhat lower than it had been health. When this plea failed, Adjutant Gen­ at Camp Douglas. It was said that 20 per eral Holway was sent to Washington in early cent of the troops on the border were apply­ December. The Milwaukee Journal angrily ing for married men's discharges. Back in condemned the "want-to-go-home propaganda Wisconsin, Governor Philipp set up five re­ sanctioned by Governor Philipp"; the guard cruiting districts in the state, for the guard could not be efficient if state politicians were was short 2,000 men even in August.'" In fact, allowed to meddle with it, and the same sort because of the numerous medical discharges, of propaganda had already caused a near there were seventy-four fewer guardsmen by mutiny in the Michigan guard. Apparently September 1 than there had been on June 22."" volunteer preparedness, put to the test, was In October, Troop A and Battery A came wearing a bit thin. The guard finally came back and were mustered out with the usual home, unit by unit, over the course of the confusion and inconvenience. There were winter."' grumblings that the men of Troop A, who had taken the old oath on leaving for the border, 11 ''HE Wisconsin National Guard had had had been tricked into signing up for a three- -*• its hour in the center of the stage. Now in year reserve commitment while under the im­ the winter of 1916, there was time for evalua­ pression they were receipting for pay. Their commander. Captain Penner, who was alleged tion. Certain facts were unpleasantly clear. to be trying to get 70 per cent of his men com- The Wisconsin National Guard had performed its assigned duties with some efficiency in the field. But it had never managed to achieve its war strength of 7,000, and the trained Us i men in the ranks (some of them rather sketch- ily trained themselves) had been diluted by raw, unequipped recruits, an intolerable sit­ uation in a real emergency. Because of the geographic distribution of the guard, the hardships of border duty had been borne to a disproportionate extent by urban residents."" Too many family men and small businessmen who had joined for a week at Sparta had spent six months at San Antonio. The guard units of other states had fully manifested their ex­ pected inadequacy. In January the Milwaukee Sentinel had editorialized cheerfully that "Those who are familiar with the discipline undergone by the National Guard in the past ten years believe that if put to the test of ac-

"Ib-id., July 3, August 30, 1916. '° Biennial Report, Adjutant General of Wisconsin, 1914-1916, (Madison, 1916), 5. ^' Milwaukee Journal, November 27, December 5, "Oh, Williaml You make me think of Napoleon!" 1916. Sardonic comment on the preparedness movement ''- Milwaukee Leader, "Fighting by Proxy," July 7, from Life, August 10, 1916. 1916.

212 THE NATIONAL GUARD tual service the guardsmen would furnish a Leader commented, perhaps without real sym­ pleasant surprise to their hasty critics." Now pathy, "when he [the guardsman] gets home it could only bleat for the defederalizing of the and is needed to run a bayonet into a 'wop' militia, and assail the nincompoops in Wash­ he may join the noble company of patriots ington who "believed in the National Guard whose motto is to Let George Do It.""* as an effective force.""" The Hay Bill, the hopeful fruit of the whole Paradoxically, although there were more preparedness program, now seemed discredited trained and hardened troops available in the at the start. Public opinion, both in Wiscon­ country than ever before in the twentieth cen­ sin and elsewhere, now turned to more dras­ tury, the nation looked more undefended than tic and sweeping measures. When the regular ever. Even the Wisconsin National Guard, the army staff called for universal military train­ best in the nation and the standard-bearer of ing, instead of the "extravagant, inefficient, preparedness, looked less impressive when and dangerous" volunteer system, its posi­ mobilized in Texas than it did on paper in tion was backed by the bulk of the Wisconsin Wisconsin. The fine glow which had impelled urban press.'"" The reputation of the National people to march in preparedness parades and Guard was saved only after the outbreak of cheer the departing troops was not sufficient hostilities with Germany gave reorganized materially to increase the actual armed con­ and strengthened guard units a chance to tribution of the state. Although thousands of prove their mettle. volunteers had come forward, this was im­ pressive only because of the microscopic size of the forces involved. Also, what was gained in efficiency in Texas just might have been "" Milwaukee Sentinel, January 27, December 11, lost in morale, if the squabblings in Troop 1916. A meant anything. As the Socialist Milwaukee "' Milwaukee Leader, August 4, 1916. °° Milwaukee Journal, December 18, 1916.

SoMcf^ s [(.onographic Collection American newspapermen covering the Punitive Expedition produced hundreds of dramatic photographs, such as this one of a U.S. detachment in northern Mexico.

213 ROBERT M. LA FOLLETTE, PUBLIC PROSECUTOR

The second of three articles on the early career of Wisconsin's By DAVID P. THELEN most distinguished political figure.

TN 1880, a year after his graduation from won the nomination, and in the campaign -*- the University of Wisconsin where he had which followed, his opponents were able to achieved distinction as an orator if not as a find only one major objection to his candi­ student, Robert M. La Follette was admitted dacy: he was green. How, his opponents won­ to the bar of the Dane County Circuit Court. dered, could a young man fresh from five He was twenty-five, a fledgling lawyer in a months of study at law school be expected to city overblessed with able lawyers. He was win criminal cases against the experienced also the primary source of support for his sis­ members of the bar? Even some Republican ter and widowed mother, and he was engaged papers questioned the advisability of making to be married. It was not surprising, there­ the district attorneyship "a sort of training fore, that to a young attorney anxious to school for beginners."" establish himself as quickly as possible, the Nevertheless, La Follette won the election Dane County district attorneyship, carrying handily and two years later was elected to a an annual salary of $800 and traditionally re­ second term. During these two terms he won served for younger members of the bar, looked a reputation for zeal and diligence which was inviting. Rather than wait for a successful later expanded into a legend of economy in practice, which might be years in the making. office and invincibility in performance. It La Follette decided to enter politics. is with these four years, in which Robert M. His first move was to seek the advice of La Follette served Dane County as its dis­ Elisha W. Keyes, Madison's postmaster and trict attorney, that this article is concerned. the acknowledged boss of the local Republi­ In his first political campaign, La Follette can party. Despite La Follette's later asser­ appealed to the voters' sense of economy. He tion that Keyes actively opposed his cam­ promised that he would not burden the coun­ paign for the nomination for district attorney, ty with the expense of hiring assistants to there seems to be no evidence to support his help him in prosecuting accused criminals. claim.^ At the county convention, La Follette He was to recall thirty years later that he had

' See David P. Thelen, "The Boss and the Up­ start: Keyes and La Follette, 1880-1884," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 47:103-115 (Win­ ^Stoughton Courier, October 30, 1880; Madison ter, 1963-1964). Democrat, September 18, 22, 1880.

214 PUBLIC PROSECUTOR

kept his promise and "did all the work alone."" In fact, however, he made considerable use of other lawyers, as district attorneys customari­ -A - i ? 1 ly do. In his very first case as public prose­ cutor, State V. F. E. Wetherbee, charged with slander. La Follette was assisted by both W. H. Rogers and William Welch." F. J. Lamb similarly helped La Follette win a verdict in State V. Michael Douglas." During a contro­ versy over a Sunday closing law, the district attorney was assisted by John M. Olin, Milo Woodbury, and F. J. Lamb." Olin claimed that he had performed gratuitously "legal ser­ vices that were worth at a very low estimate from a thousand to fifteen hundred dollars.'" La Follette doubtless secured such assistance without cost to the county, but like other young, inexperienced prosecutors, he made use of men whose knowledge of the courtroom J'-;' exceeded his. Whatever La Follette may have lacked in the way of knowledge and experience, he com­ Society 6 Iconographic Collection pensated for with something far more impor­ tant than either—a black-and-white view of Gilbert E. Roe, La Follette's longtime law partner. the world which enabled him to detest both the crime and the criminal with equal fervor. to be sure his proof was invulnerable." He Years later he remembered that he "saw just often spent his nights and Sundays gathering two things then: the law and the individual evidence for forthcoming trials." The enthu­ criminal. 1 believe I broke the record for con­ siasm with which he prepared his cases would victions in Dane County. . . . Since then I convince his later associates that he had been have come to have a little different point of unbeatable in the courtroom. Typical was the view regarding crime. I see that the individ­ reminiscence of La Follette's subsequent law ual is not always wholly to blame; that many partner, Gilbert E. Roe. Although Roe did not crimes grow directly out of the sins and in­ work with La Follette for another ten years, justices of society.'" But during the years he asserted that the district attorney had made 1880 to 1884, La Follette energetically prose­ "a state-wide reputation as a resourceful and cuted each case that was arraigned in the relentless prosecutor. His motto was 'Let no Dane County Circuit Court. "His standard guilty man escape,' and the record of his pro­ was perfection," his wife recalled. "He wanted secution seems to show that none did escape." Indeed, Roe asserted, "I never knew a jury to bring in a verdict against him.'"" La Follette's clear-cut view of Good and " Robert M. La Follette, La Follette's Autobiogra­ Evil had been developing slowly throughout phy: A Personal Narrative of Political Experiences his childhood, becoming an increasingly im- (Madison, 1911, 1913), 37. * Madison Democrat, January 6, 1881. ^' F. J. Lamb to Burr Jones, January 31, 1884, in the Burr Jones Papers. All manuscript collections cited are in the Manuscripts Division of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. 'Democrat, May 17, 27, 28, 1884; Wisconsin State Journal (Madison), May 17, 27, June 23, 1884. " Belle Case and Fola La Follette, Robert M. La 'John M. Olin to Matt Kleiner, May 8, 1884; Olin Follette (2 vols., New York, 1953), 1:48, 51. to L. Ed-win Dudley, May 18, 1888, both in the John '"Gilbert E. Roe, "In Memoriam: Robert M. La M. Olin Papers. Follette," 4, in Wisconsin Biographical Collection, "La Follette's Autobiography, 40-41. State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

215 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 portant part of his personality until one day La Follette's psychological debt to John his contemporaries—depending on their own Bascom was well illustrated in his first legal biases—would hear in his public pronounce­ case. While still a law student. La Follette ments only the words of a savior or of a de­ was allowed by another lawyer to defend a magogue. La Follette's father had died when tramp accused of murder. He won an acquit­ Robert was but eight months old, and his tal, but a few days later he noted in his diary mother had insisted that the boy never forget that he "did not like the way" some people and always honor this man he had never real­ praised him about his success: "They seem ly known. As a result, much of his childhood to consider that I did a smart thing—that I energy was given over to a search for the was sharp in the management of the matter identity of the father who had, in his mother's and keen in argument—but they don't seem words, been devoted to "what was right." to think that 1 did it all because I thought he Friends, neighbors, even his father's exhumed was innocent—that I was simply fighting a skeleton, became potential sources of infor­ fight for the truth—that his vindication was mation which the boy examined. Even La a truth'"" Follette's wife was moved to observe that "his These might have been the words of John devotion to his [father's] memory was almost Bascom. The courtroom was not a place morbid.'"" wherein each lawyer tried to present the best In college, La Follette finally found a man possible case for his client, within the limita­ who could come close to filling the personality tions of available facts; rather, it was an arena void created by his father's death. This man in which Right battled Wrong. was John Bascom, president of the University of Wisconsin. Most students found Bascom T A FOLLETTE'S youthful enthusiasm for cold, pompous, and excessively moralistic for ^-^ the rhetoric of Right was evident in his the carefree days of adolescence; La Follette indictments, the zealous language of which far "loved, honored, and understood" him."' surpassed that of his predecessor and succes­ Bascom tried to impress upon people his judg­ sor in the Dane County district attorneyship." mental view of life; he and his wife were in In these indictments, perhaps more clearly the vanguard of the attempt to enact prohibi­ than in any other of his official acts, was re­ tion in Wisconsin.'" The young La Follette vealed the moral righteousness which would could hardly have found a man more like his later characterize La Follette's pleas for social mother's description of his father. La Fol­ and economic justice. A case of libel, as in­ lette's wife, who knew Bascom well, recalled terpreted by the district attorney, became the that he and her husband "had a like intensity effort of a man "unlawfully and maliciously of nature" and "the same faith in what they contriving and intending to villify and de­ believed a righteous cause. . . ."" And this fame" another, "to bring him . . . into public was Bascom's contribution: he reinforced and scandal, infamy, ridicule, and disgrace, and gave depth to that streak in La Follette which to injure and aggrieve him . . . unlawfully and was stern, righteous, and judgmental.'" maliciously.'"" L. N. Reese, accused of break­ ing and entering, must have trembled in his boots when La Follette charged that he "will­ fully, maliciously, forcibly, feloniously and "Belle Case and Fola La Follette, La Follette, 1: 6-10, 13. burglariously did break and enter, with in- '^Charles R. Van Hise to Alice M. Ring, April 30, 1878, January 12, 1879, both in the Charles R. Van Hise Papers; Belle Case and Fola La Follette, La Follette, 1: 38. ^ Merle Curti and Vernon Carstensen, The Univer­ sity of Wisconsin: A History (2 vols., Madison, 1949), published M. A. thesis. University of Wisconsin, 1: 246-274; Minutes of the Eleventh Annual Meet­ 1964), 27, 64-67. ing of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of '" Quoted in Belle Case and Fola La Follette, La Wisconsin (Ripon, 1884), 14-15, 42. Follette, 1: 46. '* Belle Case and Fola La Follette, La Follette, 1: " Indictment Book for District Attorney of Dane 38. County, 142-222, Wisconsin State Archival Series '° This view is expanded in David P. Thelen, "The 013/9/5-1, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Early Life of Robert M. La Follette, 1855-1884" (Un- 'Ubid., 163.

216 PUBLIC PROSECUTOR tent there and then the goods, chattels, and as district attorney was a checkered one. On valuable property ... to steal, take and carry the basis of the evidence he assembled and away.'"" Prescott Wilson, arraigned on an as­ the manner in which he presented it, juries sault charge, did "beat, bruise, kick, and strike found for the State of Wisconsin in the fol­ to the great damage of" the complainant, lowing Circuit Court cases:'* State v. William James Babe.'" La Follette said that Judson C. B. Cody and Timothy Harrington, highway Ayers did "feloniously seduce and have illicit robbery, 1881; State v. Charles Schultz, as­ connection with, debauch, deflower and car­ sault and battery, 1881; State v. Thomas Sy- nally know" one Carrie L. Taylor, "an un­ non, abusive language, 1881; State v. Judson married woman of previous Chaste Charac­ C. Ayers, rape, 1882; State v. M. E. Emerson, ter.'"" And one wonders whether Joseph Mo- blackmail, 1882; State v. Peter Hanson, bas­ nahan, accused of gambling, would have re­ tardy, 1882; State v. Charles Roske, bastardy, cognized his crime by the time La Follette fin­ 1882; State v. Richard Murray, assault and ished stating that he "did keep and use cer­ battery, 1882; State v. James Malaney, drunk tain cards adapted, suitable, devised and de­ and disorderly conduct, 1882; State v. Chee- signed for gambling purposes and did then ney Haley and C. S. Dejean, game law viola­ and there entice, induce and permit [other tion, 1883; State v. Henry Ochs, assault with men] to bet and play for gain with, by means intent to do great bodily harm, 1883; State v. of said cards, so kept as aforesaid at and Charles Stewart, assault, 1883; State v. Wil­ upon a game called poker.""" Although such liam Edwards and James Kirby, robbery, high-flown rhetoric was entirely consistent 1884; State v. G. H. Robbins, larceny, 1884; with La Follette's background as a champion State v. Prescott Wilson, assault, 1884; State collegiate orator, it also revealed a public pro­ v. John H. Stenehjein, assault and battery, secutor who took his work very seriously. 1884; State v. Alexander Peckham, rape, In his instructions to various juries, as in his 1884. indictments. La Follette evinced his zeal for Thus La Follette won seventeen cases be­ convictions. Blackmail, he told the jury in fore the Circuit Court in his two terms as pro­ the case of State v. M. E. Emerson, could be secutor: six cases of assault, two each of bas­ proved "either by agreement express or im­ tardy and rape, and one each of blackmail, plied. . . .""" In the case of State v. L. N. disorderly conduct, larceny, abusive language, Reese, he told the jury that "If you are satis­ and game law violation. He was competent, fied that the defendant himself or any member but he was not invincible. During the same of his family [has] sworn falsely in respect period, he lost eight other cases before the to any material matter or question at issue, you are at liberty to disregard all of the testi­ mony of such witness or witnesses." He added that Reese must be found guilty of breaking and entering even though he "was not directly ^ The Minute Book for the Dane County Circuit Court does not include La Follette's four years as within the store himself."^ district attorney, and this listing reflects all the cases for which this researcher could find results. Further Language was one thing; winning verdicts material for the above-cited 1881 cases can be found was another. La Follette found himself pitted in Dane County Circuit Issue Calendars for the April against the most experienced members of the and November Terms of 1881, in Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Papers; State Journal, April 23, 28, 1881. Dane County bar, and the record he compiled For the six cases during 1882, see Issue Calendars for April, 1882, Term; Indictment Book, 170, 171-5; Circuit Court case files for State v. Peter Hanson and State v. Charles Roske; State Journal, February 3, 4, 1882, December 5, 9, 1882, February 2, 1883. Evidence for the three cases during 1883 for which '"Ibid., 166-167. the outcome is clear can be found in Issue Calendar •""Ibid., 178. for November, 1883, Term; Circuit Court case file ^Ibid., 170. for State v. Henry Ochs; and State v. Charles Stewart; '•""Ibid., 179. Indictment Book, 177, 178; State Journal, April 13, ^ Case file. Box 178, in Case Files, Circuit Court 24, 1883, December 1, 1883, January 26, 1884. For of Dane County, Wisconsin State Archival Series the five cases during 1884, see Issue Calendar for 013/9/6, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. November, 1884, Term; Indictment Book, 178, 186, ^ Box 173, Circuit Court case files. 190, 191-2; State Journal, April 17, 1884.

217 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Circuit Court :'^ State v. William Seamonson, La Follette's performance apparently did not adultery, 1881; State v. J. Henry Townsend, improve appreciably during his four years in obtaining money under false pretenses, 1881; office, for he lost two cases each year and State V. Charles B. and Mary Gary, murder, won three in 1881, six in 1882, three in 1883, 18cS2; State v. M. D. Vaughn, robbery, 1882; and five in 1884. He lost the two murder State V. Charles Smith, assault with intent cases that were brought to the Circuit Court, to do great bodily harm, 1883; State v. W. S. and he won several of his convictions on such Sylvester, assault and battery, 1883; State v. minor charges as disorderly conduct and in­ Ole J. Melaas, murder, 1884; State v. Delbert fractions of the game laws. He was, to be sure, Wood, assault with intent to do great bodily a distinct improvement over his predecessor, harm, 1884. James Reynolds, who not only failed to win convictions but was the tool of gamblers and prostitutes.'" On the other hand, his record was no better than that of his successor, J. ^ For further evidence on losses during 1881, see L. O'Connor, who replaced him in 1885 when Issue Calendar, April, 1881, Term; State Journal, La Follette took his seat in Congress. During April 27, 1881. On the 1882 losses, see Issue Calendar, November, 1881, Term; Indictment Book, 171, 173; his first year as district attorney, O'Connor State Journal, February 7, 1882, April 24, 1882. For compiled almost exactly the same record as the 1883 cases, see Issue Calendar for November, 1883, Term; Indictment Book, 177; State Journal, La Follette had during the four years previous. April 13, 1883, December 1, 1883. Further details In 1885, O'Connor secured sixteen convic­ on the 1884 losses can be found in Issue Calendar, tions in twenty-one cases, or was 69 per cent November, 1884, Term; Indictment Book, 178, 187; State Journal, April 17, 1884. effective; La Follette had won 68 per cent of his cases.^ The basis for La Follette's claim for a re­ cord number of convictions, then, did not rest on his appearances before the Circuit Court. Rather, it was in a lower tribunal, the Muni­ cipal Court, where La Follette set records for convictions. There, he soon proved himself a scourge of public nuisances. In 1881 he in­ dicted fourteen men for assault and battery, fifty-eight for drunkenness, and fourteen for vagrancy—a total of eighty-six. In 1884, his last year as district attorney, he indicted a total of seventy-two men in Municipal Court: ten for assault and battery, forty-two for pub­ lic drunkenness, and twenty for vagrancy. Here his record contrasted rather sharply with that of J. L. O'Connor, who in 1885 indicted nine men for assault and battery, twelve for public drunkenness, and twenty-two for vag­ rancy—a total of forty-three cases, or little

^ Investigation of James Reynolds, Box 4, Investi­ gation of Charges, Surveys, Relief, Disaster and Social Unrest, Wisconsin State Archival Series 1/1/8-1, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. ^ Dane County Circuit Court Minute Book for Robert M. La Follette, during his tenure as district 1885, Wisconsin State Archival Series 013/9/3, attorney of Dane County, 1880-1884. State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

218 PUBLIC PROSECUTOR

more than half as many as La Follette's aver­ April, 1882. Finally he had to admit defeat, age of seventy-nine per year."" and he submitted his "Reasons in Law and La Follette's zeal in prosecuting these petty Fact for not Filing an Information." La Fol­ offenders appealed to his respectable contem­ lette's chief explanation for not filing an in­ poraries. The State Journal, commenting on dictment was that Miss Schimming had alrea­ one of his convictions, hoped "that District dy spent nearly a year in jail. Perhaps, he Attorney La Follette will continue the good wrote, "the ends of public justice . . . have work he has begun since be came into office, already been served.""" and the people of Dane County will soon be Miss Schimming escaped prosecution be­ rid of a dangerous class who have hung cause La Follette could not marshal sufficient around Madison as long as they can be en­ evidence against her; a number of other male­ dured.""" The task of the district attorney in factors whom La Follette did convict were securing convictions in Municipal Court was later pardoned. Indeed, during his four years considerably eased by the fact that very few in office. La Follette led the state's district of the defendants had lawyers to defend them. attorneys in number of prisoners pardoned Indictment was usually tantamount to convic­ by the governor. Nineteen of his prisoners tion. were pardoned, as compared with ten for the Yet even in Municipal Court La Follette oc­ district attorney of Milwaukee County and casionally had his problems. During his first six for the Grant County prosecutor, who year in office, the State Journal reported that ranked second and third, respectively, behind "A terrible crime has just been brought to La Follette."' Governors William E. Smith and light, through the efforts of District Attorney Jeremiah Rusk indirectly rebuked La Follette La Follette, who obtained a slight clue from for being too enthusiastic in his efforts to current rumor and followed it until he un­ convict. William Harrington had served only earthed one of those fearful cases of infanti­ half of his two-year sentence for attempted cide. . . ." So terrible was the crime, the rape when he was pardoned "for the reason paper continued, that it "would be almost that from the evidence discovered since the beyond belief, if it were not for the indisput­ trial and submitted by affidavits it appears able evidence which Mr. La Follette has ob­ that the prosecuting witness misrepresented tained against the prisoner.""' So confident facts in the case and because there seems to was the district attorney that he himself swore have been some doubt in the minds of the out the complaint against the accused, Augusta judge and jury before whom the trial was Schimming, who was brought before the Muni­ had. . . ." Judge Braley recommended par­ cipal Court a week later. But Judge A. B. dons for Charles Smith and Frank Lawrence, Braley was unimpressed by La Follette's evi­ convicted of assault and battery, because "it dence, and he allowed the district attorney's appears from subsequent developments that request for an additional ten days to locate the complaining witnesses are unreliable and witnesses. In his second appearance before no doubt sworn false and there are grave Judge Braley, La Follette produced four wit­ doubts of the guilt of the prisoners." Lewis nesses, but the case was appealed to the Cir­ Iverson, convicted of assault, and Andrew cuit Court, which would not meet again until Dillage, convicted of larceny, were pardoned November—five months later."" In November, before either had served one-third of his sen­ La Follette obtained another postponement, tence because facts later uncovered proved this time until the Circuit Court meeting of their innocence. La Follette's eagerness to

•^Case files, folders for 1881, 1884, 1885, Dane County Municipal Court, Wisconsin State Archival '^ State V. .\ugusta Schimming, Box 173, Circuit Series 013/11/6, State Historical Society of Wiscon­ Court case files. sin. "* The period of La Follette's district attorneyship '^ State Journal, May 11, 1881. is in vol. V of Pardon Debates and Pardon Records, "' Ibid., June 21, 1881. Wisconsin State .\rchival Series 1/1/10-2, State His­ "Vfeirf., June 28, July 8, 1881. torical Societv of Wisconsin.

219 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 secure convictions, then, sometimes carried Like other district attorneys. La Follette him further than the facts would permit. often had trouble locating witnesses even in In only three of the nineteen instances of Wisconsin. In State v. John Conley, he was pardons did La Follette himself recommend forced to enter a plea of nolle prosequi be­ that the prisoner be freed. On one occasion cause the complaining witnesses could not a prison doctor reported that the prisoner was be found."' A rape case, State v. Alexander "afflicted with consumption" and would soon Peckham, was never tried during the April, die; another time La Follette and Judge Bra­ 1884, term of the Circuit Court because Peck- ley agreed beforehand to recommend pardon ham's brother, an accomplice, had disap­ because the prisoner had been "a peaceable peared.''" A similar fate overtook the case of citizen" who had committed assault when he State V. Joseph J. Monahan when the sheriff's was "crazed with drink." And Governor Smith office was unable to locate the defendant.''" noted on the pardon granted M. 0. Hine that Nor did the prosecutor's success in locating he did so on the recommendation of La Fol­ witnesses always guarantee a conviction. The lette, "who stated that if at the time of trial State Journal pronounced it "a feather in our he had been in possession of all the facts now new District Attorney's cap" when the gov­ before him he would have prosecuted under ernor of Ohio said that La Follette's extradi­ another section of the statute where the penal­ tion papers in the case of J. Henry Townsend ty would have been confinement in the coun­ "were the clearest and best drawn documents ty jail [not the state prison]." of the kind that he had ever had occasion to pass upon." But in spite of this compliment. A PART from the vigor with which he pro- La Follette failed in Circuit Court to convict -^*- secuted accused criminals. La Follette dif­ Townsend of obtaining money under false fered very little from other district attorneys pretenses."" of the time. With them, he shared the prob­ La Follette lost other cases because he was lems which confronted all public prosecutors, unable to secure enough evidence. In State v. including the basic one of locating criminals John Lavin, charged with resisting an officer, who fled the state to escape capture. During the district attorney himself moved for dis­ his two terms in office, he extradited twelve missal "as the evidence was too weak to con­ men from other states, as compared with eight vict him."*" On another occasion, La Follette for his predecessors, W. H. Rogers and James charged that the Chicago and North Western Reynolds, and nine for his successor, J. L. Railroad's embankment- impeded navigation O'Connor.""" Most of La Follette's twelve re­ on Madison's Lake Monona. Judge Braley quests for extradition were of governors of dismissed the case and gently rebuked La neighboring states, though he did send the Follette in his decision: "But do they material­ Dane County sheriff as far as Pennsylvania ly impede navigation? That is a question of to return A. M. Curran to stand trial for for­ fact and but little evidence has been given gery."° La Follette later recalled that he had upon the subject. . . ." He further advised worked the sheriff "half to death" in pursuing La Follette that the state attorney general, not criminals,"' but in fact he extradited approxi­ the district attorney of Dane County, should mately the same number of men as other Dane handle the case."" County prosecutors. In addition to pursuing criminals and lo­ cating witnesses, a successful district attorney

"^ Extradition Proceedings, II, 94-207, Wisconsin State Archival Series 1/1/10-3, State Historical ''^ Issue Calendar: April 1881 Term. Society of Wisconsin. ^ State Journal, April 9, 1884. Peckham was found '" Extradition Proceedings, II, 162. In his Auto­ in time for the November term, and his brother was biography, 41, La Follette asserted that he sent a convicted. Issue Calendar: November 1884 Term. sheriff to England to fetch back a criminal. If he " State Journal, April 9, 1884. did, he failed to handle it through official channels, "•State Journal, February 14, 1881; Issue Calendar: since the Extradition Reports show that the farthest April 1881 Term. he sent a sheriff was Pennsylvania. *' State Journal, April 29, 1884. '^ La Follette's Autobiography, 41. "Ibid., August 18, 1881.

220 PUBLIC PROSECUTOR had to establish rapport with the judges. In When the defense attorney in the case of at least two cases, defense attorneys claimed State V. Henry Ochs objected to La Follette's that Judge Alva Stewart had made La Fol­ line of questioning of the complainant. Judge lette's task easier. When attorney E. A. Hayes Stewart not only overruled the objection but defended M. E. Emerson in a blackmail case, went out of his way to assist the prosecutor Hayes had just lost the district attorneyship by telling him: "Do not assume anything by to La Follette in an election."" The jury found your questions. ... I think it is very proper Emerson guilty, and Hayes petitioned for a to show the degree of injury in a proper new trial.'" Hayes claimed that Judge Stewart way." Following the judge's suggestions. La had been in error when he allowed La Follette Follette won a conviction." Dane County's to file a new Information against Emerson popular young district attorney did not always after his first Information had been quashed face hostile judges when he appeared in court. for "not stating an offence." This was espe­ The problems of marshalling evidence, cially odious to Hayes because La Follette's bringing criminals to trial, and maintaining new Information included "a new count . . . viable relationships with judges were comp­ charging a new, separate, and distinct of­ licated in the Gilded Age by the activities of fence.'"" corrupt, self-seeking politicians. The legal process was sometimes prostituted by political bosses, who relied on their ability to render service to their constituents to build up their machines. La Follette would later write that "•"La Follette beat Hayes by 118 votes, making Boss Keyes and other politicians had been be­ Hayes the only unsuccessful county candidate on the hind "the curious ways in which witnesses Democratic ticket. Stoughton Courier, November 10, faded out of the reach of the sheriff's office, 1882. •"^ State Journal, December 5, 1882, February 3, in the disagreement of juries, and the like."" 1883. The adultery case of State v. R. J. Wilson "^ State V. M. E. Emerson, Box 178, Circuit Court case files. was an illustration of La Follette's point. La Follette was sick during the trial, and Rufus B. Smith, the acting district attorney, could secure only a hung jury." La Follette later charged that Keyes, taking advantage of his illness, "used his influence to compel the dis­ missal of the case.'"* The ailing district at­ torney therefore bundled himself up and drove to the courthouse, where he asserted his "offi­ cial authority" against dismissal, and although "threatened with being sent to jail for con­ tempt," secured a new trial and a subsequent conviction.^' Keyes, probably with an eye towards performing a favor for a friendly constituent, was indeed interested in having Wilson acquitted. The State Journal, edited

""Box 178, Circuit Court case files; State Journal, April 13, 1883. Socict>'s Iconographic Collection *'La Follette's Autobiography, 38. "Democrat, May 25, 1884. Judge A. B. Braley, Municipal Court fudge during '"La Follette's Autobiography, 38. La Follette's tenure as district attorney. '•'Ibid., 38-39.

221 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 by one of Keyes' closest associates, sug­ But Ed Sanderson was not merely a politi­ gested that La Follette's action had been un­ cal boss who had tried to use his influence wise: "The District Attorney, acting contrary to cover up an embarrassing incident; he was to the advice of the court, who imagines that affiliated with the rising Milwaukee machine, the county has already incurred sufficient which was then tightening its grip on the costs in the prosecution of this foul case, made state Republican party. He shared the com­ a motion for a new trial." And the man who mercial bosses' hatred of Elisha Keyes, and posted Wilson's bail for the new trial was in 1879 he had fought successfully to prevent Elisha W. Keyes." When Wilson was ultimate­ Keyes from being elected to the Senate."" ly convicted and sent to jail, it appeared that Many Republicans in Madison, not merely the La Follette had won a victory over the politi­ supporters of Boss Keyes, had bitterly re­ cal boss. sented the efforts of the "Milwaukee ring" But Keyes soon received a letter from the in discharging Keyes from the post office."' county jail. R. J. Wilson, still protesting his Rivalry between Madison and Milwaukee had innocence, pleaded: "I ask you in the name more than a political base; Milwaukee was of god and the sake of common humanity do rapidly consolidating economic control over take me out of here your influance with the commercial enterprise throughout the state. Gov. will surely get me some chance to Thus, when La Follette chased down Ed San­ breeth gods free air again."'^ Four days later, derson, he was applauded by Madisonians who Governor Rusk pardoned him." were increasingly disenchanted with the pro­ Yet the political overtones of law enforce­ spect of domination of the state by a few ment did not always work to La Follette's dis­ commercial bosses in Milwaukee. La Follette advantage. The case of State v. M. D. Vaughn remembered that "instead of injuring my was a good example. Ed Sanderson, chairman chances for re-election," as Sanderson had of the Republican State Central Committee, implied, "the case decidedly helped me."'"'^ had been drinking and gambling in Madison; during the night Vaughn had entered his hotel \VriTH his "Ciceronian" style of address- room and robbed him. A rumor of the crime '' ing juries and his record of convictions quickly spread, and District Attorney La Fol­ —distinctly better than that of his drunken lette appeared at Sanderson's room the next predecessor—La Follette increased his repu­ morning. Sanderson, said La Follette, "was tation and his popularity." The growth of insulting; told me it was none of my business, his private law practice bore eloquent testi­ and that if I knew where my political interests mony to this. By mid-summer of his first lay, I better keep d quiet." The Repub­ year as district attorney he could write that lican boss was reluctant to have the story of he was so busy that he had to give some busi­ his drunken spree spread all over the state, ness to other lawyers. In addition to his and he fled to his home in Milwaukee. La salary of $800, he was already earning an ad­ Follette, who wanted to make "the law su­ ditional $400 annually from his private prac­ preme in Dane County," sent a sheriff to Mil­ tice. He begged a college friend, John Con­ waukee to subpoena Sanderson. It was, he lat­ way, to become his partner: "I am satisfied er wrote in his autobiography, his resentment in a little time all the business I can possibly of political interference with the legal pro­ do will come to me.'"" Most of his early pri- cess that prompted him to pursue Sanderson so relentlessly.""

^" Democrat, January 23, 1879. ^'' Democrat, January 21, September 19, November "" State Journal, May 24, 1884; Municipal Court 1, 1882; State Journal, February 1, 1882; La Crosse case files. Chronicle, quoted in Democrat, January 21, 1882. =" R. J. Wilson to E. W. Keyes, September 8, 1884, ™ Thelen, "The Boss and the Upstart," 103-115. in the Elisha W. Keyes Papers. ^" State Journal, August 18, 1881. " Copy of pardon in Municipal Court case files. "" Robert M. La Follette to John Conway, July 5, ^^ La Follette's Autobiography, 39^0. 1881, in University of Wisconsin Archives.

222 PUBLIC PROSECUTOR vate cases were simple matters of adjustment, Majority sentiment won out at the polls. such as divorce proceedings, but soon he and La Follette ran 2,000 votes ahead of his tic­ his new partner, Robert Siebecker, came be­ ket in 1882 and was the only Republican fore the Circuit Court more often than any on the county slate to survive the Demo­ other Madison law firm. At the November, cratic sweep of that year. He had indeed won 1881, term of the Circuit Court they had only a ringing endorsement of his term as dis­ one of seventy cases; by November of 1883 trict attorney. they had twenty of eighty-one cases; and by Yet what distinguished La Follette from his November of 1884 they had twelve of forty- predecessors was not merely his success, but one cases heard by Judge Stewart."" his zeal. As a young man whose training was La Follette's popularity was further reflected in oratory, he shrewdly applied the techniques in the contemporary press. The strongly parti­ of the stage and the platform to the courtroom. san Democrat never mentioned any of the dis­ The large number of pardons granted to pris­ trict attorney's official acts in its exhorta­ oners whom he had convicted suggested that tions to vote against him, suggesting that his his ardor sometimes overwhelmed his objec­ record as prosecutor was irreproachable. The tivity. His penchant for presenting matters State Journal referred to "the good work he in black and white, encouraged by his tutelage under John Bascom, had grown stronger. The has begun," only six months after La Follette large number of convictions which he had took office."^ And although the Sun Prairie secured in Municipal Court had come easily, Countryman had been lukewarm to his candi­ and they had been roundly applauded by the dacy in 1880—a reflection of its independent people of Dane County, who were glad to position—it now enthusiastically urged La be rid of their drunks and vagrants. It would Follette's re-election. "We have yet to hear be but a short step for La Follette, a few years the first fault found with any of his official later, to transfer his censorious attitude acts." Its editors called him "very efficient" towards petty criminals to soulless corpora­ and described his "will and honest determina­ tions and corrupt politicians. tion," which made him "a faithful, reliable, In the courtrooms of Dane County, Robert and popular District Attorney.""" The State M. La Follette learned that he had an unbeat­ Journal, reflecting the views of Madison's Re­ able approach to public affairs when he cou­ publican bosses, strongly urged La Follette's pled his youthful, moralistic zeal to a popu­ re-election: "Attentive to every duty; able in lar cause—as in the jailing of public nuisances every department of his profession; vigilant or the harrassment of an unwilling Ed San­ in the prosecution of criminals; neglectful derson. He had learned, too, that voters were of nothing, Mr. La Follette is just the man to similar to the audiences which attended the continue as district attorney.'"" Reviewing his orations and dramatic productions of his col­ record over four years, the State Journal stated lege days: they liked to see and hear a man that he had "infused new vigor into that who battled relentlessly against the forces important office and as a public prosecutor which menaced them. He would not forget is to-day a standing terror among the crimi­ these lessons in the years ahead. nal classes of Dane County." Nor was this merely election-year rhetoric, for even when La Follette was not running for office the State Journal praised his "able and energetic manner.""" The only dissenting voice in the county, and that an indirect one, was that of "' Belle Case and Fola La Follette, La Follette, the Stoughton Hub, which in 1884 sourly sug­ 1: 52; Issue Calendars for terms mentioned. "''State Journal, May 11, 1881. gested that the salary of the district attorney "" Sun Prairie Countryman, October 12, 26, 1882. be raised to encourage men of higher calibre to "'State Journal, November 2, 1882. seek the post. But the Hub did not mention '"State Journal, October 30, 1884; January 18, 1882. " Hub editorial was reprinted in the Blue Mounds La Follette's name."" Weekly News (Mount Horeb), September 12, 1884, and the Black Earth Advertiser, September 11, 1884.

223 "GOD RAISED US UP GOOD FRIENDS";

ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS IN WISCONSIN

TN 1848 and 1849, interest in emigration painted in the late spring or summer. Their -*- from the British Isles increased with such wanderings in search of employment even­ dramatic suddenness that in the span of these tually took them to Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, two years the number of Scots and English a growing settlement of over four hundred seeking new homes abroad equalled, if it did persons, where they found work and settled not exceed, the number of migrating Irish. down—Frank Johnson for a season, Fred Part of this phenomenon was owing to Par­ Chaney as a permanent resident. In joint let­ liament's repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, ters Fred and Frank extolled the beauty and causing a widespread if unfounded fear of im­ bounty of Wisconsin while urging their wives minent agricultural collapse; part stemmed to lose no time in procuring passage money from recent amendments to the Poor Law, from the parish authorities. making it possible for local parishes to mort­ Further synopsis of events would only spoil gage their rates to finance the emigration of the story which first Fred and Frank, and later the indigent or needy.' the reunited Chaneys, tell with simplicity and Among the thousands of Englishmen who native charm in their letters to their English arrived at American ports in 1849 were two kin. Theirs is a familiar but always heart­ London house painters, Fred Chaney and warming tale which, as it unfolds through Frank Johnson. Each had left behind a wife adult and adolescent observations, adds a sig­ and family with whom—thanks to antici­ nificant footnote to our knowledge of Wiscon­ pated parish aid—each expected to be re­ sin in the making. united once he had established himself in the These letters were called to the attention new world. Leaving England late in August, of the State Historical Society by the Ameri­ they had arrived in New York in the early can Museum in Britain at Bath, to whom type­ autumn, only to discover that New Yorkers, scripts had been lent by Miss Jane Powell of then as now, customarily had their houses Bristol. Except for clarifications in paragraph­ ing and punctuation and the deletion of oc­ casional material of little general interest, the letters are reproduced as they were re­ ceived from Miss Powell, to whose great- great-grandfather they were addressed. The ^ Marcus Lee Hansen, The Atlantic Migration, originals are in the possession of Miss Flo­ 1607-1860 (Harvard, 1941), 265; Stanley C. Johnson, rence Johnson of London. A History of Emigration from the United Kingdom to North America, 1763-1912 (London, 1913) 86-87. W. C. H.

224 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS

[Autumn], 1849 [Autumn], 1849 Dear Ann and Dear Betsey, Dearest Ann, Betsey, Clara and all young ones. We started from London on 24th Augt and We think by this time you [are] anxiously sailed from Portsmouth on 1 Sept, and was waiting to hear from us, we are also anxious 5 Weeks on our Passage. We had a Pleasant to hear from you without one moments de­ Voyage, came to New York and had a look lay. Our last letter we sent did not hold out around. We had the promises of 3 or 4 much comfort for you or us either, but by Houses in a fortnights time. It would not do to the Blessing of a Merciful God we can give wait. We went from New York to Albany you some Good News. We think we have 150 miles. We had no Luck and went on to found the Land of Promise at last, and the Utica 110 Miles further where we now write God of Promises is with us. from. We are rather to late for Business here. I have not room to give any account at pre­ We are now starting for Buffalow. sent of our travels but suffice it to say we Was anxious to let you now our affairs have settled at Fond de Lack, Wisconsin, Unit­ as soon as possible to comfort you a little, ed States America. We came here heavy heart­ and anxious are we to hear how you are in ed after failing all our journey on account for health and circumstances. We feel great con­ being to late for the season here. God raised cern for you, and believe you do the same us up Good Friends. Arrived here on Satur­ for us. I am sorry we could not send better day Night, went to work on Monday, and News, but we would not wait any longer writ­ earned 6£ in American Money in 5 days ing to you. at painting, equal to 3£ in English Money. America is a fine Country. No man in This is a New and Flourishing Town only a Existence can truly describe its beauties. We few Months started." We have plenty of Work wish we were all settled here together, it and likely to continue for Years, but the thing would be the greatest happiness we could Ex­ is this, in all New Places we are forced to perience. God alone knows what he intends work for Barter so we are now working out 50 to do with us. May we have Grace and Faith Dollars for a Town Lot of Ground that will to leave all things in his hands. Build 6 or 8 Houses. We are also working for another Man for Timber to Build your We wish you to get all the News ready for Houses. We are now working for Mr. Ed­ our Next Letter which we hope to send in a wards who is Building a large House for few Days with Directions where to write to Shop. Tell Mr. Vinters he knows him well. us. Remember us to all the Dear Children, He kept the Bakhouse that Child [h]as got give them a kiss apiece for us. Keep up your on the Highway." He was Sectary to the Spirits and we will do the same. It may be Bakers Society. Desire to be remembered to like Old Jacob coming down to Egypt to live. him, tho 5 Thousand Miles of. Give our kind Love to your Mother, John, We have plenty of London cockneys here Henry in particular. Tell him I shall write a and plenty coming every day. This will be long letter to him as soon as we get settled. a fine place for Business soon, so you see we Richard, Wife and Betsy, Charles, Sarah, not forgetting above all Mr. and Mrs. Farrow, Hugh, William, Wife and Children. Yours affectionately.

No more at present from Fred and Frank " In point of fact, Fond du Lac had been granted Dear Betsy, give the babe a kiss for me, Frank. and had adopted a village charter in 1847. In 1852 it was given a city charter. See Maurice McKenna (ed.), I have been to see a Baptiss Member who is Fond du Lac County, Past and Present (Chicago, the largest Painter in this town who came 1912), 1: 183-184. here very low and is now a great Man. He " Fred and Frank experienced the traditional Cock­ ney difficulty with the letter h, a difficulty which was Encouraged us very much by saying when we doubtless apparent in their spoken as well as their once got into Work we should sure to do well written language. Except for the example herewith as we can keep a Famely at half the price of noted, no further attempt will be made to call atten­ tion to missing or superfluous h's in any of the sub­ beggerly England. sequent letters.

225 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

cannot help you to come out. You must di­ world. All our prospects. Work and every­ rectly think about it as it will take some time thing is oweing to them, they long to see you to arrange with the Parishes. You must come all over safe, tho never seen you. Dont forget out about the 1st of March as the lakes are to send particulars upon any account. If you frosen over in Winter. could get plenty of Beads to bring you would Ann and Betsey, you must exert yourselves get a capital price for them here. Clara is with all your Might, you must throw your­ sure to make Money here. self on the Parish or they will not do anything [Unsigned, but probably for you, and that for some time before they also from Fred and Frank] will do any thing for you. If it is St. Lukes Parish go to Mr. Smith, he knows me well, [Autumn], 1849 and see what he can do. If St. Georges go Dear Betsey, and see Mr. Knight the Rope Maker, he knows You can tell Mr. Powell that there is a me well, he is [a] very kind and liberal Man, good prospect here for a man who as got 2 he is the first Man in the Parish, and is sure or 3 Hundred Pounds as he could double it to do what he can. Do not let the parish know in about 12 Months in Buying Land and that you can work at the Needle, as they would Building, as the Houses are let or sold be­ say you could earn your own living. You must fore finished, and will be so for some time push it with all your strength. When you ar­ to come, as this is a thriving town, as a New rive here you will find every thing heart can Canal is cut from this Town to run into the wish, house of your own, no Rent to pay. We Main Rivers to convey goods to all parts. We shall be able no doubt to work out a good have 2 steamers already running on it.'' Land Cow, and to have a Barrell of Flour by that very cheap here, but will soon rise high. Last time. spring there was only 3 Houses in this place, Everything here is very Cheap, 2 days work now there is 3 or 4 Hundred, and next year will keep a Man for a Week. Flour a Barrell will be Treble that. 196 lbs, 16s instead of 32, Butter 4, but that Betsey, you can tell Mr. Powell that had I we shall make ourselves. Tea 2 or 3s per lb. a few Pounds it would be of infinite Value Sugar 3 per Lb, Coffee 6, plenty of Fruits of to me at this time. I am sure I could more all Kinds almost nothing. Meat 2 or 3 per than double it in a few Months. lb, so you see you can never starve in this country. We have heard a Good deal about Give my kind respects to Mrs. Powell and America, but never thought it was like this. Mr. Powell, hope they are quite well. Give a We can look out from our Window over 50 kiss to all the young ones for me, and when Miles of Beautiful country, no place in the you come over I will pay you back again. world to equal America. Plenty work for Your affecly Dress Makers, first rate pay to. F[rank] Johnson Tell Betsey Frank wants her to go to Bun- yan and ask him to send on a slip of paper Deer. 16, 1849 the different Colors for Graining. Tell him to Dearest Betsey, Dearest Children, send the Names of Colors how to Mix them I Received you Letter of 12th Deer., it and for Graining, and Receipts for all Woods. came from England to New York in 13 days Give Frank ['s] kind respects to him. and from New York to me in 11 days more, Now Ann I wish you to be sure to enquire being only 24 in all, this is quick travelling. the prices of the Plush, different sorts and colors for making Mens Caps, also the prices of the Peaks per Dozen of the same, also prices of Threads, Cottons, pins. Needles, etc., which * This is a distorted conception—probably based on are very dear here. Our Landlady Makes local gossip—of the Fox-Wisconsin Improvement Caps, and she will send money over by the project, for which contracts were let in October, 1848. At the time of this letter no canal had been time you come to bring her some. She and cut. The two steamers referred to must have been her Husband are the best Creatures in the operating on Lake Winnebago.

226 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS

I was most happy to hear that you and the kets are very dear here, and any other things dear Children are all well in health. I hope that are not to heavy or cumbersome. You when you receive this you will not lose a day wished me to write about the disturbance with without sending an answer, it is very uncertain the Indians. We have not heard a word about that I shall be able to send another Letter, it. We seldom see any of them, but they are for at this time of Year the Lakes are frose very sociable and Quiet People. over and the Mail has to travel some Hundred We have fine weather here, tho in the Mid­ of Miles on Sledges through the snow, and dle of Winter we have always a clear Sky, by the time my Letter came to England you, Warm Sun, no fogs, and from what I have I hope, will have started, so write immediately seen not so severe as our winters. Nearly all and send all the News you can. our Neibours are English People. You wish me to give you a true account I Remain your Affec. Husband, how I am getting on. When 1 came here 1 F. Johnson found plenty of Work but no Money, it was A PPARENTLY Betsey Johnson obtained the all done in Barter. I have bought a plot of -^*- coveted parish aid, for some time in 1850 Ground and Built a cottage on it. I have paid she arrived in New York where Frank joined part of the Money in Labour, and have to pay her and where they remained. In the summer the rest in Labour. I have been very fortunate of the same year Ann Chaney and her daugh­ since I have been here in getting Work, es­ ters Clara, Eliza, Emma, and Jane, also with pecially has I came just before the Winter parish assistance, sailed for Canada en route set in. Of course I do not care what I do if to join Fred Chaney in Wisconsin. In her 1 dont get work at my own trade. I go to first letters to her family in England Ann gives Labouring work, I have now 3 Jobs in hand, a vivid account of life aboard an immigrant and one is to Work out 2 Waggon Loads of ship and records her first ebullient impres­ Fire Wood, another for a Hundred and Half sions of the strange new world. Clara's first of Flour, another for Wearing Apparel. letter to her grandmother is interesting for its There is plenty of Work, but all must be taken contrast of English and American ways and out in Goods, so you see I can keep 2 Familys for its evidence of the adaptability of a six­ here better than I could keep one in England. teen-year-old London girl to frontier condi­ Good Flour is only 5s English money, pr tions. Hundred Weight, Prime Beef 2 pence pr pound, and every thing else equally low, and no Rent to pay. [August, 1850] Dear Betsey, I feel very anxious to see you My dear Mother, Brother and Sister, come out and hope the Parish Authority will 1 know you are very anxious to hear from be kind enough to help you and the Children me, as 1 expect you have not herd of the ves­ for to come. I feel very thankful to hear they sel. We left Hatton Garden at ten o'clock on have acted so kind towards you, and that you the 3rd August for the Railway Station, and have been so comfortable and also that the left there at twelve for Blackwall where [we children are with you. Should be very Glad were met by] some of the Ladies and Gents, to hear if y^our Confinement was over. I feel and a widow as sub-Matron. She was not very anxious about you. Do not fail to send with them. She had aplied for her passage all particulars as to the time of coming out. within the last two days of leaving London. I would advise you by all means to come out All eyes was upon her. She was a respectable in the Middle of March. The ship will not be looking person, but disguised by licour. All so crowded. There will not be any sickness the Girls took a dislike to her." She was very or fever that is some times the case through the Hot Weather. ^ Apparently Ann Chaney was in charge of a party of young women being assisted by the parishes to Dear Betsey save all the Means you are emigrate to Canada to seek employment, probably able as it will cost a good bit to bring you as domestics. From the context it would appear that from New York to me. You had better bring the woman "disguised by licour" was either to serve as Ann's subordinate or was in charge of a similar all the Bed and Bedding you can, as Blan­ group of female emigrants.

227 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 bussy telling them she would see them done Downs, the weather being rough, cast anchor well by, and asking the Gentlemen for instruc­ and sailed earley on Monday morning. We tions. They treated her very cool, and told was all getting very sick while the vessel is her I would give them her. Mr. Quickett, af­ getting out of the Chanel, it is fact about the ter paying for the Children to Toronto, paid sails being shipt very often, the sailors shout­ me over eight pounds. We joined the Ship at ing and tossing about the Deck. The Car­ Gravesend, and the Gentry left us there. The penter came to make the boxes fast, the water Government Oficer ordered the Steward to cans tied. cook us some beef steaks and Mr. Blackey I appointed two Cooks, but the convenience looked dagers at him. Last fresh meat we was very bad. A bad Cook, a littel Black man. had. We have biscuit eat like baked sawdust, fresh We sailed from Gravesend at 4 on Sunday water stinking, pudding boiled in salt water morning. I went on deck and en j old an hour and not half done, peas and rice the same, there, being a delightful morning. At 6 the and hard salt beef. The Girls get disatisfied provisionry was given out for the week for with their food. Some of them are bold low the whole party — biscuits, rice, peas, tea, creatures, and to get order is quite impossible. sugar, pork, beef, plumbs and [ ? ] soup, My cooks very ill. The Docter divided the cheese and butter. Fancy all this stuff in my party into four meses, each cook for them- little Cobard with the addition of this troble- self. This relieved me very much. I was very some nuisance. I get Dinner in the best way sick and low part of the time, but I think if we could, being very troblesome to get it I could have enjoid my food I should have cooked. been very well. I ham very well now. The The pilot left us on Sunday evening at the Children are all very well. Littel Jean has

On the better immigrant vessels, steerage passengers were provided with mess tables in the passageway between the rows of bunks, as shown in this drawing from Edwin C. Guillet, The Great Migration (New York, 1937).

228 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS been the best Sailour and a general Favourate Brother had been there, we had been expected in particular with the Black Steward. these three weeks. I would not have sent Now my dear Mother, we are getting very [this letter?] till we got to Toronto, but I tired of the sea, the wether very rough and know you are anxious. I shall long to hear contrary winds. I lay in my birth and listen, from you. We are near Quebec. try to listen, but I cannot distinguish such a 1 have just been on deck and the sight very confusion of noises. The sea roars, the waves impresing. We seam encircled by land and dash against the vesel with such force you the slopes up from the water, and laid out would think it had struck against a rock. butifuly, houses with slated roofs, and we Then it would heave from one side to the see a great water fall. other. Boxes slip, tins and sugar, treacle, rice, [Unsigned, but probably cheese, plumbs and everything we had dashed from Ann Chaney] about, the vesel cracking and groaning you would think it must devide or sway under the water. [September, 1850] My very dear Mother, We had several squals. The men said our ship is the dryest they have sailed in, and she I know you are very anxious to hear of me, rode through the squals bravely. We had two and 1 am also very anxious to let you know 1 or three nights and days of this sort, and a am very greived to hear how you was moved. day or so quit calm. You can have no idea Well, 1 will give a sketch from Quebec. of the beauty of the sky when the sun sets. We met Mr. a'Court [Harcourt?] there and I [never?] saw anything so beautifuU, the sea he accompanyed us, providing cabin fair to deep blue, and sometimes on looking over the Toronto. The weather was very [good?] and side of the vesel can see very curious fish, the views along very beautiful. In two or some like a flat round with a bright cross three days the Girls was provided with places. up them, and other different forms, and when I wrote to Fredrick the day 1 arrived there, the sea is rough great monsters seem to play and waited three weeks and no answer. in the waves. 1 was treated with great kindness, but still Now we are about to enter the Gulf. This I could not stop any longer, so I packed up night was awful, the rain poured in to tor­ and started at a venture at two o'clock in the rents, and the wind blew huricans. The water, afternoon, and passed Niagra Fawls that all thoe the atch was on which all most stifold night. We had left the boat and was in horse us, was pouring down. 1 herd the Cheif Mail cars. The night was dark and we could but tell the people in the sterage that he did not hear the tremendous roar of the waters and think one of us could see the morning, but see the white foam to a Great Hight. We stopt thank God mercies came, but the hurican [at?] Keep Chipawea [?] 7 miles from there, continued. The vesel was on its side. The sai­ from there to Buffalo by steam boat, from lors [said?] had that occured in the night there to Detroit. Stopt at a Dashing Hotel we must have been lost. In the afternoon the till morning, then by rail to New Buffalo. storm seased to a calm. Now the pilot came Waited till three in the morning, the boat on board, this caused much excitement, but being full, was thought I should not go, he had joined us two hundred miles beyond but the lugage was at the last minute put on his station. He had been out some time look­ board. I had left the Children with a woman ing for us. on the warf who had promised to not to We enter the river St. Lorance, here we wait leave them, and Clara and me sought the for the tide. The senery is delightfull. At goods. The boat pushed into the lake and last disernible the numerus little hills scatered I thought all was wright but presently found at the slopes near the water by milk white the Children was left on the warf and ran houses, and the boats come along side. Now about like one mad to find the Captain. He we are at dock near the quarintine ground, was on the second deck. He said they would and if we was not in elth we should have to be sent to me. He tried to get from me, and stop some time there. Mrs. Sidney Herbert's went down the roaps, 1 went down the roaps as

229 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 well as he, and I was left there with the He was expecting us. He had received and Children, and Clara and the lugage went on answered my letter but I had not received it. to Chicago. I went by the next boat, and found Frederick toke me to see several people all Clara at a respectable hotel, where we all who was very glad to see me, and are very stopt that night, then we left there for Milwa- friendly, and we have several visits. cke late at night, and was to go the next There is very little money here, but traid morning. We went to the warf, the boat was to one with the other. There are stores and they full and we could not go that day. [have] every thing, and you have bills on The next morning we went on board and these stores and take what you want. I have the boat put out into the lake but the weather been to one of the largest stores who deal was to rough to procede. The third morning largely in Close, and has promised me work, we left Milwake for Sheboggan. There we and we I do think may be comfortable. Fred­ stopt one night, then toke a team to go to rick has agreed part material for a better Fondulake which was forty five miles. house wich is to be done in the Spring. We started this distance, was all through My dear Mother, only for the thort that a wood. The trees have been cut down to make we are so far apart I am very comfortable a road, and a queer road it was, over stumps and my helth is much improved. We are all of trees and stones, down steaps, up hills, mud, in good helth. and then you come to a hole partly piled up I have been here five days before 1 sent with sticks, then to a great swamp and bodys this, that 1 might send you all the news I of trees put cross to form a road." So you could. I gave Mr. a'Court your address. He may think this was very rough riding, but assured me he would call on you. He is Sir thoe the morning was frosty we was not the Sidney Herbert Wifes Brother. He expected least cold, the sun out and the weather bright to be in England in three months. and pleasant, and plenty of Buffalo skins to Fredrick had a letter from Frank a few rap our feet in. These woods are not days ago. He has some work at New York and drery as you would think — hear and there he thinks to come to Fondulack next Spring. is a open space, been cleared, and a few cot­ They are all well. tages. A few miles further and another or two. There are several taverns in this wood. Now my dear Mother and Brothers and Sis­ We stopt one night at a log tavern, you can­ ter except our sesear [sincere?] love from not get through in one day. your affectionate Daughter and family. Love to John, hope him and his mother is com­ 1 met with a young man in Milwake who fortable. knew Fredrick and directed me to the spot. A. F. and C. Chaney It is in the lower vilage. On a prary ground, there is no trees close, but at a littel distance We have a pig near ready to kill and three there is plenty of woods. Well, we was directed others not quite ready. I was in Milwakey over the Bridge, then we was shone his Shan­ three days and nights. I received five pounds ty. We drove to the door of this most splend of Mr. a'Court and spent all I had in travel­ [id] cottage. It was a wooden house with two ling. Please to remember me to Mr. and Mrs. windows in it, and one good sized room and Venters and Helen and [H?]inton. 1 could one small with two bed steds the old Chap have called on Mr. [H?]intons famely if I manufactured himself. He was not at home. had known there adress. His nearest neighbour came and insisted on us going to her house to dinner, and sent for him. December, 1850 Dear Grandmother, Thinking by this time that you and Uncle John will be saying Ah Clara is gone and for­ got all about us, but I hope not to deserve this " A road between Sheboygan and Fond du Lac had acuseasation, but I thourt it better to defer been opened in 1838, but it was not until 1852 that writing a few weeks after Mother's letter. the plank road was completed. See McKenna (ed.), Fond du Lac County, I: 183-184. Dear Grandmother, we had rather a rough

230 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS

passage across the ocean but we enjoyed our­ selves very much barring the difficulties we met with, but Mother says she should know better how to manage if she had to travel again, and we should not think much of such a journey again. The steamers here are very large, some seem like little towns, some have three decks and down stairs. Lower Canada such as Montreal, Kingston and Quebec are peopled by French Canadians. They are a fine Tall shrewd looking set of men. I will give you a small description of Toronto. The first place on landing is Front Street which runs all along the side of the Lake, the other streets running in squares out of it. The pavement and roads of Toronto are of wood. There are a great many churches here, and the tops of them and some of the houses are of tin. The houses are principal­ ly painted white and form a very pretty con­ trast with the green latticed shutters. There is a great many fine shops, provisions is cheap, meat 2d a pound, apples 4 a cent, peaches 2 for 3 cents. Clothing to dear, we Sleeping quarters aboard an immigrant vessel; an illustration from Maldivyn Allen Jones, American bought some unbleached calico 8 pence per Immigration (Chicago, 1960). yard, what you would buy for 4 pence. There is police as it is under the English Government. There is a nice market but they are building a new one. Mother took me to there pay. There is the Frames of several see the old one. They have bills stuck up wigwams which mother has been to see. They against the new one saying that they were 8 go up in the woods in the winter and come thousand in debt and that it would only be here and hunt for Fish in the summer. If increasing the [poverty?] of the poor while it they want some Tobaco and you give them was increasing the property of the rich. Every some they are sure to bring some Cranberries english shilling goes for 15 pence and a six­ or Fish as a present. They paint there faces pence they call a york shilling. There cop­ red and have a sort of a Blanket dress. The per money is called penny and coppers which sqaws as they call the women do most of the is a halfpenny, but in the States there is dol­ work. They are very ingenious, they talk the lars and dimes, half dollars and half dimes, Indian language but most of the old settlers and cents is the only copper money. 8 shill­ can understand them enough to trade with ings goes for a dollar, which is 4 english them. Father is known all over Fondulac and shillings, one shilling of your money being all came to see and welcome us. We like the 2 shillings here. The women of Toronto and place and the People very much, we think the suburbs come to market in teams and them free and generous and they seem willing sell there produce. They wear green veails, to lend you any assistance they can. For in­ all the middling classes. stance they will help Father with his house I have no more room for anything else about which he is getting the timber for now. We Toronto as I must say something about Fond have to take all the work we do out in bar­ du Lac. Fond du lack formerly belonged to ter. Mother as made 2 coats for Mrs. Hornby the Indians. The Government has bought the which we take out in firewood. Mother as land of them and they come yearly to recover 6 and 8 shillings and pence for of this money,

231 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 and a dollar goes much further here than it kalaclate on many pleasant visits. The winter would in England. Harricot beans a dollar last about six months, snowing and freeseing, a Bushel. Father brought home for half dol­ snowing and freeseing all the winter. lar 2 pounds of sugar, quarter of a pound of Dear grandmother, the stoves are very dif­ tea, a pound and % of coffee, this seemed a ferent here to what they are at home, they are good deal to us for 2 english shillings. We in sort of iron box with oven and a pipe going have to roast and grind our own coffee, bake up through the ceiling. They mostly stand in our own Bread. We mostly have meat for the middle of the room and throw out a great Breakfast. The Yankees generally live well, heat. There is no coals burnt here, all wood. we have three meals a day, they [call?] the The men go up in the woods to get it, and chop third Supper. They do not have 3 trays like or saw it at there own place. they do in england, they have apple sauce, We killed the sow and salted it down, now preserves, meat and several kinds of cakes we have three young ones left which Father on the Table at one time. At every meal they means to keep. We give them very little food. have tea or coffee. Dear Grandmother, 1 They run about the prairies and pick up any­ think you may see it is much easier to get on thing they can eat. Sometimes they will go here than in england. We are in expectation away for days together. of a rail road coming near us in the spring, Dear Grandmother, when you write again which will make the place very Flourishing please to put James Frederick instead of Mr. and money more plentiful. We are invited Chaney as the letters stop at the post office to dinner Christmas day by that mans brother until called for, and they make a peice of that mother took the letter for. Mother and work if they are not directed so. I went with a person from England who are Dear Grandmother, I have not room for any Cabinet makers in the Town to see Mrs. Smiths more, but hope you will write directly you re­ farm who are also english. These Smiths have ceive this, and 1 will write directly I receive not been here two years, they came without your answer. We are all in good health, as a penny but now they are in a Flourishing we hope you are also. Mother and Father condition. They rent the farm at 2 hundred send their love to you and Uncle John, Uncle dollars a year, but there corn that they grow Charles, Aunt Sarah, Phil, Sally and the baby pays there rent and a hundred dollars over. and all inquiring frends. The children send They have 14 cows, 10 calves, and 2 sheep, their love. 23 pigs, 20 fowls. They have 100 acres of I am your ever affectionate [grand] daugh­ land, 50 in cultivation and the rest in pasture. ter Clara Chaney. They made us very welcome.' I made a Chro- chet cap for which we take out in butter. We March 1st, 1851 have several invitations to different farmers when it is good sleaighing, that will be when Dear Mother and Charles, the snow gets a little deeper on the ground. We received your last letter and was very The frost set in about the begining of De­ sorry to hear you was so poorly, we hope you cember, it was very severe for a few days, are better. We should be glad to have a long and frose the lakes and rivers up. The letter from you. If you cannot write it, ask weather is dry and clear and fine sunshiny Charles to send us a long letter. weather. Teams which are drawn by oxen We thought you would like to know how and mools, sleaighs, cutters, all cross the river we are getting on. We are all in good health, and lakes on the ice. The inhabitants look thank the Lord, Ann, Emma and Clara are forword with pleasure to deep snow and getting fatter than my Pigs, and no wonder if you could see how they go into it. Plenty to Eat and plenty fine fresh Air. Eliza and Jane are growing very fast and in good health. We have just agreed with a Carpenter to put "^ Other families of early English settlers were the our House up, we have got the principle of Burletons, Shuttleworths, Halls, and Whitmores. See the Materials and expect to have it up very History of Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin (Chicago, 1880), 387. shortly. We are going to have the Ground

232 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS plowed up and sown with Potatoes, Greens, across the Land about Two Thousand Miles etc., which will supply us through the Season. from this part of America. By Sea it is Nine­ We have 3 Pigs and all in thriving condition, teen Thousand Miles. I do not think 1 shall expecting every day to be confined. I hope ever go there. we shall have a Score of Young ones. We We have nearly got rid of the Indians, they have been pretty well off for Work, the will receive their last payment from the Gov­ Weather is now very fine and we expect to be ernment the latter end of this Year, as the very Busy this summer. We have had a very Government Bought them out. They will have fine Winter, not too Cold, we all stood it like to go a Hundred Miles further west, but they trumps. are very Quiet peaceable and Good Natured, We have just received a letter from Frank we never hear any bad accounts of them.'" and was very glad to hear he was doing very They are what are called Civilised, but fur­ Comfortable, and expects this summer to do ther West and South they are Savage, Mur­ better still. He has written to us to say if we derous and Cruel. They bring into the Town was not doing well where we are to go up to a good deal of Venison, Sugar, Honey, Fish, New York, he believes we should do well there. etc., etc. We expect we shall have a Railway But as a rolling stone gathers no moss we think running through our Town this Summer, if we can do better hear at least we intend giv­ so it will be a busy place. We all like the ing it a fair trial. We shall have no Rent to Country well, we have no wish to return to pay here, can grow all our own vegetables, Old England again, altho some say with all her and fatten the principle of our Meat. All this faults they love her still — Trash — Trash — we must pay for at New York. We have several certainly we should like to see Old Friends good Ministers here and several Chapels, they and Old Faces, but as that cannot be, God are now Building one within a quarter of a grant we may all Meet together in Heaven. Mile of us, Congregationist." Our Neighbours It is a Beautiful Country, I have travelled are all very kind and we [get] many invita­ about 16 Hundred Miles from East to West, tions .... and Ann has travelled about the same distance We have heard and read a good deal about from North to West. We have seen some fine the Worlds Fair, we have just seen a Hansome Citys and Towns, and has to the Views of Engraving of it Gilt in Gold." Suppose it will Scenery it cannot be surpassed, if it can be be a spendid [sic] Affair. equalled anywhere. Frank says he has written two Letters to We all join in our best love and Esteem to England and received no answer. He has lost you and all Friends and Remain his last young one 11 months old. I think the Yours Affectly California Mania is now at an end. We hear J. F. Chaney of Numbers that have starved to Death there, P.S. and Numbers that have perished in coming Dear Grandmother, home. The Oregon Fever as now started and We are very uneasy about you being so Numbers are going from this part of Ameri­ poorly, we wish we could run in and see you, ca, there, they are giving 320 acres of Land but as that cant be we are very anxious to to all that go there. It is 6 Months travelling hear from you and we have delayed this long-

* Actually, the Congregational Church was com­ " In October, 1848, the Menominees reluctantly pleted in 1850 and occupied in March of that year, signed a treaty relinquishing the last Indian-owned even though the interior was as yet unfinished. Fred land in Wisconsin and agreed to move to a reser­ Chaney may have been involved in the painting and vation on the upper Mississippi. Regretting their final decoration which may have extended into 1851. decision immediately, they stalled on leaving Wiscon­ " For an account of this world-renowned exposition sin. The reference here is probably to those Meno­ see Dorothy J. Ernst, "Daniel Wells, Jr.: Wisconsin minees in the Fond du Lac area who delayed their Commissioner to the Crystal Palace Exhibition of departure as long as possible. See Alice E. Smith, 1851," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 42: James Duane Doty: Frontier Promoter (Madison, 243-256 (Summer, 1959). 1954), 324.

233 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 er than we ought to have done, expecting to have received my last Letter since you wrote have some Money to post it; since Father to us, which will give you a pretty good ac­ wrote this letter he as traded for a calf and count how we are getting on. some fowls, the calf ten months old. 1 made We have bought the Pickets to fence our six dollars. I hope you have received the Ground and are going to sow it directly. Our paper we posted lor you, and if you like we Pigs are increased so many, we have been will send them monthly, as we receive them. forced to part with a good many. Hour Calf Money is the scarsest thing here, but it is said is doing well and will soon make us a fine there will be a bettter circulation of money Cow. We are still Busy in Work and doing soon as they are Building a bank and numer- very Comfortable. rous other improvements." Dear Grandmother, We have received another Letter from you would be delighted to see what beautiful Frank, they are still doing exceedingly well weather it is, the Birds singing round all day and wish us to go to New York, but to live long. The rivers abounds in Fish and the in our own House we think better than paying woods in venison and poultry which the yan- so much Rent, and growing our own Vege­ kees are very expert in catching without any tables, Meat, Milk and Butter is much better. restriction for fear of gamekeepers. Remem­ Betsy says she was never so well of in her ber A. M. Smith and all friends. life as she is now. They say that they have Yours affectionate Clara. wrote twice to England and received no an­ Dear Aunt, we should be glad of a long let­ swer, their address is 19 State Street, Brook­ ter from you, I wish you would come and lyn, New York. We have received a Letter spend a day with us and bring the children, from Mrs. Farrows Daughter, they are all I think Phil would be delighted. Let him much delighted with the Country, Arnold has bring his gun. Kind love to Uncle and Cous- been constantly employed since he came. They are all Well in Health, and wish me to write them a description of our part of the Coun­ May 6, 1851 try, has it is talked very much of where they are. She writes to say you called on Mrs. Dear Mother, Farrow which we was glad to hear. We received your last letter and 2 News­ [Unsigned, but probably Fred] papers for which we are much obliged, but was very sorry to hear you are so very Poor­ ly. We hope to hear in your next long letter My Dear Mother, you wish to know how that you are much better. Religious affairs go on with us. We have I have no doubt but we received all your several Good Chaples in the uper town, but Letters. I am very sorry to think you should on account of the Wether and bad roads we take that Horrowbel Letter as you call it so could seldom get there, but we where not de­ much to heart, as I have wrote so many let­ stitute, though we had no Chaples in the lower ters to say how well we are getting on and how town. We have several excelent Ministers, and Comfortable we are. I hope you will not make many Good Familys, one belonged to Hoxton. any trouble about us any more for when once A [religious?] servis has been held in the in America no one will ever want for any School rooms during the winter, prayr meet­ thing if they are willing to Work, and if they ings has been held hat the Docters house, and are not able to Work the Yankees have bet­ now he has filed up his barn for further ac­ ter hearts than the English, and would never commodation till a Large Chapel wich is see any body want, but would readily help Building shall be finished. Clara is about to them in any part of America. I suppose you join the Sunday School as Teacher. Be assured my Dear Mother all has bean ordered for the best by one who knows what is best for us. Could we have had a pece of Land and a very nice House partly built, " The Exchange Bank was organized by Keyes A. several pigs, a Calf wich will come in a cow Darling and John A. Eastman in 1850. It later failed. See McKenna (ed.). Fond du Lac County, 1: 238. next somer? We are all in health. Could we

234 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS have been so in England? I do not regret to ask his brother to call on you which we coming, only I want to see my dear Mother have since heard he as done, or we should and All of you, John, Charles, Sarah and the have written before. We are very sorry to Children, but this cant be. hear that you are so unhappy, I often think [Unsigned, but probably Ann] you would be quite comfortable here. We are sorry to hear of Uncle Charles Illness and hope [June, 1851?] he is quite recovered, and also Aunt, I hope My dear Mother, she has recovered. You must not think I am indiferant to your I am Real glad that you have been out in affairs for I most earnestly wish to know how the Country. I could not endure to be shut you are placed. I was in hopes Mr. a'Court up in a town from Morning to Night after had called on you, and if so was sure you living here on the open praries. would have been benefited by his Gentleman­ We are very glad to hear that Uncle John ly Benevolance. Pray let me know. I wrote as so far recovered, and trust that he will get to Canada but received no answer. Please quite Hearty and Robust. We have not heard remember me to all Freinds. Should like you from Uncle Frank lately, our last two Letters to see Mrs. Farrow, tell her I hope they will remain unanswered. We have heard from Mrs. forgive me for slighting them in writing, but Arnold, she called on Uncle while on a Visit I will do so yet. to New York. Uncle had been poorly but had The children have grown very much. Clara recovered and they were all doing well. He is Biger than myself, Eliza biger than Emma. had bought a lot, and was building. Mrs. A. They have just come from School and are thinks of returning to England for the bene­ going to gather Straburys. fit of her health. I must close, with my love to you and John. We have had such times here, they have I hope he raised up to Cheer your Darling. made Fond du Lack a city and there has been Your Affectionate Daughter great excitement with the Olectionering (and Ann Chaney Father has become a Citizen). They are mak­ Tell Aunt Sarah that I shall have the Fam­ ing great improvements here now it is a City ily Heralds sent from a Frend up town who — side walks, plank roads, and to get it plas­ as them every week from England. tered [ ? ], 1 will send a sketch of it in my next Give my love to all enquiring Friends, letter. And the Mayor is going to bring Uncle John, Uncle Charles, Aunt Sarah and steam boats right up the river. The Rail Cousins, and to Uncle Richard and Aunt Road is going Ahead. Mr. Walker as been to Jane, and Uncle William and Aunt Jane, if England to get Loans for that purpose and you see them. Mrs. Venters and Mrs. Hinton, has Returned successful.'" People say the Mrs. Jones. towns will soon join, for buildings are going I am afraid you wont be able to make out this scrawl. Accept a kiss from each of the Children and 2 from me. '^ Robert James Walker was a former Senator from I am your Mississippi and former Secretary of the Treasury. Affectionately [grand] Child In 1851, a company headed by John B. Macy and T. L. Gillet of Fond du Lac and A. Hyatt Smith of Clara Chaney Janesville, began work on the Rock Valley Railroad, whose first engine, weighing fifteen tons, was shipped I have heard from Eliza Sanders and she by Lake steamer to Sheboygan and thence hauled sent me a Isinglass Card of the Exhibition, and overland by teams of oxen and horses to Fond du some Knitting Receipts. She as been very sick Lac. In 1853, after only fifteen miles of track had been laid, the company was reorganized under the and lost all her beautiful hair. name of the Chicago, St. Paul, and Fond du Lac Railway (later the Chicago and North Western). Walker, a stockholder, was one of a group interested June 24, 1852 in joining the road to a proposed railway from the Dear Grandmother, head of Lake Superior to Puget Sound, to be financed jointly by the U.S. and British governments. See We received your letter about four weeks Smith, James Duane Doty, 327-328; McKenna (ed.), after your date. Mother got Mr. Burroughes History of Fond du Lac County, 186.

235 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 up Rapidly. I guess I told you in the last let­ plenty of work and so have we. Father is ter that Father bought a heifer, gave 5 dollars painting out at a place called Empire about for her. He as sold it for 9 dollars and bought 8 miles off. a Cow, gave 14 dollars in trade. She calved You say there was Rumors of war, here but Father knocked the Calf on the head as it every thing is perfect peace and Tranquillity. did not get along very well, and took all the And we were congratulated ourselves that New Milk, so we have plenty of Milk now and Wherever there was War we were in Safty. plenty of Butter which latter we make our­ We often see a English paper and the Ameri­ selves. What Milk Remains we use for cheese can Publications give all the Political News and to make Biscuits. We have had rather a of England. I am sorry to say we did not Re­ severe Winter but it [is] a delightful Spring. ceive your last Paper, I cant account for not We have got all our garden planted. It con­ receiving it. tains Potatoes, Beans, Pease, Summer and I hope Uncle John liked the Book Mark I Winter Squash, Beet, Pumkins, Mush and sent him in my last letter. Water Melons, Citrons, Carrots, Parsnip and I wrote to Mrs. Venters Sister Ellen but have Cucumber, onions and Lettuce and Cabbage. received no answer, if you would please to re­ An a nice lot of Tomatoes and a little Indian mind her of it. I should like to know if Mr. Corn which is Real good to eat green. a'Court called on you as he promised us he I have a Flower bed, but I mean to have a would, and if Uncle Hugh as called. If you see First Rate one next year as we have got the him tell him I mean to write according to ground Fenced in front of the House. And if Promise soon — Mother as an Aversion to you will be so kind as to put one or few Flo­ writing and I would write to Miss Lathery if wer seeds in your next letter, if you have got I thought it would be acceptable, and also to a few by you, I shall be Real glad and I will Mrs. Farrow, but as Mother promised 1 dont send you some wild Flower Seeds in Return, know how it would be Received. some of which are very beautiful. The Children all go to the district school I should like to interduce you to some of where they teach them everything that is our friends up town. Mrs. Johnson, Mr. and necessary. Grammar, Geography, Arithmatic, Mrs. Barret. They come from Bexley Heath, and Writing, Composition, etc., etc. We have they would just like to have a chat with you been hireing Rooms during the Winter at 50 as they have seen your Likeness. They are Cents per week, but now we have got into Friendly, blunt and Fiery Old Folks. He is our Building. We expect to get it Finished Deacon of the Babtists Church. Then there this Fall. is Mr. and Mrs. Higgs, daughter of Mrs. B. I had a fine Sleaigh Rid 8 miles out in the They are Shoe Makers and is doing a thriv­ country. We are all in excellent health. Mother ing business, keeps 8 hands. Then there is Mr. and all. Higgs sister, and she is free and kind. She [Unsigned, but probably from Clara] is an old Maad and Rather fidgetty. Then there is a brother William, but I have declined his attentions so we are not very friendly. May 29, 1853 There is another married Daughter of Mrs. Dear Brother and all the Family, Bs who thinks some of returning to England. I Reed your kind Letter and was glad to Well there is a great many more but I have hear you was all well, as we are the same, not got room for them, these are Trustees of thanks to God. You say you have written 3 the New Babtist Chapel that is building up Letters, 1 have reed only 2, never mind, 1 town which we attend. They have had an ex­ should like to hear from you as soon as you cursion on the Lake for the Benefit of the can. I am very sorry to hear you still suffer Chapel, 1 dollar a ticket and the Members so much from the Gout. Thank God we keep providing a dinner. Father was out in the clear of that and all other Diseases. Tell Hugh Country Painting so he could not go, and he could do well in America. 1 have no doubt Mother would not go without he went. I the Taylors are doing well here, and making might have gone, I staid at home. Father as Property fast. If he should come, let him

236 ENGLISH IMMIGRANTS first try New York, that is a Great City and John, Charles and famely. Remember me to a vast deal of Tayloring done there, and if Hill and Eliza, Mrs. Baker, Betsy, Bill and he did not like that, he could get Work here. family. Many English and Yankees have left here and gone to California and Australia. Four Dear Dick, Ships have now arrived from those Places Tell Henry I feel hurt he never writ. I loaded with people glad to get back to Ameri­ should like to know how he is getting on. I ca, in a starving condition. should like to have a long Letter from him We could not see why you should laugh so with all the News, how Mr. and Mrs. Farrow much about Clara. She is in her 19th Year are, Mr. Spearing and Wife, Charles Chaney and is a Woman Grown. She is now Mrs. and all the News he can. Tell Henry to be Hulse, a Respectable Young Farmer, as got careful of his Money to make Hay while the a Large Farm and plenty of good Cattle, and Sun shines, if he lives to be a Old Man he in fact the Yankee is a first rate Chap, the may be glad to come to America as I was. I kindest and best of Husbands as all the Yan­ wish I had come 20 or 30 Years sooner. I kees really are. should have been a good Man now. I believe I have given you all the News I can at present. Tell your Engineer that he is much to blame Write me as soon as you can and I will send to stop in England if he cant do well. He can, more. I have no doubt, get Work in any of the States of [America?] that was upwards of 30 En­ I still Remain gineers, Boiler Makers, Blacksmiths etc., came Yours Very Affectionately out with us who all got Work directly. Tell Brother Fred him to come first to New York and if he dont succeed at first there is plenty of other Large OEVEN years after this last letter in the Cities here. Our Fond du Lack is growing ^ series was written, Fred was sixty years very fast. It is now a thriving City Incorporat­ old and Ann was fifty. Continuing in his ed, several Smiths Shops and a Good Foun­ trade of house painter, he had managed to dry, a Railway running through the City, accumulate real estate to the value of $400. and promises to be a Great place in a few Ann continued to preside over the household, years. The Lake Winabago runs within 500 which in 1860, with Clara long since married, yards of my House with Steamers, Boats, etc. included Emma, Eliza, and fourteen-year-old Their is plenty of Iron to be got. The Earth Jane, who had been a favorite on the immi­ is full of Chalk and Sand close at hand. In grant ship bringing the Chaneys to their Amer­ all parts of America Salt is plentiful, and as ican destinies. to Clay, dig 2 feet down and the whole earth is Clay. With the passage of another decade Fred had retired, and his real estate holdings had Give our kindest respects to Mr. Brown and increased to $1,500. Ann was still the home- his Family, tell him we can never forget his maker. Eliza, who apparently had inherited kindness, we are sorry to hear of poor Stevens, her mother's facility with the needle, had set if you see him, remember us kindly to him. herself up as a seamstress. Jane, now Jennie, We have plenty of work in the summer but was one of Fond du Lac's forty-seven school­ the winter is rather dull for painting. How­ teachers, earning a salary which averaged ever, we get along pretty well. We have a $402.38 annually. Emma, like Clara, had dis­ good House just finished with all kinds of appeared from the public records, as did the Vegetables. We have thought of selling out whole Chaney family after 1870." and going on a Farm. We think it would be a more certain and profiteful for Winter as well as Summer. Pray see Mrs. Johnson and tell her all you know, and Ann is writing a long letter to '"Manuscript Censuses, 1860, 1870, in the State Historical Society of Wisconsin library; History of her, in her own hand. Hope she is well as also Fond du Lac County (1880), 594.

237 All photos supplied by the author

Trinity Lutheran Church in Milwaukee, designed by Frederick Velguth and built in 1878 of cream-colored brick.

POINTED ARCHES AND BUTTRESSED WALLS: Gothic Stylism in Wisconsin Architecture

By RICHARD W. E. PERRIN period of scholastic thinking in the Church and at a time of profound social and economic T?OR nearly four hundred years Gothic ar- change in Western Europe. In addition to -*- chitecture dominated Western European meeting the need for enclosing large interior culture. Originating in northern France about spaces for public gatherings and worship, the 1160, the style spread rapidly across England Gothic style lent itself admirably to the intri­ and the Continent and eventually found its cate, theological programs for sculpture and way into Scandinavia, Central Europe, the stained glass devised by scholarly clerics of Near East, and finally even into the New the time. By thus fulfilling iconographical as World. By 1400 Gothic had become virtually well as social requirements, the Gothic church the exclusive style of building in the Western was not only a monument but also the bearer world, and architects applied it to town halls, of a complex statement of theological doc­ palaces, hospitals, and public buildings as well trine. Medieval man, with his attitude of self- as to bridges, fortifications, and other secular effacement, regarded God's earthly temple as structures. But it was in the service of the a symbol of the Heavenly City of Jerusalem. Church that Gothic attained its fullest expres­ The Gothic expression of this doctrine was a sion. monument that seemed to dwarf the man who In the first place, the Church was the entered it. Space, light, and sculptural effects wealthiest and most prolific builder of the of the masonry were so organized as to pro­ Middle Ages, providing the widest scope for duce a transcendental and awesome character, the development of architectural concepts and visionary in scale. This visionary character demanding the best in skills and talents. Sec­ expressed not only the physical and spiritual ondly, Gothic architecture evolved during a needs of the Church, but also the general atti-

238 GOTHIC STYLISM tude of the people and the aspirations of the Interestingly enough, these timbered church- individual patron and architect.^ roofs seem to derive from the great monastic The first introduction of Gothic architecture barns of the Middle Ages, which in turn sug­ from northern France into other parts of gest that the whole design basis of Gothic Europe began late in the twelfth century, and architecture—nearly always regarded as a the first buildings erected in Germany, Italy, phenomenon of stone construction—may have and Spain were obviously importations, modi­ had its origins in Northern European timber fied and assimilated according to local tastes buildings.^ and traditions. The monastic orders, particu­ Italy never became famous for its Gothic larly the Cistercians, generally built in a fair­ architecture. Arriving late, it had to compete ly uniform manner wherever they established with the marvelous remains of Roman work, themselves, thereby playing a vital role in the the great Romanesque churches, and the mag­ dissemination of vaulted construction. While nificent monuments of Byzantine inspiration. French influences are to be seen in all Gothic Even more significantly, the Renaissance had work, there were profound regional differences already begun in Italy and its architects were from the beginning. English architects with at work reviving and reinterpreting the beau­ their Romanesque preference for strong linear ties of classic antiquity. Italian Gothic, more patterns and walls of great depth never seemed often than not, became simply a system of sur­ to appreciate fully the carefully developed face decoration unrelated to Gothic structural French principles of weights and strains con­ principles, but in the process came to be exe­ verging at isolated points upon slender verti­ cuted in colored marbles and freely interpreted cal piers and counterbalancing buttresses, by Italian architects. In domestic and palace with the resultant stone skeleton of columns, architecture, Italian Gothic had no parallel in props, and ribs upon which were to rest shells the rest of Europe." Unlike France and Eng­ of stone vaulting. In all English work there land, medieval Italy was not a united nation is a preoccupation with over-all surface pat­ but an aggregation of a few powerful city tern rather than with the co-ordination of pat­ states, which resulted architecturally in what tern, bay design, and spatial concepts." Eng­ was essentially a civic style. Ducal palaces lish Gothic, despite discernible foreign influ­ and town halls were the principal expressions. ences, reveals fundamental similarities of ap­ The churches had none of the mystical quality proach to architectural forms that are often of French and English cathedrals. the antithesis of Continental harmonics and In Germany, a multiplicity of small and re­ must therefore always be characterized as Eng­ latively independent states also militated lish. As in all times, the availability of ma­ against a national architecture during the Mid­ terials played an important part in the devel­ dle Ages. The transformation from Roman­ opment of design limits, especially in re­ esque to Gothic had taken place in Eng­ mote districts where financial resources also land and France in the twelfth century. Ro­ were not as abundant as in the cathedral manesque was still in general use throughout cities. Thus it was that English parish Germany until well into the thirteenth cen­ churches, while following stylistic standards tury, and in looking to France for inspira­ in details as set by the cathedrals, came to de­ tion, fully developed French Gothic was im­ velop the open timber roof—an almost ex­ ported without the usual transitional middle clusively English feature of Gothic architec­ period. Nevertheless, an identifiable German ture, and one of great ingenuity and beauty." Gothic style evolved, and with it the traceried spire, the popular use of brick and terra cotta,

'• Robert Branner, Gothic Architecture (Braziller, * Walter Horn, "On the Origins of the Medieval New York, 1961), 11, 12. Bay System," in the Journal of the Society of Archi­ ^ Ibid., 31, 32. tectural Historians, XVII: No. 2 (Summer, 1958), " Cecil Stewart, "Gothic Architecture," in Simp­ and idem., "The Great Tithe Barn of Cholsey, Berk­ son's History of Architectural Development (McKay, shire." XXII: No. 1 (March, 1963). New York, 1961), 0:152. ° Stewart, "Gothic Architecture," 183.

239 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Cervin Robinson Interior view of the Chapel of St. Mary the Virgin at Nashotah. The carving, tracery, and general architectural treatment exemplify the best of mid-nineteenth-century Gothic Revival as applied to a church building. and the development of the Hallenkirche—the previous master not be altered in any way. hall church. A hall church involved a nave Only the son of a master could become a mas­ and aisles of approximately equal height, and ter and the number of apprentices each could while producing a feeling of great spacious­ have was strictly limited. Secrecy in trade ness, also brought the whole congregation in practices and techniques was rigidly enforced, closer relationship with the pulpit. This was so that the medieval mason was allowed to a practical necessity stemming from the reli­ teach his craft only to an accepted apprentice.' gious developments in Germany which were The organization of masons differed in one closely connected with the preaching orders important respect from that of other crafts. of the medieval church." Their work compelled them to move to dif­ Gothic churches everywhere were the prod­ ferent localities where building work was go­ uct of great vision, skill in design, and manual ing on, while bakers, tailors, and other trades­ dexterity. When the monasteries were the cen­ men lived among their customers. When a ters of medieval intellectual and artistic life great church or other important structure was much of the work was done by the monks in prospect, masons were sent for from neigh­ themselves, who also supervised the construc­ boring towns and districts—sometimes even tion and found the money. With the closing of from other countries. Because few people the twelfth century, the teaching of appren­ could read and write, it was important that tices had passed to lay master masons. As a means be devised whereby skill and rank early as 1150 the corporation of freemasons of other masons could be recognized, and as­ was already established. By the fourteenth sistance and hospitality afforded on the road. century the craft was organized into a guild For this purpose a system of secret signs was with four major shops or lodges—Strassburg, Vienna, Cologne, and Prague—conferring the rank of master. Among its rules and regula­ tions, carefully drawn and rigorously followed, "Ibid., 165. ' P. Frankl, "The Secret of the Medieval Mason,' the masons' guild required that the work of a in Art Bulletin, XVH: 46-60 (1945).

240 GOTHIC STYLISM invented to enable each mason to recognize with thin diamond-shaped panes set in lead another as such and to disclose his status to cames. The restoration of this church took those of equal rank. These skilled craftsmen place in 1953-1957." The architectural his­ and masters of their trade were not simply torian Thomas Tallmadge has called it "in masons in the present-day sense, but were many respects the most precious building in actually the architects and superintendents America." who prepared the general plans as well as de­ Renewed and general interest in Gothic tails and saw to their execution." work began in the late eighteenth century and came into full flower in the mid-nineteenth f I ^HE Gothic period in architecture came to century and again in the early twentieth cen­ -*- an end around 1530. Having reached its tury. It was the German poet Johann Wolf­ zenith in the thirteenth century, medievalism gang Goethe who led the Western world in lost its ideals in the two centuries which fol­ a new, romantic attitude toward Gothic. In lowed. Intellectual and material realism took 1772, speaking of the Strassburg Cathedral, the place of medieval mysticism; and as mat­ which he came greatly to admire, Goethe de­ ters spiritual were divided by the Reformation scribed it as a "most sublime, wide-arching and matters material altered by the Renais­ Tree of God. . .telling forth to the neighbor­ sance, Gothic architecture dissolved into flam­ hood the glory of the Lord. As in all works boyancy and exaggeration, not all of it with­ of eternal Nature, down to the minutest fibril, out interest and imagination, but hardly Gothic all is shaped, all purposes to the whole.'"" and very obviously Baroque in spirit and ap­ Following Goethe, a number of volumes ap­ pearance. peared on the subject of medieval antiquities, Despite its low estate throughout the Re­ and in the middle years of the nineteenth cen­ naissance years, the Gothic tradition in the tury the pronouncements of Welby Pugin, West, like the Byzantine in the East, never John Ruskin, and Eugene Emmanuel VioUet- actually died. Occasional buildings in the le-Duc exerted a profound influence upon the Gothic manner were built throughout the se­ revival of Gothic forms in a period that was venteenth and eighteenth centuries. At the vastly different, both socially and industrial­ time of English colonization of America, ly, from that which had nurtured original Gothic building precepts were also trans­ Gothic concepts." Nineteenth-century studies planted, together with more popular Renais­ of Gothic involved two problems. First, there sance ideas. The first houses of the English was the question of how it originated, and sec­ colonists both in New England and in Virgi­ ond, the problem of nomenclature of its varied nia were framed timber structures of clearly manifestations. Thus, the Gothic revival re­ medieval provenance. The oldest existing ceived its chief encouragement from the church of English foundation in America— archeological spirit and from the romantic at­ St. Luke's near Smithfield, Virginia—is the titudes of the day which saw in Gothic the nation's only surviving, original Gothic build­ faith of Christianity embodied and its prac­ ing. Begun in 1632, "Old Brick," as it was tices illustrated. affectionately known, followed the design of Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century parish churches which the settlers had attend­ Gothic stylism is somewhat interchangeably ed in England, complete with Gothic but­ called Gothic Revival, Victorian Gothic, Neo- tresses, stepped gables, brick-traceried win­ Gothic. Gothesque, Pseudo-Gothic, and Car­ dows, and medieval timber-trussed roof struc­ penter Gothic. The principal differences are ture—the latter bearing a striking resemblance to that of the fifteenth-century church at Heck- ington in Lincolnshire. The tower of St. Luke's is believed originally to have been sim­ ply crenelated and the traceried windows filled " James Grote Van Derpool, Historic St. Luke's (St. Luke's Restoration Committee, Smithfield, Vir­ ginia), 8. '" Stewart, "Gothic Architecture," 2. " Alf Boe, From Gothic Revival to Functional Form: .4 Study in Victorian Theories of Design ' Stewart, "Gothic Architecture," 81. (Oslo University Press, Oslo, 1957), Chapter II.

241 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 those of chronology and fidelity to Gothic enough things in their way when properly structural and architectural principles. For used as the servants of the architect, but just example, the application of true Gothic con­ because we have such materials is no reason cepts occurred both in the middle nineteenth why we should throw away stone and oak and century and in the early twentieth century, carving, and metal work and stained glass. while in between, and overlapping at both We may not actually imitate the masterpieces ends, was Gothic stylism as a form of decora­ of old; we would have to be of the times that tion only and having nothing to do with created them to do that, but we may retain all Gothic construction. Among the finest of the that we worthily can of their underlying spir- earlier American churches following true Gothic principles is Trinity Church in New York City. Designed by Richard Upjohn, this T^HE Gothic revival in all of its many and church was consecrated on Ascension Day, -*- varied manifestations also stamped Wis­ May 21, 1846. Other churches in this cate­ consin architecture with its imprint. While gory are St. Patrick's Roman Catholic Cathe­ reacting to national trends at all times, Wis­ dral, also in New York City, and St. Mark's consin's earlier Gothic Revival work clearly Church in Philadelphia. St. Patrick's was reflected the origins of its builders as well as built in 1855, after the prize-winning design the influence of local materials. The oldest of James Renwick. Despite its coarse detail church building in Wisconsin still in active and plaster vaulting, this great church, pat­ use is Trinity Episcopal Church at Mineral terned somewhat after French prototypes, is Point. Construction was begun in 1839 and a structure of considerable beauty and fideli­ consecration took place in 1846. Moses ty. St. Mark's in Philadelphia was built in Strong, prominent pioneer lawyer and legis­ 1848 after English Gothic concepts adapted lator, contributed the land and substantially by John Notman, a Philadelphia architect. to the building itself. The walls were laid of This Church is filled with exquisite carvings local blended vermilion brick of exceptional­ and appointments, including a rood which is ly fine color and texture, harmonizing very a memorial to Bishop Nicholson of Milwau­ handsomely with the yellow limestone label kee, who was rector of St. Mark's from 1871 moldings and copings. Foundation walls were to 1891. built of local buff limestone, laid random As to twentieth-century Gothic work, the ashlar. Original diamond-pane stained glass windows are still in place. With its crenelated Cathedral of St. John the Divine, St. Thomas, tower, this fine little Wisconsin church bears and St. Vincent Ferrer, all in New York, and more than a passing resemblance to the ori­ the National Cathedral at Washington im­ ginal appearance of its famous predecessor, mediately come to mind. They are the result of "Old Brick" near Smithfield, Virginia. a philosophy and a construction technique which attempt to parallel original Gothic as That many of the finest of Wisconsin's old­ er churches styled in the Gothic manner are closely as possible. The rationale of this ap­ those of the Anglican Communion can be ex­ proach was adequately stated by the great plained by the fact that the Episcopal Church American Gothicist of the twentieth century, had just restored to itself historic rites and Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue: "But after all, ceremonies which also called for greater fideli­ medieval Gothic, the Gothic of the cathedrals ty in its architecture. In the use of native lime­ —and modern Gothic, the Gothic of such stone worked into expressions of English Per­ churches as are being built now all over Eng­ pendicular Gothic, St. Alban's Church at Sus­ land and America, are two very distinct things. sex, St. James at Milwaukee, and the Chapel Medieval Gothic is now impossible and must of St. Mary the Virgin at Nashotah are out- remain medieval, and the Gothic we do today, if it is to be vital, and beautiful, and true, and good, and therefore Art, must be of our own times. I don't mean that we must abandon "^ Charles Harris Whitaker (ed.), Bertram Grosve­ the old ideals or any of the old materials. nor Goodhue, Architect and Master of Many Arts (American Institute of Architects, New York, 1925), Steel framing and reinforced concrete are good 23.

242 GOTHIC STYLISM

in an unusual arrangement of its parts it is set across the southeast corner of the nave. The architect was Lucas Bradley, another of Wisconsin's eminent early architects. The cornerstone of St. Luke's was laid in 1866. In evaluating the work of an architect, one of the curious and frequently enigmatic as­ pects is the difference in the quality of his design. That Edward Townsend Mix was cap­ able of sensitive design and that he fully un­ derstood Gothic principles is evident from his handling of St. James Church in Milwaukee and other examples. The fact that he served his apprenticeship in Richard Upjohn's office leaves little doubt as to his thorough Gothic indoctrination. Still, it was possible for him to yield to the crudities of Victorian taste in the design of some of his more important secular buildings, such as the old National Soldiers' Home at Wood and the Broadway Building in Milwaukee, originally built as the Chapel of St. Mary the Virgin at Nashotah. main office of the Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company. Soldiers' Home was com­ Standing. St. Alban's has a three-tiered, square pleted in 1867. It is a brick ensemble and tower with a crenelated top. It was built in certainly not without interest as a landmark, 1864. It is as fine an example of the smaller but the stiff handling is hard to understand. English parish church of this period as may be The Broadway Building was done at about found anywhere. Somewhat larger and more the same time, being completed in 1869. urban in character is St. James. Built of light Nothing remains of the upper four storeys, but grey Milwaukee County limestone, it has an the ground floor with its Italianate Gothic impressive steeple and broached spire, typical­ treatment, involving polished granite columns, ly English in design. This church was de­ gives some indication of the building's original signed by the architect Edward Townsend Mix appearance. Old photographs disclose it to and was begun in 1868. Ravaged by fire in 1871, the walls, tower, bells, and clerestory windows remained intact. The rebuilding of the interior and roof was completed in 1874. At Nashotah House, the Episcopal Theological Seminary, stands the Chapel of St. Mary the Virgin, another exceptional specimen of Per­ pendicular Gothic. Also built of light grey limestone, but taken from nearby Waukesha County quarries, this exceptional chapel was designed by Richard Upjohn, the New York architect of national renown. The cornerstone 1 .;\-- was laid in 1859, but construction did not proceed because of the Civil War. Completion and consecration occurred in 1866. Among 1^:* the more imposing brick churches of the Gothic Revival in southeastern Wisconsin is St. Luke's Episcopal Church at Racine. Al­ though done in local brick, its spired tower •'Victorian crudity" in the handling of Gothic Revival: resembles that of St. James in Milwaukee, but the old Soldiers' Home at Wood.

243 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 have been quite an imposing pile, done in rian treatment of Gothic as simply an eclectic local buff limestone and capped with a Man­ form of decoration. In contrast, Gesu Roman sard roof. Italian Gothic feeling was also Catholic Church, although built only fifteen given by E. T. Mix to his design for Immanuel years later, in 1893, shows the return to better Presbyterian Church in Milwaukee, built in Gothic forms which characterized the so- 1873. Basically a limestone structure of grey called Neo-Gothic work of the following de­ and buff color, dark grey and brown sandstone cade and the early twentieth century. Appar­ was introduced in the archivolts, the voussoirs ently the 1870's were the high years of Vic­ of the arches, and in the belt courses for a torian Gothic, as many buildings of this de­ banded and distinctly Italian effect. This cade show very similar characteristics. These building is far superior to Mix's contemporary similarities extended to buildings of such di­ Soldiers' Home and insurance building. In the verse uses as mausoleums, art museums, and latter, perhaps, the architect was making an industrial establishments. In the category of attempt to be original, if not simply yielding the latter is the North Point pumping station to the demands of popular Victorian taste. and water tower in Milwaukee, built in 1873. Another directly Victorian expression of Gothic is Trinity Lutheran Church in Milwau­ kee. Designed by the architect Frederick Vel­ A S Episcopal churches reflected essentially guth, it was built in 1878 of cream-colored -^~*- English antecedents, German and other Milwaukee common brick, now typically national influences were equally evident in the weathered to a sooty grey. Certainly a digni­ work of other denominations, especially the fied and imposing structure with landmark Lutheran and Roman Catholic. A rather attributes, this church exemplifies the Victo- austere variation of German Gothic'" was de­ veloped in Wisconsin, particularly in rural areas. The work was generally that of coun­ try masons and carpenters whose knowledge of Gothic architecture was limited, but who invariably were excellent craftsmen with a fine appreciation for a material they were handling. A good example of austere German Gothic is St. Martin's Roman Catholic Church at Martinsville in Dane County. The material is local grey limestone laid in a very interest­ ing pattern with buff sand-lime mortar. This church was built in 1861 by German settlers who had come from the Rhineland, around Trier and Cologne. To this day some of the members still speak Trierseh and Koelsch, the dialect of their forefathers. Another extremely handsome small stone church is St. Mary of Loreto in Sauk County between Leland and Denzer. Of very modest scale and dimensions, this church possesses a charm that would be hard to duplicate. Set off against the dark green hills of Sauk Coun­ ty, the light yellow, almost golden color of its limestone walls provides an exceptionally pleasing contrast. Interestingly, the color of

'"Wilhelm Pinder, Deutsche Dome des Mittelal- The North Point water tower, Milwaukee, viewed ters (Karl Robert Langewiesche Verlag, Dusseldorf from the west. u. Leipzig, 1913), 54, 71, 87.

244 GOTHIC STYLISM

Church near Watertown, which was built in 1890 by a congregation founded in 1853 un­ der the leadership of Johann Gottlob Kalten- brunn. Old Salem Church in Milwaukee, now St. Mary's Ukrainian Orthodox Church, is another straightforward expression of brick- building employing simple Gothic stylism. This church was built in 1874 and is typical of the period. Many churches in Wisconsin were built this way but few remain in un­ altered condition. Churches of wood construction are to be found nearly everywhere in the state. As Gothic expressions, the best of these are the timber, board-and-batten structures such as St. Mary of Loreto Roman Catholic Church, located St. John Chrysostom at Delafield'* and Holy in Sauk County between Leland and Denzer. Innocents Church at Nashotah. Other wooden churches in Gothic style are generally little the walls is almost identically the same as that more than adaptations of clapboarded meeting of the goldenrods which proliferate in the houses with some Gothic trappings such as area during August and September. The stone­ steep roofs, pointed arch openings, and oc­ work is a free ashlar amounting almost to casionally wood plank piers and buttresses. rubble and is overlaid with regularly spaced, Emmanuel Episcopal Church at Lancaster in raised-mortar joints, purely for effect and Grant County is such a plain meeting house to simulate squared blocks of stone. The with Gothic overtones. It was built in 1858, quoins and stones around the openings are in what was originally known as the West- solid blocks of limestone. This unusual tech­ wood Parish. Nelson Dewey, Wisconsin's nique was developed in the Sauk County area first governor, was a member of the congre­ and is believed to have been first introduced gation and lies buried in the adjoining church­ by German stonemasons such as Casper Steu- yard. Of the small wooden Gothic-type ber in and around Prairie du Sac. St. Mary's churches of German persuasion, St. John's Church has wood muntined window sashes, Lutheran Church at Shennington in Monroe including a small rose window at the west County is a good example. Built as late as front. Original chandeliers, pews, pulpit, altar, 1903, it nevertheless typifies the best of nine­ and small semi-circular altar rail are still to teenth-century Gothic treatment of wooden be seen, although the church is no longer in churches. active use. This building was erected in 1880, During the first quarter of the twentieth and, judging from the markers in the adjoin­ century there was a noticeable improvement ing graveyard, its founders were German and in the scale and proportion of buildings pat­ Irish settlers. terned along Gothic lines. Careful study by Wisconsin clay made good brick, and for American architects of original Gothic work, many years several excellent varieties were both through architectural publications'" and manufactured in the state. The lighter cream firsthand examination of European originals, and buff colors were made from the clays led to greater authenticity of treatment. An along Lake Michigan, and various shades of red and brown resulted from the clay^s found elsewhere in the state. During Wisconsin's pioneer years locally manufactured brick " R. W. E. Perrin, "Richard Upjohn, Architect: played an important part in the development Anglican Chapels in the Wilderness," in the Wis­ consin Magazine of History, 45: 40-43 (Autumn, of its architecture and the art of brick-build­ 1961). ing, which also embraced the use of Gothic '" R. W. E. Perrin, "Great Wisconsin Houses: forms. A good example of very simple but Period Architecture of the Early Twentieth Century," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 46: 276-286 effective use of brick is Ebenezer Moravian (Summer, 1963).

245 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

the First Methodist Church and about to be torn down to make way for an expressway extension in Milwaukee. This structure is also a good example of the more refined use of English Gothic after the turn of the century. The architectural firm of Leenhouts and Guthrie was responsible for the design of this excellent structure. Typically German is Milwaukee's old Miihlhduserkirche—Grace Lutheran Church. Built in 1900 according to plans of the archi­ tect Armand Koch, it possesses good Gothic feeling. The materials are predominantly brown pressed brick and terra cotta of about the same color. Tower crockets and finials, while of good design, were unfortunately exe­ cuted in stamped metal. They were removed several years ago when the towers were re­ built along simpler but less Gothic lines. Just before World War 1 a number of Neo- Gothic churches were built throughout the state, usually of brick with limestone trim and

^'-•«IJ13^^"W> St. John's Lutheran Church at Shennington.

1895 forerunner of this trend toward improved design and greater integrity was the First Unitarian Church in Milwaukee, produced by the architects Ferry and Clas. Built of grey Bedford, Indiana, limestone, the church has many interesting features. Not the least of these are the carved stone corbels along the arcade of the west portal, which are reputed to be images of prominent members of the church at the time of its construction. It is an interesting commentary on the popularity of the Gothic style that the Unitarian denomina­ tion—liberal in its theology and devoid of ritualism—would find it appropriate to use medieval forms in its church edifice. The same predilection was shown by the First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Milwaukee, which erected a distinctly Gothic structure at about the same time. This church was built of mel­ low red brick, trimmed with red sandstone. The main portal at the west front is Norman in detail. The architect was Elmer Grey, a well-known Milwaukeean who later further distinguished himself in California practice. About a decade later, in 1907, Grand Avenue Carved stone corbel along the arcade of the west por­ tal. First Unitarian Church, Milwaukee—reputedly Methodist Church was built—now known as portraying an early member of the church.

246 GOTHIC STYLISM

the architects Allen and Collens of Boston. fff The soft red and russet sand-molded brick and brown sandstone trim blend admirably with the older buildings, and the virtue of con­ V« >« /* tinuing a single architectural motif in campus development is here adequately demonstrated. >^'} In contrast, the adjoining campus of the Uni­ versity of Wisconsin in Milwaukee—of which Milwaukee-Downer will soon be a part—is a heterogeneous collection of buildings reflect­ ing no unifying discipline. At Mount Mary College in Wauwatosa, Col­ legiate Gothic was also employed by the archi­ tects Herbst and Kuenzli. Begun in 1928, this college group stands on a prominent site over­ looking the Menomonee River Parkway. With r/ie Tnat'n portal and east front of Grace Lutheran its buff limestone walls and red-shingled tile Church, Milwaukee, a typically German structure erected in 1900. roofs, the buildings and their environment are an imposing sight. The square Gothic bell without towers. This treatment was brought tower is particularly impressive and can be into prominence by well-known Eastern archi­ seen from a considerable distance. To en­ tectural firms such as Cram, Goodhue and hance its effectiveness, the tower is illuminated Ferguson, Allen and CoUens, and others. An exceptionally good example of such design is St. Thomas Aquinas Roman Catholic Church in Milwaukee. Built in 1914 of tan-colored " "Milwaukee-Downer College, History 1851-1951," in the Milwaukee-Downer College Bulletin, XXXIII: face brick with buff Bedford limestone trim, 67 (November, 19,50). it was designed by Alexander C. Eschweiler, one of Milwaukee's most distinguished archi­ tects.

OLLEGIATE Gothic is the term applied C to the style when used on school buildings, as exemplified by English university buildings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and as revived on American campuses during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Again Eastern architectural exponents led the way. Prominent among these were James Gamble Rogers and the firm of Day and Klauder. Milwaukee-Downer College in Milwaukee ex­ presses the popular use of English Gothic for college buildings. Ground was broken in 1897 for the first unit in the group and ma­ terials used were red sandstone and St. Louis red pressed brick. The bays and oriels were of decorated terra cotta of similar color; slate was used for the roofs. Additional buildings were erected during the first decade of the twentieth century.'" Again, Alexander C. Eschweiler was the architect. Some years la­ ter, in 1936, Chapman Memorial Library was Tower of Mount Mary College, Wauwatosa, illumi­ added. Collegiate Gothic was continued by nated by night.

247 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

tical architecture that is distinct from its secu­ lar architecture, and a few of these have cap­ tured some of the splendor and awe-inspiring character of the religious architecture of other times and places. The twentieth-century Neo- Gothic, based on deep conviction, truth to structure, and exquisite detail, at times pro­ duced monuments of superb quality and beau­ ty. But, as so well stated by the eminent archi­ tectural educator Walter A. Taylor: "Gothic Revival provided the intellectual background for the present emphasis on organic archi­ tecture, although it must be admitted that its nineteenth century protagonists preached more than they practiced structural func- tion.

Residential Gothic: the Martin home on Newberry Boulevard in Milwaukee.

at night. Additional buildings now under con­ " R. W. E. Perrin, "'Wisconsin's Victorian Houses: struction will apparently not adhere to the ori­ Architectural Reflections of Society in Transition," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 45:290-295 ginal Gothic stylism. (Summer, 1962). In the field of domestic architecture some '"Talbot Hamlin (ed.), Forms and Functions of interesting work in the Gothic manner was Twentieth Century Architecture (Columbia Univer­ sity Press, New York, 19.52), III: 335. done during the middle nineteenth century" and also continued into the twentieth century. Of the more interesting examples of the latter period is the Goodrich House on Terrace Avenue, Milwaukee, built in 1905. Although reflecting strong sixteenth-century French Gothic ideas, there are the concomitant Re­ naissance overtones. Built of light brown brick, the trim is buff terra cotta which sug­ gests German influence. Two additional houses in a Gothic vein, built during the first decade of the twentieth century, are the Elser resi­ dence on Lake Drive and the Martin resi­ dence on Newberry Boulevard, both in Mil­ waukee. These houses also are built of light brown brick with tan terra-cotta trim. The Gothic Revival and its Neo-Gothic Edward Townsend Mix's Broadway (Free Press) sequela certainly were not without values and Budding in Mihcaukee. This example of Italianate benefits. The better examples have given the Gothic was once topped by four upper storeys and a Mansard roof, but all that remains today is pictured American people the experience of an ecclesias- here.

248 Mar.'ihall Academy, from the Norwegian-language Billed-Magazin, August 21, 1869.

MARSHALL ACADEMY: A HISTORY

By BEULAH FOLKEDAHL

ESS than ten years after the graduation youth and in the late 1840's had built a school- L of the first class from a Wisconsin high house. By the mid-1860's, as the need for ad­ school—in Kenosha in 1857—a village in ditional educational opportunities became ap­ northeastern Dane County began laying plans parent, the citizens of Marshall turned their for its own institution of secondary education. thoughts toward the establishment of a pri­ The village, which had only recently been vate academy of the type New England settlers given the name of Marshall, had been settled had introduced into Wisconsin. These aca­ by Zenas Bird, who had entered government demies, of which sixty were in existence when land in the 1830's and on it erected a build­ statehood was attained, were the chief col­ ing. Later, when the structure was largely lege preparatory schools of the period, of­ destroyed by a prairie fire, the locality be­ fering, besides the Latin and Greek classics, came known as Bird's Ruins. Hanchettsville studies in English grammar, rhetoric, public and Howard City were subsequent names, un­ speaking, history, surveying, moral philoso­ til in 1861 the property was purchased by phy, mathematics, geography, astronomy, phy­ W. H. Porter and Samuel Marshall and re­ sics, and chemistry. In addition to being the named in honor of the latter.' training institutions for elementary school Early in its history the settlement had shown teachers, they also served as the pre-profes- interest in promoting the education of its sional and finishing schools for those who could not attend a liberal arts college. For most students, academies provided their final formal training. So important were they in Wisconsin's early educational system that even ^ Frederic G. Cassidy, The Place-Names of Dane County (1947), 72, 157. as late as 1867 the Superintendent of Public

249 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Instruction observed that "They are to our ing quarters for the principal, or master as country towns what the High Schools are to he was sometimes called, quarters for the pre­ the cities."" ceptress, and more recitation halls. A dozen When on April 4, 1864, the state legislature rooms, where students might board and sleep, approved the incorporation of an academy occupied the third floor, with a long hall run­ in Marshall, the villagers, under the energetic ning down the middle. Firewood and food leadership of E. B. Bigelow, proceeded to set the students brought from home; water and up a joint stock company, incorporated as wood they carried up the flights of stairs; Marshall Academy, with the express stipula­ waste and ashes they carried down. Attend­ tion that no religious test or qualification ance at Marshall meant a compact "living-in" should be required of any trustee, officer, arrangement.* teacher, or student of the institution." The On Wednesday, January 2, 1867, the new incorporation completed, the next step was to academy opened for its first term under the secure funds with which to purchase a site leadership of the Reverend J. J. Mclntire, and to construct a building. Present-day resi­ A.M., and Baptist minister, as principal and dents recall hearing accounts of the vast plan professor of ancient languages and mathema­ of development which Marshall citizens con­ tics; Miss Mary A. Cuckow as preceptress and ceived for their settlement and of which the teacher of English, German, and oil painting; academy was to be a part. It was, for in­ and Mrs. T. Bigelow as instructor in music. stance, to be a rival of the State University Three departments of study were announced: in Madison, which even a dozen years later English, classical, and normal. In the regular had an enrollment of only 481 students. English department were offered courses in Since the principle of public support for grammar, spelling, defining, writing, geogra­ secondary education had not yet been widely phy, mental and practical arithmetic, at $3.50 accepted, popular subscription was the method per three-month term. The higher division of used to raise money, even though the Civil the English department offered courses in War was in progress and money was scarce. bookkeeping, geometry, algebra, higher arith­ Public-spirited citizens contributed much of metic, grammar, philosophy, history, botany, the labor that went into the building's con­ astronomy, chemistry, geography, and physio­ struction; white bricks were hauled, mostly logy, at $5 per term. The classical course at by oxen, from the Watertown kiln, and by the $6 included the study of Greek, Latin, French, close of 1866 the structure was completed. and German, and was designed to prepare stu­ The rectangular, three-storeyed edifice, 67 dents for college. The normal department con­ by 34 by 38 feet, was severely plain, with tall sisted largely of a review of subjects to be stone-silled windows and no ornamentation taught and a study of teachers' examination other than that furnished by the fanlight over questions. Lessons in instrumental music the wide doorway in the center of the front were available at $10 a term, the student pay­ wall. A central hallway divided the first ing an extra $2 for the use of a piano or $1 floor into two recitation rooms, one of which for the use of a melodeon. Board in private also served as a chapel. In the hall a rope homes cost from $2.50 to $3 a week. Students dangled from the large, mellow-toned bell in were not admitted for less than half a term, the belfry. On the second floor were the liv­ and all expenses had to be settled in advance."

* Lavinia Thornton to Julia, August 3, 1866, in the "Wisconsin Blue Book (1923), 105-120; Conrad John T. Haight Papers, Manuscripts Library, State E. Patzer, Public Education in Wisconsin (Madison, Historical Society of Wisconsin; Madison Billed- 1924), 4, 81, 82; J. W. Stearns (ed.). The Columbian Magazin, August 21, 1869, 301-302; Sun Prairie History of Education in Wisconsin (Milwaukee, Ledger, February 4, 1869; Madison Capital Times, 1893), 7-8, 17, 58; Annual Report of the Superin­ July 13, 1951, January 23, 30, 1952. tendent of Public Instruction (Madison, 1867), 19. ' Marshall Academy, a formal announcement of the 'Private and Local Acts, and Charters of Incor­ school's opening, owned by Agnes Lindas, Madison, porated Companies, passed by the Legislature of Wis­ whose father, Mathias, was an early student at the consin, in the year 1864, 199-201. Academy.

250 MARSHALL ACADEMY

By the middle of the first term eighty stu­ sponsibility of the school's government was dents had enrolled, about half of them girls. placed on the students as far as practicable, In the student body were two girls and seven and refractory students "unless conquered by boys, among them Lindas and Cornelius Krog, kindness, . . . were required to leave school." from the Norwegian families living in the Study hours from six to eight in the morning area. By the middle of the second term, which and from seven to nine in the evening were began March 27 and ended July 3, one hun­ strictly enforced. A free hour from nine to dred students had registered for study. The ten allowed for relaxation before everybody total enrollment for the first two terms was went to bed, not later than eleven. Enforce­ seventy-eight boys and fifty-three girls, of ment of proper decorum was left largely to whom 31 per cent were in the normal depart­ the master, who lived in the building. Since ment, 6 per cent in the classic department, and many of the students were husky young men, the majority in the English department. They the master needed to be proficient in handling came from surrounding farms and nearby the situation by both moral and physical per­ villages as well as from Marshall and Medina suasion. Often there was rough play. A story Township, but there were also students from from that period recounts that once the boys as far away as Hart's Falls and Poughkeepsie, piled up several buckets of ashes at the head New York, Marquette, Michigan, Mercer, of the stairs, started a rumpus, and, when Pennsylvania, and Arendahl, Minnesota." they had encouraged the master to start up­ That Marshall Academy fulfilled a definite stairs to quelch the disturbance, tipped the need was indicated by the large enrollment ashes down on him. But the ringleaders had during its first two terms. Consequently two to clean up the mess and then submit to a teachers were added to the faculty for the next cane dressing. year, Jacob L. Edmonds to teach English, and Gradually the Academy became a sort of Belle Boorman, to give instruction in voice. community center. A singing school for the Moreover, pencilling was added to the curri­ public was held twice a week, as well as pub­ culum, and laboratory and classroom equip­ lic entertainments consisting of orations, de­ ment was provided for the classes in chemis­ bates, readings, and pageants. In other areas try, philosophy, and geography. The school also, the Academy rendered public service: year was further subdivided into four terms, Principal Mclntire assisted the State Superin­ beginning August 28 and continuing to June tendent of Public Education by lecturing on 22; and, in addition to their regular classes, educational topics; and, together with Albion students were required, unless excused, to Academy and the University, Marshall trained write essays or to participate in rhetorical most of the teachers for eastern Dane Coun­ exercises at least once every two weeks. Thus, ty schools.^ for ten months of the year young people could But although the second term of Marshall's enroll for one or more terms, according to second year ended on a note of community their needs and resources, to pursue a varied participation and satisfaction, and although curriculum but primarily to learn to read the the third term of the 1868-1869 school year printed page and to use language correctly opened auspiciously with an enrollment of and adequately. one hundred, by the close of the year the In order that the students might receive the Academy was under new ownership and man­ most for their time and money, principles of agement. Evidently plagued by financial dif­ conduct were established. According to the ficulties, the joint stock holders seized the announcement in the first catalog, the re­

'Lindas to Anderson, February 21, 1867; First Annual Catalogue; Madison Capital Times, January 'First Annual Catalogue of Marshall Academy for 23 and 30, 1952. 1867-68; letters of Mathias Lindas to his cousin, * Madison Capital Times, January 30, 1952; Sun N. E. Anderson, a student at Augustana College, Prairie Ledger, January 28, 1869; Annual Report of February 21 and April 10, 1867, in possession of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (Madison, Agnes Lindas. 1868), 73.

251 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 opportunity to sell the property to a Norwe­ gian group who promised to continue to offer education to the whole community. Accord­ ingly, in 1869 a segment of Augustana College and Seminary, which had been operating in Illinois for nine years, moved to Marshall and into the building which the villagers persist­ ed, throughout all its subsequent changes in name and sponsorship, to call Marshall Aca­ demy.

"OEHIND the Norwegians' move to Marshall -L* lay a complicated history of religious and nationality dissension. In 1860 the Scandina­ vians in the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Northern Illinois—in protest against the Sy­ nod's liberal theology and because of their own particularism—withdrew to form the Scandinavian Augustana Synod and to estab­ lish, first in Chicago, then in Paxton, Illinois, their own school whose purpose was to train men for the ministry and the schools. Since Swedish was the language of instruction, Nor­ wegian students tended to acquire a kind of August Weenau,-,, jium, a portrait in Livserindringer fra Norge og Amerika (Bergen, Norway, 1935). Swedish-Norwegian, in spite of occasional teachers of their own national background. In order to maintain their own particular her­ the latter was admonished to meet in Mar­ itage, the Norwegian-speaking members of the shall by the first ol July to draw up a contract Synod, with the Synod's consent, invited for the purchase of the financially ailing Aca­ August Weenaas, a native Norwegian who had demy." studied at the University of Christiania (Oslo) and who had been a teacher and clergyman It was through the influence of the Reverend for several years, to take the position of Nor­ 0. J. Hatlestad of Milwaukee and the efforts wegian professor with a salary of $1,000 plus of John Anderson Boe, a Marshall grocery free housing, a stipend for several months' and dry-goods merchant, that the Academy study at Erlanger University in Germany, and was purchased by the Norwegians. Although travelling expenses to Illinois. Accepting the the local joint stock company seemingly was offer, Weenaas arrived in Chicago in July, convinced it could not continue the school, 1866. However, his coming did not unite the the need for and interest in some form of Norwegians and Swedes at the Paxton school local secondary instruction persisted to the but rather further segregated them. Soon point where the stock holders were willing to realizing that nationalism and language were yield the property to outsiders who would con­ difficult barriers to hurdle, Weenaas under­ tinue their program. Consequently, on July took to work out plans, for presentation be­ fore the Synod conference of 1869, whereby the Norwegian and Swedish elements in the Synod could be separated. At this meeting the Norwegian Branch of the Scandinavian Au­ ° Theodore C. Blegen, Norwegian Migration to America: The American Transition (Northfield, gustana Synod, holding a separate session Minnesota, 1940), 526-528; Andreas Helland, Augs­ with the consent of the Swedes, decided to burg Seminar gjennem femti aar 1869-1919 (Minnea­ establish their own school. A school commit­ polis, 1920), 34-38; Ole Jensen Hatlestad, Historiske meddelser om den norske Augustana Synode (Deco- tee and board of trustees were chosen, and rah, Iowa, 1887), 76-77; J. C. Jensson, American Lutheran Biography (Milwaukee, 1890), 846-847.

252 MARSHALL ACADEMY

29, 1869, the trustees of school district No. and Danes in the land, but especially of those 2 in the Town of Medina transferred to the in the immediate vicinity. Since the property trustees of Marshall Academy, for one dollar, had cost $4,000, and was to be paid for within a quit claim to the "second story excepting 352 the year, the board followed Olson's appeal superficial feet and all of third story of the with letters to pastors and congregations soli­ building known as Marshall Academy . . . ." citing their financial support." Following this preliminary procedure, on No­ vember 3, 1869, an indenture was signed con­ jl/I" FAN WHILE, the board members had veying for $1,500 five lots in block 61 in -'-'-'- adopted for the Academy a constitution the village together with appurtenances to the which later was accepted by the Synod. This Marshall Academy trustees. The special con­ document provided that the school "should dition on which the Marshall people sold be organized according to the American pat­ their institution was that the new proprietors tern and that it should be enlarged into a would operate an American classical academy four-year college as soon as circumstances al­ in addition to the theological seminary, and lowed." Its purpose was first to train capable thus afford their youth some education be­ young men and women for teaching in the yond the common school.'" public school, then to give the most outstand­ Even before the conveyance was completed, ing young people an opportunity to become publicity regarding the institution in Marshall acquainted with the liberal arts. The subjects appeared in various publications. In its Au­ taught were to be those generally offered in gust 14, 1869 issue, Billed-Magazin, the illus­ American academies. Students of both sexes trated Norwegian-language magazine pub­ were to be accepted without regard to na­ lished in Madison, made this appeal: "En­ tionality or church affiliation. The constitu­ lightened Scandinavian people will surely not tion also provided that the faculty of the aca­ permit this important matter to stand in need demy should include a principal who was a of necessary support .... Our fellow citi­ graduate of an American college, a precep­ zens, the American and the Germans, make tress with the ability to use the English lan­ great sacrifices for schools and churches. The guage, and at least one member of the facul­ Scandinavians, who, generally speaking, have ty "who was a member of the Lutheran church a good reputation in this country, will, it is and qualified to teach classes in religion.""' to be hoped, not lag behind others in their With these regulations in mind, the board concern for such an important matter as the proceeded to elect a faculty consisting of education and training of youth . . . ." August Weenaas as president of the institution The Reverend John Olson of Fort Howard and professor of theology; Caesar Boeck, B.A. wrote a circular announcing the opening of from Cathedral School, Christiania, Norway, the expanded Academy at Marshall. In it he as language instructor, with unspecified sa­ said that the school's purpose was not to op­ lary; John J. Anderson, M.A. from Beloit pose the attempts of others to spread enlight­ College, as Academy principal, at $800, plus enment but to establish and develop an insti­ free room; theological student N. C. Brun, tution which would satisfy the special de­ as language instructor, at $400, plus free mands presented by American freedoms and housing; theological student Peter Flaten, institutions. It aimed also not to lose sight formerly of Albion Academy, at no specified of Christian training. He further reported salary; Svein Nilsson, editor of Billed-Maga­ that the Academy, located in the center of zin and an experienced teacher, as professor the Norwegian population east of the Missis­ of natural science and political economy, at sippi, desired the support of all Norwegians no specified salary; theological student Lind-

'" Records in Register of Deeds Office, Dane Coun­ '^ Billed-Magazin, August 21, 1869, 301-302; Hel­ ty Courthouse, Madison; A. Sophie Boe, "Story of land, Augsburg Seminar, 40-42. Father's [N. E. Boe] Life," undated manuscript, "^ Emil Erpestad, History of Augustana College 28-29; Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 38-39. (Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 1956), 49.

253 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 berg, as music teacher, with free maintenance constructed house, large and convenient as and seminary tuition, plus the income from were, in his estimation, all American houses. music lessons given to the Academy students; There he lived three rewarding years in spite and Mary A. Cuckow, as preceptress and of worries and conflicts." teacher, at $300, plus free firewood.'" And worries and conflicts there were. One The board also selected the students to be of them was the financial problem. Because enrolled at the Marshall school. Of the nine the sponsoring Synod was composed of a young men who had moved with Weenaas from few small, poor, scattered congregations, the Paxton institution, one was forced to dis­ there was little cohesive purpose and prac­ continue study because of ill health; another, tical planning for securing funds for the L. E. Green, left in November to accept a call school. Instead, the institution had to rely on into the ministry, and thus might be called spasmodic, free-will offerings from the con­ the school's first graduate. Four of the ten gregations, many of whom were reluctant to new applicants were accepted. One was too give, believing the school to be too strongly old; one lacked proper recommendations; Lutheran and Norwegian in its emphasis. one could not furnish his own maintenance; Moreover, since most of the theological stu­ three were admitted on probation. The total dents were impoverished and received not enrollment for the first year was twenty-one, only free tuition but room and board as well, with eleven in the Seminary proper and ten there was little income from that source. For in the preparatory division. Their average age all these reasons the financial burden lay large­ was twenty-six." ly with Weenaas. Gifts in kind were grate­ With the purchase of property, the adoption fully received. Early in the first year he ac­ of a constitution, and the selection of faculty knowledged receipt of eight bushels of wheat, and students, Augsburg Seminary and Mar­ one and a half bushels of potatoes, a hundred shall Academy (the name adopted by the Sy­ pounds of butter, a large tablecloth, five nod in 1869) opened September 1, 1869. On stoves, a bedcover, and money, including $20 November 10, dedication took place in the from the Milwaukee Ladies' Aid. One of the Methodist Church with F. Craig, state superin­ unexpected sources of assistance came from tendent of public instruction, as one of the the Koshkonong congregation, who belonged speakers. Weenaas, in his address, stressed to the Norwegian Synod, the most conserva­ two points, namely, the sovereignty of the tive church among Norwegian Lutherans and congregation and the need for "an ever deep­ thus at variance with the Augustana Synod, a er sense of truth," thus minimizing the value middle-of-the-road body. "Many a sack of of central church authority, orthodoxy, and flour," Weenaas wrote, "and many a chunk traditionalism.'° of meat and butter were brought to us from Weenaas was pleased with living arrange­ these our dear neighbors, in spite of the fact ments in Marshall. The roomy building was that they belonged to a church body which fairly serviceable, and students lived under was hostile toward our Synod [theologically the guidance of school authority—a good sys­ speaking]. They loved our students, who on tem for the most part, he thought. Since there request, frequently conducted Sunday school were no quarters in the school for himself and in their congregations . . . ." Marshall resi­ his family, he purchased J. J. Mclntire's newly dents, also, were an encouraging source of support, contributing liberally to the Acade­ my. However, at the close of the first year there was a debt in the amount of about $850, mostly to Weenaas for salary and for student '"Holland, Augsburg Seminar, 43; Svein Nilsson to Mathias Lindas, May 14, 1869, in the Lindas Pa- pers, Manuscripts Library, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. " Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 44^5; Erpestad, Augustana College, 50. '° August Weenaas, Mindeblade eller otte aar i ''^ Blegen, Norwegian Migration,529 ; C. Saugstad, Amerika (Volden, Norway, 1890), 28-29; August Augsburgs historic (Minneapolis, 1893), 4; Helland, Weenaas, Livserindringer fra Norge og Amerika, Augsburg Seminar, 45^6. 1835-1924 (1935), 122-124

254 MARSHALL ACADEMY room rent and board. The Academy teachers for theological study. In his report to the had nearly $600 coming on their salaries. Synod meeting in October, 1869, he said, "The Besides, there was a $1,500 debt due July 1, peculiar combination of a Norwegian Lu­ 1870, presumably on the property. At the end theran theological seminary and a non-secta­ of the second year the deficit was almost $200; rian English institution to which our pur­ there was the grocery bill at John Anderson's chase of Marshall Academy has obligated us store of a like amount; and the accumulated provides a fateful difficulty. I have no under­ debt owed to Weenaas amounted to over standing of the method of operation of such $1,000." an American institution and no great interest in it outside of its being useful under certain A NOTHER stubborn problem was the divi- circumstances as a preparatory school for the -^*- sive factor within the Synod. Having Seminary, for which it has revealed itself parted from the Swedes to establish their own inadequate." However, the proposal to make church body, the Norwegians were unable to the Academy strictly a nonsectarian commu­ agree among themselves on certain issues. nity school met with opposition at the con­ One group, consisting of people who had mi­ vention. Not everyone agreed that the provi­ grated to America in the forties and fifties, sion in the purchase contract that an Ameri­ had been affected by revivalism in Norway can classical academy be operated meant that and consequently did not appreciate the for­ it must be nonsectarian. Weenaas, however, mality of the worship service in the Church continued to believe the Marshall institution of Norway. Moreover, migrating at a time should be reorganized. And in his December, when there were few large established Norwe­ 1869, report to the Synod he declared that gian settlements in the United States, they there were two divisions in the Seminary, had more quickly adjusted themselves to the preparatory and theological, and that the for­ American way of life and were American in mer was not to be confused with the Academy. outlook. The second group, who came later This conflict over secular and religious and in much greater numbers, formed large training was not confined to Weenaas alone compact settlements and consequently had less but was a subject of disagreement among need to adapt themselves to American cus­ many members of the Norwegian Branch of toms. Besides, they brought with them a high the Scandinavian Augustana Synod. In 1870 regard for the Church of Norway and che­ this body further subdivided itself into two rished its ritual and vestments. Weenaas was groups—the Conference of the Norwegian- their spokesman."* Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in Amer­ A major factor in the clash between the ica, and the Norwegian-Danish Augustana two groups was the problem of the Synod's Synod.'" Weenaas, a member of the first and operating an American classical academy larger group, apparently approved the split, along with the Seminary. Since both attend­ since he later wrote in his memoirs: "It ance and income in the Academy were irregu­ should be openly acknowledged that it was lar, Weenaas was dissatisfied with it. More­ not only my belief but also my intention that over, he believed that the sole purpose of the the dissatisfied and 'Americanized' should whole institution should be to train men for separate from us, not affiliating with the new the ministry. In other words, he thought the congregation." At any rate, Weenaas' group church was under no obligation to offer se­ voted to continue the Seminary and declared cular education, except as it prepared men that pastors were under no obligation to sup­ port Marshall Academy."

" Beretning om andet konferentsemode af Konferentsen for den norsk-dansk lutherske kirke i Amerika, 1871, 39, 44-45; Blegen, Norwegian Mi­ gration, 529; Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 52-55, "Blegen, Norwegian Migration, 529-530; Hel­ 62-64; Weenaas, Mindeblade, 35-38. land, Augsburg Seminar, 49-52; Hatlestad, Histori­ '"Erpestad, Augustana College, 54-55; Weenaas, ske meddelser, 77-78; Weenaas, Mindeblade, 29. Livserindringer, 131-133. "'' Weenaas, Livserindringer, 132.

255 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Consequently, the smaller Norwegian- Through all the conflict both before and Danish Augustana Synod, considering itself after the division of 1870, classroom instruc­ the true heir of the former Scandinavian Au­ tion and extracurricular activities continued gustana Synod, Norwegian Branch, took pos­ their routine. Weenaas' great capacity for session of the property in Marshall, disowned work was tried to the limit. He not only ef­ any connection with Augsburg Seminary, and, fectively taught all the courses in Norwegian deciding to continue the Academy as a non- and theology, but also as a pastor quite re­ theological school, engaged John J. Ander­ gularly served congregations in Stoughton, son as president. Marshall, Madison, and Primrose. He was When Anderson at the behest of the presi­ also the administrator and public relations dent of the Augustana body, requested Wee­ man for the institution. Caesar Boeck, who re­ naas to turn in the keys and move out of the mained at Marshall all three years, was an ex­ building, Weenaas "found it wisest and most cellent teacher, especially in Latin and Greek. in conformity with the spirit of Christianity The most advanced theological students taught to yield the building to the disposition of Au­ such courses as geography, mathematics, and gustana Synod and the continuance of the history. Occasionally English-speaking stu­ Academy." He therefore complied by moving dents took courses in English offered in the out of the building immediately, taking with Academy. The enrollment during 1870-1872 him the library and twelve students—only one was around twenty-four, including a few who deserted him—and by setting up school on the had studied at the University of Wisconsin. second floor of his own home and in the up­ Every day there were six hours of instruction, per storey of a farm house on the outskirts of except on Saturdays, when there were discus­ the village (Cooper's Attic, it came to be sion periods on some dogmatic problem. De­ called). He arranged with Ananias Throndsen putation work out in the congregations was (Thompson) to furnish meals for his stu­ also a part of the training. Weenaas was dents at $1.25 per week for those who could pleased with the industry of the students and afford such fare; others provided their own their diligent application to courses even board. In the new location, with tables made though no prosperous parishes awaited them. of boards and stools and seats made of planks He was also glad for their attainments in and cracker boxes, the Seminary continued to English, realizing that only as they learned operate. Nineteen students were enrolled that to preach and teach in English could they hope year. Marshall's second year, which had start­ to retain the influence of the church on the ed so optimistically with a larger enrollment English-speaking second generation."" than that of the previous year, had been abruptly changed.'" TVTITH no building, the Conference con- In the final, formal arrangement between " ' sidered what might be the next best move the Conference and the Augustana, regarding to make in order to preserve and to improve Augsburg Seminary and Marshall Academy, their program of educating young men for the it was agreed that the building and grounds ministry. Life could not go on at Marshall. plus a $4,000 debt be assigned to Augustana During those days of uncertainty Weenaas oc­ Synod, while the endowment fund of several casionally considered closing the Seminary, thousand dollars (some of it consisting only but the students encouraged him to continue. of notes), plus the library, be the portion of Finally, in the spring of 1871 the Conference the Conference."" decided to move the Seminary from Marshall to a location near a state university, because "students could receive classical and scienti­ fic training at the university without our pro­ viding a special school .... Besides the "'Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 68-71; Boe, "Fath­ er's Life"; interview with Mrs. Nellie Erickson, Stoughton, daughter of Ananias Throndsen (Thomp­ son) ; Weenaas, Mindeblade, 4<3-49. ^^ Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 70, 74; Beretning, ''^Jensson, American Lutheran Biography, 83; 1871, 69, 76. Weenaas, Mindeblade, 33-35, 53-55.

256 MARSHALL ACADEMY great cost . . . such an institution will not of its congregations and its theological pro­ answer the purpose in this country. Nearly fessor to the Conference when the two church all instruction [at the Seminary] is in Nor­ bodies separated, liquidated the $4,000 debt wegian or German and the American language on Marshall Academy and continued to oper­ is thus neglected. . . . On the other hand, ate it, with John J. Anderson as president. in the university English is used in all courses Seventy-three students enrolled during 1870- and the student is trained to think and speak 1871, and there was little change in costs or in that language. . . ." curricula. There was, however, change in em­ And so the Conference considered both phasis. Instead of offering special pre-theo- Madison and Minneapolis as likely sites for logical and teacher training courses, the Aca­ Augsburg. The University of Wisconsin was demy engaged in general education. For that an older institution, Professor Rasmus B. An­ reason many members of the Synod who derson of the Scandinavian department cham­ thought the school was no longer fulfilling its pioned the move to Madison, and a consider­ original purpose questioned the advisability able sum of money was profered toward the of continuing the Academy, and Anderson was erection of a building. However, the Confer­ compelled to appeal to the constituency for ence chose Minneapolis, a city which promised support. Thanks to his appeals, as well as to to be a center for the westward-moving Norwe­ the loyal patronage of the Marshall residents, gians and whose greater railroad facilities enrollment increased but since financial sup­ could more easily bring students in from many port did not keep pace, the annual convention settlements. In addition, the University of of the Synod in 1874 permitted the board of Minnesota offered free instruction in English, trustees to continue operating the Academy and leading citizens promised a site and only on condition that no debt be incurred. enough money with which to construct a build­ Tuition and free-will contributions would have ing. Very likely a chief factor in the Confer­ to carry the entire financial load."" At the ence's favoring Minneapolis was the unflag­ ging interest and the fund-raising ability of the Reverend Ole Paulson, clergyman in Min­ '''Erpestad, Augustana College, 59-61; M. O. Ens- neapolis and later for a score of years in berg, "History of Augustana Academy" (1934), un- Blanchardville, who has often been called the "Father of Augsburg." And so for another year while a building was being erected on the outskirts of Minneapolis, Augsburg con­ tinued in Marshall under makeshift arrange­ ments. Weenaas, who considered his years at Marshall as his best in America, was not at all sure that the move to Minneapolis was an unmixed blessing. Marshall, with its undis­ turbed and beautiful rural setting and its healthful environment, was more conducive to study than was a large city. Nevertheless, Augsburg moved to Minneapolis in the sum­ mer of 1872 where it has remained to become the chief educational institution of the Luther­ an Free Church.'*' Meanwhile, the Norwegian-Danish Augus­ tana Synod, although losing over one half

Society's Iconographic Collection "Helland, Augsburg Seminar, 72-87; Beretning, Photograph of Marshall Academy, taken about 1920, 1871; Blegen, Norwegian Migration, 530-531; Wee­ after the Augustana Synod had sold the building to naas, Livserindringer, 138. the Marshall school hoard.

257 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

1874 convention the Synod also authorized gations to the institution. At the end of the the founding of a seminary near Decorah, year President Lysnes could report that the Iowa, and thus reduced further the interest of Seminary had fourteen students, eleven of its members in the Marshall Academy."* whom were in the preparatory department, A third factor made it even more difficult and all of whom received free tuition and for the Academy to survive, namely, the mi­ maintenance. A library of 475 volumes, an gration of Norwegian settlers and immigrants, endowment of $15,000, and 410 acres of land many of whom were members of Augustana, were the chief assets. By contrast the Acade­ to Dakota and western Iowa and Minnesota my, F. W. Dennison, principal, had an enroll­ where government land was available and ment of thirty-two, with two boys finishing where living costs were lower. As a result, the the course that year, the first graduates in Academy ceased to be the geographical cen­ the history of the school. Of the thirty^-two ter of the Augustana Synod and its church enrollees, fourteen were in the English course, activity. Selling the Marshall property and eleven in the classical, and seven in modern moving the school to a site more central to languages. Three students were preparing for its constituency became the next educational college. The chief assets of the Academy were objective, but, failing to meet with immediate a 300-volume library, an $18,000 endowment success in this move, the trustees of the Aca­ fund, a year's income of like amount, and a demy rented out the building for several years building valued at $6,000. to men who assumed full responsibility for the operation of the school, with the Synod TN spite of this encouraging report, however, providing all maintenance costs. In an effort -*- the Synod had to face the fact that its to revive further its educational project, the members were moving west and that, conse­ Synod in 1876 moved its seminary from De­ quently, the Marshall school could not serve corah to the Marshall Academy building and them effectively. In May, 1880, the board of named the Reverend David Lysnes, the theo­ trustees met at the church in Milwaukee to con­ logical professor, president of the institution. sider the matter. Professor Dennison there This reorganization of the school and the pointed out to them not only the fact of the presence of Lysnes in Marshall did much to western movement of population, but also that restore the confidence of people in their school the State University in Madison and North­ program. The chairman of the board of trus­ western College in Watertown, in close prox­ tees reported at the Synod convention, June, imity to Marshall, offered keen competi­ 1879, that "our school in Marshall has also tion for student recruitment. Two men who at­ this year been conducted successfully. The tended that board meeting in Milwaukee, and seminary has been attended by sixteen and who influenced greatly the course of action the academy by more than seventy students. taken, were James M. Wahl, former commis­ These together make a substantial number sioner of immigration for Dakota Territory, of students and compare well with other and Alexander Mitchell, of the Chicago, Mil­ schools around us of the same nature. . . .""' waukee and St. Paul Railroad. Wahl believed This restored confidence led the Synod to there would be land and building in Canton, make efforts to gather funds for salaries and South Dakota, for the school, while Mitchell the Academy's operating expenses. The en­ promised transportation of school goods on suing school year was marked by a closer co­ the projected railroad to that village."" ordination of the two divisions and by a great­ The trustees were ready to be convinced er awareness of financial and scholastic obli­ and so was the Synod. At their annual con­ vention in Clinton, Wisconsin, in June, 1880,

published manuscript in the archives of Augustana Academy, Canton, South Dakota; Den Norske Im­ migrant, February 2, 1871. ^ Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public """ Hatlestad, Historiske meddelser, 78. Instruction (Madison, 1880), 328-329; Erpestad, '"Erpestad, Augustana College, 62-66; Hatlestad, Augustana College, 67-70; Sioux Falls Posten, Jan­ Historiske meddelser, 79. uary 21, 1915.

258 MARSHALL ACADEMY

they authorized the board of trustees to move specified date, under the temporary direction the Synod's school from Marshall to such a of Wahl, with local pupils in attendance. The place in the West as would give them twenty Seminary and Academy continued in Marshall acres of land and a school building. How­ until the end of the school year. In spite of ever, when a committee went to Canton to its varying successes, the last years in Mar­ look over the situation, they found that the shall were among its best. "As it moved to people there could not agree on a site. Con­ its new location it possessed the vitality neces­ sequently, none was chosen. By contrast, Be­ sary to withstand the shock of being trans­ loit, Iowa, just across the Big Sioux River planted, to thrust deep roots into new soil, and from Canton, offered twenty acres and the to produce fruits that never would have been city's school building for $500 if the Seminary possible in the old location.""" would locate there. However, since the Synod Because of crowded conditions, the re­ had not authorized any expenditures, the located school, re-named Augustana Academy money would have to come from the contri­ and Seminary, was moved from Beloit to butions of local Synod members. The trus­ Canton, South Dakota, in 1884, where a col­ tees, some of whom were acquainted with the lege course was added to the curriculum. In building, accepted the offer immediately on 1917-1918 the college division merged with condition that the Academy open there for the the Lutheran Normal School in Soiux Falls, spring term, April 1, 1881. South Dakota, and the whole institution moved to that city. The Seminary remained in Beloit When the news of the decision reached the until 1890, when it was merged with a simi­ Marshall community, there was vigorous pro­ lar school in Minneapolis. In 1925 the Aca­ test against removing the institution from their demy returned to Canton. All three institu­ midst. Wahl, designated to supervise the mov­ tions today are sponsored by the American ing, met with much opposition led by William Lutheran Church."' H. Porter, a large property owner in the area. Securing little co-operation from the local resi­ After the removal of the Academy from dents, Wahl was forced to go to Madison for Marshall various organizations tried to oper­ transportation equipment. In the end, the ate a school in the building. Finally, on Au­ railroad provided wagons and teams for mov­ gust 24, 1885, the local school district pur­ ing property from the school to the railroad chased from the trustees of the Augustana station. The removal of the school bell, a Synod most of the land together with the ap­ gift from Endre Endresen Eidsvaag, father of purtenances and the following year established John Anderson, Marshall grocer, caused the a high school. About 1910-1912, during the greatest resistance. Porter and his followers period when educators came to believe that evidently considered the bell an integral part public high schools should prepare young peo­ of the building, and rumors had it that they ple not only for college but also for nonacade- planned to seize the bell by force. To avoid mic pursuits, the high school in Marshall was any such conflict Lysnes, whom the village the first in Wisconsin and one of the first in folk greatly respected, explained to the two the nation to introduce a systematic four-year dozen men assembled that Wahl was acting under the authorization of the Synod and that everyone including himself must yield to his orders. His words quieted the group, but just the same, the next morning before the "" Erpestad, Augustana College, 70-73; Sioux Falls Posten, January 28, Feburary 18, 1915; Boe, "Fath­ bell could be loaded into a railroad car, the er's Life," 38; Mathias Lindas to Thom Halvorson, sheriff appeared with replevin papers and Feburary 28, 1869, in the Lindas Papers. It was not took possession.'* until two years later that the case was settled out of court and the bell was returned to its rightful own­ After the big snow of 1880-1881 had sub­ ers. It arrived in Beloit on September 13, 1883, and after having been moved to various places is today sided, the two carloads of school and house­ on the campus of Augustana College in Sioux Falls, hold equipment, furnishings, and books ar­ where it is rung on important occasions. rived in Beloit. Although the storm also de­ " Erpestad, Augustana College, 73-74. "' Olaf M. Norlie, History of the Norwegian People tained the faculty, the school opened on the in America (1925), 281-282, 284.

259 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 course in agriculture. Frequently during that In the late 1930's, when a new high school pioneer stage interested persons from other building was constructed, the Academy was states, piloted by personnel from the Univer­ purchased by the American Legion Post and sity's Department of Agriculture, with which was used as a community center. Finally, in the course was connected, visited and ob­ 1959 Francis Keener of Marshall bought the served the workings of this new venture in property and razed the building with the in­ rural high school education."" tention of using the site for residential lots.""

"• Records in the Register of Deeds Office, Dane Journal of Education, June, 1910; interview with ("ounty Courthouse, Madison; Fourteenth Biennial John A. James, chairman of Agricultural Education Report of the Department of Public Instruction (Mad­ at the University of Wisconsin from 1914 to 1954. ison, 1910), 39-54; C. H. Eldred, "Practical Agricul­ "" Madison Capital Times, November 20, 1959; ture in the Smaller High School," in the Wisconsin Deerfield Independent, December 3, 1959.

Fourth Cumulative Index Published The fourth cumulative index to the Wisconsin Magazine of History has just come off the press after almost a year of preparation. This index, along with the previous three, provides an invaluable key to the vast storehouse of information contained in the forty-five-year accumula­ tion of significant material on the history of Wisconsin and the Middle West since the first issue of the magazine in 1917. As a ready guide to people and places in the state's history, they are invaluable reference tools in their own right. The new index, containing over 20,000 entries, covers Volumes 36-45, spanning the period from Autumn, 1952, to Summer, 1962. A new fea­ ture—a classified bibliography of all articles contained in this ten-vear period—greatly enhances the index's value to schools, libraries, news­ papers, and the average subscriber. To make this excellent reference tool as widely available as possible, it is being sold at cost for $3.00. In addition, the three previous cumulative indexes are being reduced from $3.50 to $3.00 each. And for a limited time, all four indexes can be purchased at a discount price of $10 for the set, which includes:

Vols. 1-15 (1917-1931) Vols. 16-25 (1932-1942) Vols. 26-35 (1942-1952) Vols. 36-45 (1952-1962)

Orders or inquiries should be addressed: Business Office The State Historical Society of Wisconsin 816 State Street Madison, Wisconsin 5,3706

260 REVIEWS

The Documents Book: A Review Article

By CHARLES N. GLAAB

Paste pot and scissors seem to have be­ of introductions filled with claims to a new come standard tools of the historian's trade. approach and justifications of the need for As publishers compete in an ever-expanding precisely just such a collection as the reader college market, the anthology of historical has in hand, they often seem to differ only to documents, which can often be quickly and the extent that such old favorites as James painlessly prepared by clipping and assem­ Madison's Federalist Paper Number 10 and bling, has become an increasingly popular sub­ Upton Sinclair's description of Chicago meat­ stitute for the old-fashioned textbook. For packing are to be found on differently num­ several years, professional historians have bered pages. The reprinting of a neglected been turning out one collection after another work of American history usually leads to for use in first-year surveys of American his­ its being excerpted in the next five or six docu­ tory. These are seldom received with much ments books to appear—always accompanied, enthusiasm by teachers of history. In spite of course, with proper citations to the original, rare edition. The receipt of still another book of documents occasionally arouses the sour reflection that academics, with their hair-trig­ ger quickness to denounce shoddy materialism The Frontier Experience: Readings in the in American culture, yield rather easily to the Trans-Mississippi West. Edited by ROBERT V. pecuniary temptations offered by publishers HINE and EDWIN R. BINGHAM. (Wadsworth anxious to get a new product on the market Publishing Company, Belmont, California, as quickly as possible. 1963. Pp. v-viii, 418. Bibliographical notes, index of authors. $6.95.) Yet the tidal wave of documents books does deposit material of value; even the most Tile Leaven of Democracy: The Growth of slapdash collection often contains a selection the Democratic Spirit in the Time of Jackson. to be found otherwise only in a rare volume Edited by CLEMENT EATON. (George Brazil­ in a leading research library. Moreover, in ler, New York. 1963. Pp. v-xvi, 490. $8.50.) the last two \ears or so, there has been a per­ ceptible improvement in the quality of these The Nation Transformed: The Creation of an anthologies: if nothing else they are better Industrial Society. Edited by SIGMUND DIA­ designed and better printed. Perhaps out of MOND. (George Braziller, New York, 1963. competitive necessity, since even a fast-grow­ Pp. ix-xiv, 528. Bibliography. $8.50.) ing market can be glutted, publishers have

261 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING. 1964 also begun to concentrate on more specialized Robert V. Hine and Edward R. Bingham, period and topical documentary studies— Tlie Frontier Experience, which combines labor, the city, Jacksonian Democracy, the documents and contemporary readings on the twenties. Abolitionism—instead of relying on history of the trans-Mississippi West, is most further general collections. Many of these specifically designed for use in teaching. Al­ newer volumes are the product of imaginative though many of the selections are too short and diligent scholarship. The first three titles and occasionally unduly truncated, the book in the recent Anchor paperback "Documents has a number of excellent features. The cen­ in American Civilization Series," for example, tral theme, "the individualistic and the inno­ demonstrate that it is possible to supply fresh vative threads of frontier experience, versus insights into our history through an artful the cooperative and the traditional threads," use of varied materials—including pictorial is an important one; the editors have imagina­ records, title pages of books, and even sheet tively developed the theme by considering it music—from generally unknown sources. in the light of the interpretations of important Scholarly periodicals seldom evaluate docu­ recent writers on social psychology such as mentary collections designed for teaching or David Reisman and Erich Fromm. The gener­ general reading. The historian who under­ al introductions, the notes to the individual takes such a work can, without fear of cen­ selections, and the bibliographical essays are sure by his peers, do about as he pleases in relevant and clear. Through this work the stu­ shortening, rearranging, or rewriting docu­ dent can become acquainted with a number of ments. No one would seriously suggest that significant but generally unfamiliar nineteenth- the documents book ought to be held to the century writers on the West whose works standards applied to the formal historical are not available in modern editions—Joseph monograph. Yet it can occasionally make a G. McCoy on the cattle trade, Samuel Bowles limited contribution to historical scholarship, on western cities, and William Gilpin on ex­ and if it is to be judged in this light, the pansionist ideology, to cite only a few of the following elementary requirements might rea­ more interesting selections. The necessary sonably be imposed: theoretical items from Frederick Jackson Turn­ er are well chosen. Unlike many western his­ 1.) A substantial portion of the documents torians, the editors correctly recognize the sig­ in the book should not be available in other nificance of Henry Nash Smith's Virgin Land, similar collections. A document, by and large, terming it the "most original and influential ought to speak for itself. A new introduction work on the American West" since Turner. or a new arrangement with other documents They also show that many of Smith's ideas does not really change its contribution to the were anticipated by a University of California understanding of history. English professor, T. K. Whipple, in a 1929 2.) The documents should be reasonably article on "The Myth of the Old West." It is long and reasonably intact. The use of the through calling attention to neglected material familiar "snippet," the one-or-two-paragraph of this sort that the book of readings and docu­ selection, is perhaps the most annoying fea­ ments can not only ease the task of the teacher ture of the ordinary general documentary col­ of history but can also make a contribution lection. The accepted practice of drastic ex­ to historical scholarship. cision of documents to a large extent destroys the purpose of using them. For example, Clement Eaton, The Leaven of Democracy, late nineteenth-century style, in spite of its and Sigmund Diamond, The Nation Trans­ tediousness, tells us something worth knowing formed, are titles in a nearly completed sic- about the late nineteenth century. The ver­ volume "American Epochs Series," which re­ biage one finds in so much writing of the prints documentary material from "pivotal period should therefore be preserved if a periods' in American history. Unlike virtual­ legitimate historical point is to be made. ly all documentary collections, the series does 3.) A reasonable share of the documents not seem intended primarily for a student should be based on genuine research in varied market. The books are long, hardbound, and sources—government publications, manuscript expensive; they are probably too narrow in collections, and relatively unknown printed scope for use in most of the standard college works. The suspicion is strong that manv history courses. Eaton's volume, which deals document books are based only on research with the period 1820 to 1845, the Jacksonian in other document books. Era, is less analytical and less concerned with The collections considered here generally social, political, and economic ideology than meet these requirements. Of the three works. many of the recent collections on this period.

262 BOOK REVIEWS

The documents are primarily descriptive and taken as a whole probably place too much stress on sectional differences—on the West of the yeoman farmer, on the South of the plan­ STATE AND REGIONAL tation, and on the East of industry and cities. The editor relies to a large extent on travel accounts, often in rather brief excerpts, but it is worthwhile to have available fairly substan­ Birds of Wisconsin. By OwEN J. GROMME. tial selections from several of the rarer vol­ Assisted by Warren P. Dettmann and the Staff umes of this sort that are not reprinted in of the Milwaukee Public Museum. (University modern editions. A twenty-page introduction of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1963. Pp. xvi, provides a convenient summary of the exten­ 220. Illustrated with 105 color plates. Maps, sive scholarship on the Jacksonian period that diagrams, index. $22.50.) has been published in recent years. Sigmund Diamond, The Nation Trans­ This is a large, handsome book which will formed, which deals with the late nineteenth- delight bird lovers from the Sunday amateur century "Gilded Age" period, represents the to the sophisticated professional. It contains most substantial scholarly achievement of the formal portraits of 328 species in eighty-nine three works. The editor has exploited govern­ plates of Wisconsin birds, or, more broadly, ment reports, pamphlets, magazine articles, birds of the Great Lakes region. In addition, even such an obscure but obviously valuable Mr. Gromme has included sixteen reproduc­ source as the Transactions of the Society of tions from his wildlife paintings showing sev­ Mechanical Engineers, to come up with fresh eral birds "in action and in habitat." All but material on the period. He has used long se­ one of the formal plates are from water colors lections that fully indicate the character of the begun in 1941 and completed as late as 1962; work chosen. Where a familiar selection the action paintings are mostly oils. There is might well make his point, he has sought out a helpful Introduction but no text. one less familiar. (W. A. Peffer and not The book is remarkable on several counts. Ignatius Donnelly or Mary Elizabeth Lease First, because it is useful. It is, of course, no on the ideology of Populism; George D. Her- "field guide," owing to its size and weight. ron and not Walter Rauschenbusch on the So­ The "'backyard-feeder" group of seed-buyers cial Gospel.) Although his selections, and to some extent his introduction, perhaps over­ emphasize the noble worker-predatory robber baron theme, which for so long obscured un­ derstanding of the dynamics of a vital period of American history, this is of little impor­ tance. The lengthy excerpts from such signi­ ficant sources as Arthur F. Bentley's scholarly turn-of-the-century study of the western farm­ er or from George M. Beard's all but unnoted pioneering work in psychiatry, American Nervousness, would alone make the book val­ uable. The work successfully meets the aim of the series to provide a "compact library of the original sources which supply historians themselves with their basic material." If all editors held to Diamond's high standards of historical scholarship, there would be no basis for the persistent charge of shoddiness made against the documents book.

(Mr. Glaab, a frequent contributor to tfie Wisconsin Magazine of History, is associate professor of history at the Uni­ versity of Wisconsin—Milwaukee and Consultant lo the Society's Urban His­ Woodcock in flight, a painting by Owen J. Gromme tory Project.) in Birds of Wisconsin.

263 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING. 1964

sible the Check-List of the American Ornitho­ RED-SHOULDERED HAWK logists Union, he has made occasional changes Buteo llneatus in the standard order to solve particular prob­ lems. Many accidentals are purposely omitted, along with most extinct species, although the Passenger Pigeon, once abundant in the state and now lost everywhere, is majestically pre­ sented. Expansion of cities and pushing out of agricultural lands have changed the state's geography sufficiently to affect seriously birds' habits—nesting, feeding, migrating, and otherwise. These changes have lost the state some species, but, at the same time, they have added or attracted others. For example: Brewer's Blackbird and the Cattle Egret are newcomers, the latter so recently that its pic­ ture is grouped with some very unlikely com­ panions in the last formal plate. "Birds in action and in habitat," the sixteen plates of the final section, go a long way to who operate from an open book before a pic­ show the sensitive artistry of the painter who ture window will appreciate the accuracy of has depicted informally a variety of birds "at Mr. Gromme's paintings and will find them home" in Wisconsin. All but two of this group invaluable in summer, winter, and migrating" are from oil paintings owned privately or by seasons. Even more useful will it be to the the artist. thoughtful bird watcher who brings home from his excursions to swamp, lakeshore, or wood­ Lastly, and maybe most important, this is land, written or mental notes of his "dis­ a beautiful book. Certainly it will excite the coveries." bird lover more devotedly to pursue his hob­ by. Who knows, it may even break down the For the more serious enthusiast the pages hardy reserve of the inveterate and put-upon facing the excellent color plates offer suc­ "anti-birdwatcher." Most hopefully it will cinct information for expanding and improv­ instill in this generation and its children a ing his knowledge. Date lines contribute by fighting resolve that the "Silent Spring" will month periods of normal occurrence, build­ never come. up, and nesting; colored maps graphically give seasonal occurrence, and general and local distribution; and descriptive terms explain DAVID S. LOVEJOY status in Wisconsin varying from permanent University of Wisconsin to transient, abundant to very rare, acciden­ tal, or irregular. One might wish for more in­ formation here, particularly about migrations. The maps and date lines explain times of ar­ rival and departure and which birds, seen in the state, are only passing through. It might be helpful to know where Wisconsin birds The Rise of The Dairy Industry in Wiscon­ are when they are not in Wisconsin; that is, sin: A Study In Agricultural Change, 1820— where do they^ come from and where are they 1920. By ERIC E. LAMPARD. (The State His­ going? But in view of the promise by Mr. torical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1963. Gromme and staff at the Milwaukee Public Pp. xii, 466. Notes, bibliography, index. Museum to publish eventually a second volume $6.00.) or technical supplement, this is doubtless un­ fair criticism and indicates primarily impa­ In many ways this lively story should rank tience for more of their superb work. with the better nonfiction of the year. And, Experts will be interested in how well Mr. oddly perhaps for a book so readable, it also Gromme has arranged his portraits on the will pass muster among the stern scholars of page, grouping related birds where necessary many specialized fields. It will appeal to the so as not unduly to extend the number of historian who concerns himself with what plates. Although following" as closely as pos­ underlaid the great wars and the political

264 BOOK REVIEWS movements of the years 1820 to 1920. One of Wisconsin county fairs during the fifties leader of thought felt, for example, that the and sixties underlines the essentially domestic railroads would make the South better under­ character of most dairy production." So it stand the people of Wisconsin—their way of was not really until the latter seventies that life and thought—and thus avert the impend­ dairy farming became specialized as a man's ing Civil War. Instead the railroads tied Wis­ job. Farmers had tried most temperate-zone consin firmly to the Northeast. crops, including such unlikely enterprises as In Professor Lampard's book the economist, sugar cane, and had given up each after the almost regardless of his special interest, can evidence of red ink and heartbreak over­ study how our uncertain land policy worked whelmed the most stubborn. itself out on the frontier, how our sad poli­ The shift of manufacturing from farm to cies to regulate banking worked themselves out factory, the notions of "equity" in markets in terms of a man getting a farm and holding that resulted in butter and cheese "call it awhile—the tools, seeds, buildings, work boards," and other experiments in marketing animals, and minimum food for subsistence; and in legislation to control it, make good how the farmer chose locations and crops he reading and help to explain existing laws and could market for a little cash, because he al­ predispositions among dairy groups. ways had need for some cash (some things Of more general interest again is the con­ could not be had by barter nor raised on the cluding analysis of relationships among eco­ farm). The American student of economic nomics, politics, and ideology in the distinc­ development (a science now in fashion) can tive Wisconsin agricultural context. Wiscon­ find herein his theories of why foreign lands sin dairymen reacted to the stresses brought do things as they do and what policies they on by industrialization more like small busi­ should seek, much improved by insights into nessmen than like farmers elsewhere. This the development of his own country when on similarity was deeply rooted in the require­ every hand its institutions were primitive. ments for specialized dairying which these From these pages of our history he can tell farmers had met, and in the different behavior what innovations, technological, legal, and of milk prices compared to other farm prices. other, seemed to further the cause at sundry The relationship to the University of Wiscon­ stages of development. sin is intertwined with the scientific needs and The agriculturalists who bear an interest in the mentality for dairying, a sort of "Spen- the advance of the science of agricultural pro­ cerian faith in progress." duction will find depicted here the notions of Not all facets of the story are gratifying good management and why they were ignored in retrospect. The contemporary dairymen of or adopted under varied economic conditions. Wisconsin may smart at the news that nearly And so with a variety of others. It is refresh­ half our cheese was exported to Europe as late ing to find a book which treats with appro­ as 1879, but that the foreign market was lost priate precision a story which touches on the within the following decade because of adul­ field of several disciplines, but at the same teration practices which the industry refused time brings to life the people of the times, to police or to have publicly policed until along with the dairy industry as it emerged. too late. Ungratifying also is the long fight waged by the dairy farmer against public in­ Lampard's story is basically one of how the spection of farms and against the prohibition state came to specialize in dairying—"a least of tubercular herds among city milk sup­ comparative disadvantage" sort of thing. The pliers. But if one can "belly up" to the more industry migrated from New York state, heroic facts of history—that few of the simple abetted by the farm and factory culture of the things were true, but yet we came out where New Yorker who had begun settling in Wis­ we are—we may value what we have even consin in the first years of the nineteenth more highly. century. The story ends with 1920 when "The age The author points out that the transition of large scale organization was already begun from wheat growing to a balanced husbandry and the future lay more with the corpora­ was more hesitant and prolonged than most tion and the cooperatives." One can hope summary accounts have allowed. More than that Dr. Lampard or some student of his will two decades of trial and error were required deal with the last forty-five years in the same before a majority of Wisconsin farmers would able fashion. concede that the dairy was the main road to survival. "The predominance of farmers' HUGH L. COOK wives and daughters in the dairy departments University of Wisconsin

265 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

From Prairie to Corn Belt: Farming on the After setting the scene in this careful fash­ Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth ion, each major phase of specialized farm Century. By ALLEN G. BOGUE. (University operations receives careful scrutiny. The cat­ of Chicago Press. Chicago. 1963. Pp. 310. tle-feeding and droving business, the shifts $6.95.) in hog and sheep-raising, the use of draft animals, and the changing pattern of crops Although Professor Bogue modestly de­ are all examined in turn. In each case there scribes this book as an "exploratory essay is a story of adaptation to a new environment, or progress report," it is a distinctive and of improvements in the quality of animals original contribution to the history of Ameri­ and field crops, and of the search for the can agriculture. The focus is on the farm best combination of enterprises on individual operators in the "prairie triangle" of Iowa farms. Although the generalizations which and northern and central Illinois—the prob­ emerge are cautiously drawn, they are based lems they encounter, the decisions they make on the assumption of economic rationality as managers of a farm enterprise, the ad­ and freedom of choice which is occasionally justments forced on them by new and chang­ troubling. Surely some Iowa farmers pros­ ing conditions. Materials for this kind of pered without bothering very much about analysis are notoriously fragmentary and elu­ making hard decisions, and knowledgeable sive. That such a work could be written at ones failed—at least one such case is cited— all is a testament to the author's perseverance in spite of great efforts. It is here that the in dredging through available county his­ self-imposed limitation of analysis to the farm tories, local newspapers, manuscript census operation itself is least satisfactory. Without schedules, and other time-consuming sources. reference to the larger framework of the mar­ That it reads so well is a tribute to his felicity ket economy, how can we adequately judge in organizing and presenting this material. the effectiveness of a farmer's effort to get "the greatest return on his investment of The book begins by describing" the region, capital and labor"? But this is cavilling of the settlers, and the story of land acquisition a mean sort, for Professor Bogue has given and land-breaking. By refining the statistical us a more detailed and balanced analysis of data available from the state-wide census fig­ these matters than is found in most of the ures and from surviving county manuscripts, literature. a picture emerges which challenges many established shibboleths about agricultural pio­ This question of decision-making, innova­ neering. For example, the Scandinavian and tion, and response to new requirements in a German settlers have been described by ven­ maturing agricultural economy is the main erable historians of Wisconsin as "fillers in" concern of the last half of the book. There who purchased established farms from native are richly detailed presentations of the adop­ American pioneers. Bogue found these groups tion of machinery, the role of credit and taxa­ often in the vanguard in the rapid settlement tion, and the painful evolution of farm prac­ of Iowa, along with a liberal sprinkling of tices toward the kind of specialized produc­ the presumably urban-oriented Irish. His tion which is now characteristic of the "Corn foray into "pioneer demography" also pro­ Belt." Of particular interest are the case stu­ duced the suggestion that settlers were prob­ dies which illustrate this evolution through ably older than generally assumed, that many the skillful use of farmers' diaries. Many of them moved on again rapidly, and that Midwestern farm diaries have been published the foreign-born settlers were probably as as unique records of farm life, but they have mobile as the native American. rarely been used so thoughtfully as records The same kind of intensive examination is of farm management. next given to farm-making, and here is evi­ In the face of the author's own caveat—he dence aplenty that the problems of scarce has left such matters as tenancy, shipping and timber supplies and virtually intractable vir­ marketing problems, profits, and local eco­ gin soils presented challenges to which settlers nomic structure for another book—it is diffi­ ably responded long before they reached the cult to overplay the role of critic. What is Great Plains. They were slower in meeting here is solid, new, and illuminating. Still, I the difficulties presented by the wet prairies, found myself wishing for some comparisons but drainage techniques were complicated of "Corn Belt" agriculture with other farm­ and expensive, although they amply repaid ing regions. Perbaps the problems and op­ investment when applied later in the nine­ portunities in the prairie triangle were so teenth century. unique that broad comparisons are impos-

266 BOOK REVIEWS sible. But the reader needs to remind him­ anyone knowing Blegen's work would expect, self that this was—and still is—one of the and remarkably comprehensive within the richest farming areas in the world as he con­ limits of space. The range of material is sug­ siders the discussion of difficulties and solu­ gested in the titles of the twenty-seven chap­ tions. After finishing I was still left with ters: Land, Water, and Time; The Redman the nagging, probably unanswerable question: Through Many Moons; The French Look If he could gain a foothold in the first few West; Minnesota and New France; The Bri­ years, how much competence as a manager did tish and a Lakeside Emporium; The Ameri­ a farmer need to succeed in the prairie tri­ cans Build Fort Snelling; Under the American angle? Or did he just have to come? That Flag; Tribal Feuds and a Fur Barony; Preach­ such ultimate questions could be asked at all ers, Word Hunters, Teachers; "The Green is in itself the ultimate salute to a pioneer­ Tree of Empire"; Brave New Pioneer World; ing study. A State is Born; Minnesota and the Civil War; With this work, and the recent book on Wis­ The Sioux Go on the Warpath; Postwar consin by Eric Lampard, the agricultural his­ Change; With Ax and Saw; Dual Domain tory of the Midwest has taken a long stride (wheat raising and milling) ; Red Earth, Iron forward in its methods, its concerns, and its Men, and Taconite; Land and Ideas in Tran­ historical imaginativeness. sition; Education Moves Ahead; Toward So­ cial Maturity; Peace, Turbulence, and War; The Advancing Arts; The Theater and the MORTON ROTHSTEIN Book World; Depression, Readjustment, and University of Wisconsin War; Changing Modern Scenes; Social Cur­ rents, Politics, and Problems. Although there is no formal bibliography, there is a twenty- page essay on further readings for anyone in­ terested in pursuing any of the subjects fur­ Minnesota: A History of the Slate. By THEO­ ther. DORE C. BLEGEN. (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1963. Pp. xiv, 688. Illus­ Blegen's interests in local history, folklore, trations, maps, bibliography, index. $8.50.) and immigration are all reflected throughout the volume. Hence it is not surprising that Dean Theodore C. Blegen is widely known Wendelin Grimm, for his work on alfalfa, in many capacities: over his long career as and Peter M. Gideon, for his work on fruit professor of history at Minnesota he has con­ and particularly the Wealthy apple, get almost tributed extensively to the literature of Min­ as much space in the book as do the Minne­ nesota history and to the history of immigra­ sota Grangers. The chapter on lumbering in­ tion; he has been one of the moving spirits in cludes a brief treatment of the folklore of the the Norwegian-American Historical Associa­ loggers with a suitable discussion of the twen­ tion; for twenty years he served as dean of tieth-century creation of Paul Bunyan and the the Graduate School of the University of Min­ Blue Ox. Although the reader is constantly nesota. In the preface of the book under re­ made aware of the prominence of the Yankees view Dean Blegen says that for many years and the Scandinavians in the development of he has wanted to try his hand at "writing the the state, Blegen also underscores the fact that Minnesota story for the general public—citi­ many people from many lands had a part zens of Minnesota and the people elsewhere in building Minnesota. It is possible, how­ who may be interested." Retirement from the ever, that the great knowledge and the broad Graduate School gave him time, and the An­ sympathy which informs these pages has also dersen Foundation gave him financial support, served to mute a part of the story. The ex­ to write this one-volume history of the state. citement and the turbulence that has often The book is one that will quickly take its place characterized Minnesota political life does not among the best of our state histories. show through these pages very clearly. But The 600 pages of text are divided so that this may be in accord with Blegen's view of approximately one-third of the volume covers history. In the concluding paragraphs he de­ the story up to the Civil War, the second clares that ". . . history is people. It is the third deals with the period from the Civil record of their doings, tbeir hopes and dreams, War to the first World War, and the last third their successes and failures. ... It is people carries the account into the early 1960's. The who built Minnesota. They started and bore material is organized in a chronological, topi­ its movements and parties and institutions. cal scheme. The narrative is rich in detail, as They created the actualities recorded in sta-

267 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 tistical tables." And, he reminds us, the peo­ ner are to be commended for their joint ef­ ple include both the illustrious and the humble. forts. Presumably, Swichkow, a rabbi in Mil­ Historians sometimes get themselves into waukee for the past twenty-five years and the intramural arguments about whether state and author of a doctoral dissertation on the early local history is worth the attention of the pro­ history of the Jews of Milwaukee, focused on fessional historian. This book should clearly the research materials of his city, while Gart­ demonstrate, if it is really necessary, that the ner, the author of a definitive work on Jewish answer is yes, whenever it attracts the atten­ immigration to England in the nineteenth cen­ tion of a man of broad and responsible schol­ tury and currently a member of the faculty at arship. the Jewish Theological Seminary, collaborated with him on the organization, the style, and the contents of the finished product. VERNON CARSTENSEN Univer.tity of Wiscon.sin Their history falls into three periods: the "Pioneering Years," from 1844 to 1870; the "Years of Growth," from 1870 to 1925; and the "Generation of Crisis," from 1925 to 1950. A History of the Jews of Milwaukee. By The development of the Jewish community of LOUIS J. SWICHKOW and LLOYD P. GARTNER. Milwaukee differs little from the evolution of (Jewish Publication Society, Philadelphia, other Jewish communities of comparable size 1963. Pp. xii, 533. $6.00.) and age. The first period is characterized by the early migration of central European Jews A meaningful criticism of A History of to Milwaukee. In the second period, these the Jews of Milwaukee is possible only within immigrants and their children adjusted them­ the context of a discussion on the future of selves to American life while the east Euro­ American-Jewish historiography. A fork in pean Jews steadily streamed into the city to the road has been reached. Although a num­ begin their process of adaptation. In the ber of excellent local Jewish histories have final phase, with large-scale immigration into been written in recent years, historians of the United States ended as a result of the Im­ Jewish communities must now forsake the migration Act of 1924, most of the native- well-worn paths and incorporate into their born Jews achieved middle-class status and studies some of the insights and the techniques a high level of adaptation to American life. that have been characteristic of recent trends From 1925 to 1950 American Jews developed in American historiography. The American a variety of religious, cultural, and social or­ historian has already discovered the value of ganizations to meet their own needs, to allevi­ shifting his focus from narrow political his­ ate the suffering created by the Nazi holocaust, tory to broader social and intellectual history. and to aid in the creation of the state of Israel. More recently, many have been moving There are few surprises in this book; the towards some reconstruction of the interior story of the acculturation of the Jews of Mil­ psycho-sociological dimensions of their sub­ waukee to American life is a familiar one. jects. A reiteration of descriptive history— With meticulous care, with much empathy the rise and fall of organizations and move­ and refreshing candor, Swichkow and Gartner ments—will no longer serve as a fruitful furnish the reader with a chronicle of Mil­ object of research for the American-Jewish waukee's Jews: the peddler and his pack, the historian. How quickly they move to a more cigar-maker, the tailor, and the early clothing profound analysis of their subject will de­ manufacturer. In the late nineteenth century termine the future quality of their historio­ and the early twentieth it is no longer uncom­ graphy. mon to find within the Jewish community a However, as an example of the traditional number of Jewish physicians, teachers, law­ genre, A History of the Jews of Milwaukee yers, and, in the figure of Victor Berger— is a fine book—thoughtfully researched, care­ the nationally famous Socialist—a major po­ fully planned, and ably written. One of a litical figure. In response to the changing series of studies on local Jewish communities characteristics of the American economy and published by the Jewish Publication Society a greater degree of acculturation to American under the supervision of the Regional History life, the Jews of Milwaukee in recent decades Series of the American History Center of the have entered in an ever-increasing number the Jewish Theological Seminary, this book should clerical and service occupations, the arts and be a source of pride to its authors and spon­ the sciences, and the professions. As a conse­ sors. Louis J. Swichkow and Lloyd P. Gart­ quence of social and economic changes, Jews

268 BOOK REVIEWS have altered their conception of the Deity, The Clam River Focus. By WILL C. MCKERN. their ways of worshipping Him, their recrea­ (Milwaukee Public Museum Publications in tional interests, and the location of their Anthropology, Number 9, Milwaukee, 1963. homes. Acculturation for the "German" Jews Pp. X, 77. Frontispiece, 57 figures, bibliogra­ in the latter decades of the nineteenth century phy. $3.00 plus 10(i postage.) meant the purchase of an organ and the ban­ ning of skullcaps, the use of English and the In this publication Will C. McKern reports abandonment of Hebrew for their Protestant­ on archaeological excavations directed by him like Temple Service, as well as an ambivalent in 1935 and 1936 at two Indian mound sites attitude of compassion and condescension in Burnett County, Wisconsin. The title Clam toward the east European Jews who continued River Focus is a cultural designation which to migrate into their city as refugees from was first used in 1942, when it appeared in Tsarist oppression. In later years these east the Wisconsin Magazine of History in a review European Jews produced their own reform of Wisconsin prehistory by McKern entitled movement—their own adjustment to Ameri­ "The First Settlers of Wisconsin." can mores and values—and called it Conser­ Both mounds reported were "compound vative Judaism. Throughout the history of mounds" representing small original mounds the Jews of Milwaukee, as was the case every­ to which several mantles of earth with burials where, Jews sought to create a cultural and were added at intervals. Hearth areas were social synthesis which would mediate between features of the primary mounds in both cases. their own religio-ethnic needs and the larger A large bed of red ocher was a unique fea­ culture in which they lived. ture of the Clam Lake Mound; burials in Unlike other chroniclers of American-Jew­ sub-floor pits were found only in the Spencer ish communities, Swichkow and Gartner do not Lake Mound. A total of 109 interments were deify the past. The Jew who came to Ameri­ found, each one a "secondary" burial or re­ ca before the Civil War is an object of his­ interment of skeletal remains from bodies ori­ torical research, not an instrument of public ginally placed on scaffolds in the Sioux man­ relations. Similarly candid are other parts ner. Cultural materials found included notched of their book: intermarriages and conversions and unnotched triangular projectile points, to Christianity do take place, political charla­ end scrapers, pottery vessels, pottery pipes, a tans may be Jewish, and central European sandstone arrowshaft smoother, fragments of Jews who settled in Milwaukee early did resent beaver fur and textile, and well-preserved the myriad of Russian Jewish immigrants. examples of birch-bark wrappings and con­ Furthermore, the authors have a grasp of the tainers. broader historical context within which their The strong points of McKern's presentation particular study falls. Their familiarity, for are in the category of "archaeological infer­ example, with conditions in Bismarck's Ger­ ence." This is illustrated by the manner in many, the Russia of the Tsars, and the devel­ which he reconstructs the life-history of each opments in late nineteenth-century America, mound and interprets the field data to arrive structures and illuminates their study of Mil­ at the customs and practices of the Indians as waukee's Jews. Their treatment of the men they might have been described in an ethno­ and movements within the Jewish community graphic study. The publication is very well il­ is objective and dispassionate (in some in­ lustrated, clearly written, and contains a mini­ stances, perhaps, too much so). Clarity and mum of professional jargon. The conclusions understanding are characteristic of their por­ are little different from those briefly reported trayal of Chassidic rehbes and Reform rabbis, in his 1942 summary article, i.e., that evidence their discussion of the fission in Zionist ideo­ points to the Eastern or Santee Sioux as the logy and the decline of Yiddish secularism. authors of the mounds and to construction Crammed into this book is a great deal of over a period of time ending within the period information about the Yiddish press, the rise of French contact. of the Y.M.H.A., the variety of rabbis who served the congregations of the community, The association of the Santee with the and the origins of the Settlement Cook Book. mounds depends importantly upon the age of All in all, an informative and competent his- the mounds. The long chopping stroke of a toryr of the Jews in Milwaukee. steel axe, observed on a charred timber in one mound, indicates post-European construction, but the absence of glass beads, brass orna­ JULIUS WEINBERG ments, or other trade materials indicates that Wayne Slate University contacts with Europeans were still very limited.

269 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

No explanation is offered for deleting refer­ the church than for the historian of American ence to the presence of a horse skull in one immigration. Three essays are concerned with mound, a find mentioned in publications six education. C. Emanuel Carlson discusses the times between 1936 and 1952. immigrant's adjustment to the American pub­ McKern looks mainly to northern Minne­ lic school; Doniver A. Lund writes about the sota for archaeological cultures with traits re­ relations between Augustana and Gustavus lated to those found in the Clam River Focus. Adolphus College, both creations of the He does not, for instance, interpret the re­ church; and Paul M. Lindberg recounts the lationship of the Clam River Focus to Effigy effort of Augustana Lutherans to develop Mound Culture or to other cultures of the academies and their futile competition with Woodland Pattern elsewhere in Wisconsin, the public high school. Emory Lindquist's though in 1945 he published a revised clas­ essay deals in general terms with the founding sification of prehistoric Wisconsin Indian cul­ of Lindsborg, Kansas, and Bethany College. tures in which the Clam River Focus and a Several of these contributions are outstand­ Shawano Focus west of Green Bay were shown ing and important for historians of American to be closely akin (Milwaukee Public Museum immigration. 0. Fritiof Ander, our leading Bulletin XVI, 3: 118). It would be valuable authority on Swedish immigration, has writ­ to have on record the relationships he saw ten about the Swedish immigrant community then. This publication provides a substantial during the Progressive Era, and deals, in body of data on the survival of Woodland cul­ scholarly fashion, with many aspects of Swed­ ture in northern Wisconsin in the late pre­ ish immigration. Carl L. Nelson briefly dis­ historic and protohistoric period. It should cusses the sacred music of Swedish immi­ help to stimulate needed activity in this arch- grants, and Nils Hasselmo has an excellent aeologically little-known part of the state. article on "Language in Exile" which deals with language as the symbol of cultural unity, ROBERT L. HALL the decline in the use of the mother tongue Illinois Slate Museum after World War 1, and the development of a Swedish-American vocabulary which "bris­ The Swedish Immigrant Community in Tran­ tles with anglicisms." F. Herbert Capps has contributed a scholarly analysis of the atti­ sition: Essays in Honor of Dr. Conrad Bergen- tude of the Swedish-American press and isola­ doff. Edited by J. IvERNE DowiE and ERNEST tion, from 1914 to 1945. M. ESPELIE (Augustana Historical Society, Rock Island, 1963. Pp. x, 246. $4.95.) G. Everett Arden evaluates the primary sources for denominational historiography and In 1875, the "Swede College" known as the importance of the synod's minutes and Augustana was moved to Rock Island, Illinois, the annual reports of the Augustana Church. on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi, which Edgar M. Carlson has contributed an appre­ was called Zion Hill. At the dedication cere­ ciative essay on Dr. Bergendoff's services as a monies, the Augustana Silver Cornet Band college administrator. The latter's own essay played Ein Teste Burg, the battle hymn of on "Augustana in Transition" contains some Lutheran Protestantism. A Christian college, interesting reminiscences of his earlier career always closely identified with Lutheranism, as the son of an immigrant family. The biblio­ Augustana College and Seminary developed graphy of Dr. Bergendoff's publications, com­ into one of the outstanding" liberal arts colleges piled by Ernest M. Espelie and arranged al­ in the Middle West. Much of its progress was phabetically under several categories, covers due to the leadership of the man to whom fourteen pages. Less than a half dozen articles this Festschrift is dedicated. appeared in historical journals and have spe­ As generally happens with such undertak­ cial reference to the history of immigration; ings, these essays vary greatly in merit and almost all of Dr. Bergendoff's writing has importance. J. Iverne Dowie begins the series been in his special field of theology and church "with a lively and interesting account of the affairs. The volume is attractively printed and setting in which the college grew to maturity. is a credit to the Augustana Press, which the Gunnar Westin's chapter on the causes of scholar-administrator to whom these essays Swedish immigration from 1840 to 1850 adds are dedicated has done much to develop and little that is new and emphasizes religious rea­ support. sons. Karl A. Olsson's essay on Peter Paul Waldenstrom seems to the uninitiated in theo­ CARL WITTKE logical matters to have more importance for Western Reserve University

270 BOOK REVIEWS

provoking and inspiring—of this literate and GENERAL HISTORY articulate young leader in the White House in 1962. This important documentary series was begun by the General Services Administra­ Public Papers of the Presidents of the United tion in 1957 in response to the recommenda­ States: John F. Kennedy, 1962. (United tions of the National Historical Publications States Government Printing Office, Washing­ Commission. The volumes are edited by mem­ ton, 1963. Pp. Iv, 1019. Frontispiece, notes, bers of the staff of the Office of the Federal index. $9.00.) Register with assistance from the National Archives and White House. Through these This volume is the second issued to docu­ publications scholars have access to many ment the administration of the late President Presidential documents which otherwise would Kennedy and the twelfth published in the be ephemeral, scarce, and in many instances series designed to cover the Presidential terms almost impossible to locate in other sources. since 1945. Five hundred and fifty-seven To date the series covers the entire adminis­ speeches, public messages, transcripts of press tration of President Eisenhower, the first two conferences, and policy statements compose years of President Truman's terms, and the the 1962 volume. "This accumulation of docu­ first two years of President Kennedy's ad­ ments," wrote President Kennedy in the Fore­ ministration. Future volumes will complete word, "suggests the immense variety of prob­ coverage of the Truman and Kennedy years, lems with which a President of the United and presumably will continue with the ad­ States in the 20th century must deal. It also ministration of Lyndon B. Johnson. All vol­ tells the story of a year rich in challenge— umes issued in the series are for sale by the and a year in which, I believe, the people of Superintendent of Documents, Government the United States can take legitimate pride." Printing Office, Washington, D. C. This was the year of the Cuban crisis. Many documents dated in the autumn months JOSEPHINE L. HARPER relate directly or indirectly to this event, but The Stale Historical Society of Wisconsin throughout the volume a high proportion of other papers illustrate the constant signifi­ cance of world-wide international politics and economics in the life of the United States and Henry Demurest Lloyd and tfie Empire of its chief executive. Other documents deal with Reform. By CHESTER MCARTHUR DESTLER. a wide range of domestic matters, including (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadel­ aeronautics and the space program, medical phia, 1963. Pp. 657. Illustrations, notes, care for the aged, control of drugs and nar­ bibliography, index. $12.00.) cotics, natural resources and the development of national recreation areas, racial problems The author of this fact-filled book has de­ in education and housing, labor and man­ voted probably the major fraction of his agement relations, and the Democratic mid­ scholarly career to the research its writing term political campaigns. has required. Well over three decades ago I Concise explanatory footnotes and cross- met Destler for the first time. I found him in references follow each document. The papers the Manuscripts Division of the State Histo­ are presented in chronological order, but a rical Society of Wisconsin, already hard at detailed subject index will meet the needs of work on the Lloyd papers. He has been work­ researchers interested in a classified arrange­ ing on Lloyd's career ever since. His investi­ ment. Appendixes list press releases. Presi­ gations have led him into over sixty^ different dential documents published in the Federal manuscript collections in over thirty different Register, Presidential reports to Congress, and places. He has also, as far as it was humanly rules governing the format, scope, and dis­ possible, read everything Lloyd ever wrote, tribution of the volume. Although designed and everything that anyone else ever wrote as a reference and source publication, ad­ about Lloyd. Apparently he has also read most mirers of the late President will find in it a of the important books that Lloyd himself fine frontispiece photographic portrait of him read, and has sought to evaluate their influ­ and may enjoy reading and pondering the ence upon Lloyd's thought. Not many books words—formal and informal, sometimes seri­ on any subject reveal such dedicated and ous, occasionally humorous, but often thought- meticulous research.

271 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964

Lloyd may best be described as the nine­ Destler is to be congratulated on rescuing teenth-century forerunner of twentieth-century so many details of Lloyd's life from oblivion. Progressivism—the first of the muckrakers. Unfortunately, Lloyd did not keep a diary, As a member for many years of the Chicago and the book, perhaps mainly on this account, Tribune's editorial staff, he aimed deadly is weakest on the personal side; Lloyd's shafts at every unrestrained monopoly in sight, thoughts and deeds emerge somewhat apart an attitude that in the middle eighties cost him from the man himself. Only rarely does the his official connection with the paper. He was author intrude his own opinions; in the main active in nearly every reform cause from the he lets the record speak for itself. The docu­ Free Trade League to the People's Party. His mentation is massive—seventy-five pages at "Story of a Great Monopoly," which appeared the back of the book. To save space the full in March, 1881, called striking attention to bibliography, except for manuscripts cited, is what was going on in American industry, and available only in the Library of Congress. The his Wealth Against Commonwealth, published index is ample, if not sufficiently analytic, in 1894, documented the case in great detail. and contains the name of almost every im­ Ida M. Tarbell owed so much to Lloyd's pre­ portant individual of Lloyd's time. vious investigations that she was even accused, quite incorrectly, of plagiarism. JOHN D. HICKS Fortunately for his scholarly instincts, Lloyd University of California, Berkeley was a man of means. This fact he owed in considerable part to his well-to-do father-in- law, William Bross, who held an interest in the Tribune, and was able to advise Lloyd on William Frederick Poole and the Modern Chicago investments. Thus Lloyd, at least Library Movement. By WILLIAM LANDRAM after his Tribune days, was free to indulge WILLIAMSON. (Columbia University Press, his taste for reading, and reflection, and dis­ New York, 1963. Pp. x, 203. Illustrations, cussion. At the Wayside, his home in Winnet­ notes, bibliography, index. $6.00.) ka, Illinois, and at The Watch House, his sum­ mer establishment near Newport, Rhode The professional life of William Frederick Island, he gathered together, consulted with, Poole spanned the last half of the nineteenth and inspired to greater efforts numerous century when the modern American library kindred spirits in reform. He traveled exten­ movement was taking shape, and which might sively abroad, met forward-looking leaders properly be regarded as its most significant everywhere he went, appropriated their ideas years. Poole began his library career as a for American application. He was particularly student at Yale College when he became a impressed by the program of Labor in Eng­ member of the staff of the library of the land, and the successes of Socialism in New Brothers in Unity Literary Society; this orga­ Zealand. He fought a last good fight in 1902 nization's collection, at that time, was more against the anthracite coal "trust." His in­ important than the college library itself, and tellectual leadership, had he lived out a normal it was later consolidated with the books of life span, would have served the Progressive the Linonian Literary Society to form the "L cause well. and B" collection now so well known to every Yale alumnus. In later years Poole directed Lloyd was thus a reformer rather than a the fortunes of the Mercantile Library of Bos­ revolutionary. Like many other critics of ton, the Boston Athenaeum, the Cincinnati the times, he "wavered between moderate and Public Library, the Chicago Public Library, radical measures," but to his dying day he and the Newberry Library, all of them con­ refused to become a party-line Socialist. Many sisting of collections outstanding in his day. times he confronted this issue, and toward the He knew intimately most of the great pioneers end of his life he almost succumbed to the of nineteenth-century American librarianship: temptation. But, according to Destler, he de­ Charles C. Jewett, Justin Winsor, Charles A. cided against the move and "kept the Socialist Cutter, Melvil Dewey. Walter Stanley Biscoe, party membership application card unsigned William I. Fletcher, Charles Evans: and he in his files." Even in his "farthest left devia­ fought with many of them. In New York in tion" he rejected the Marxist demand for "a 1853 he was an active participant in the first completely coUectivised economy" and, except national library conference, and he was one for a few restricted areas, favored the reten­ of the founders of the American Library As­ tion of individual ownership. sociation, subsequently becoming its president.

272 BOOK REVIEWS

His pre-eminence in library affairs is further library progress during the period of which evinced by the number of libraries for which it treats. The published version, so the author he served as consultant. In addition to being tells us in the introduction, "is based upon a a distinguished librarian, he was a president much longer doctoral dissertation" submitted of the American Historical Association and a to the University of Chicago, and thereon contributor to Winsor's Memorial History of hangs our only criticism. If the present work Boston and Narrative and Critical History of is a fair sample of the whole from which it America. He was especially industrious in was taken, we can not but regret the decision urging increased attention to the history of by the Columbia University Press to publish the Northwest, making that section of the coun­ no more than this abbreviated form. Never­ try the subject of his presidential address be­ theless, every serious student of American his­ fore the A.H.A. As Poole's library activities tory will be grateful for the volume as it were the basis for lasting friendships with the stands. library pioneers of his day, so bis concern This reviewer can not conclude without with historical study brought him into close adding one personal note. Not long before we working relations with such eminent historians left the faculty of the University of Chicago, as Herbert B. and Charles Kendall Adams, Bill Williamson began the task of which the George Bancroft, Clarence W. Bowen, and present volume is the fruition. We well remem­ Andrew D. White. He was largely responsible ber many pleasant discussions during the ear­ for the planning of the program of the World's liest stages of the work, and we like to think Historical Congress held in conjunction with that we may have played some small part in Chicago's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and its encouragement. it was Poole who presided over its initial ses­ sions. JESSE H. SHERA But at best the name of Poole is not writ Western Reserve University large in the annals of American historiogra­ phy. To most librarians and patrons of li­ braries it signifies the subject indexing of per­ Independent Historical Societies: An Enquiry iodical literature. The idea for such a biblio­ into Their Research and Publication Func­ graphical undertaking seems to have come to tions and Their Financial Future. By WALTER Poole when, as a member of Brothers staff, MUIR WHITEHILL. (The Boston Athenaeum; he became familiar with an eight-page pamph­ distributed by Harvard University Press, let compiled by John Edmands entitled Sub­ 1962. Pp. xviii, 593. Notes and index. $12.50.) jects for Debate, with References to Authori­ ties. This little publication was the first of a In the spring of 1960 the State Historical group of bibliographic aids prepared by the Society of Wisconsin was graced by a short studentdibrarians at Brothers, and Poole him­ visit from the urbane author of this volume self prepared a forerunner to the monument­ and his charming wife, then on the final leg al Index bearing his name which first ap­ of a nationwide survey of historical societies peared in print in 1848. Second and third edi­ in preparation for writing this book. Masking tions were published in 1853 and 1882 respec­ their fatigue like the gentle people they are, tively, and though Poole's association with the Whitehills looked and talked with relish the undertaking largely ceased with the third and collected the then-current periodicals and edition, supplements were issued until the early reports of the Society. It was for us a pleas­ years of the present century, when competi­ ant visit. tion from Halsey Wilson's Readers' Guide The chapter which emerged from this ex­ brought dissolution. perience and other research does no disserv- William Frederick Poole and the Modern vice to this Society, which, Whitehill observed, Library Movement is a contribution of major "attempts ... to ride both horses" of scholar­ importance to American library history and, ly and popular history. He was impressed as its title suggests, is much more than a con­ with the scholarly resources and the uses to ventional biography. Quite wisely, Williamson which they have been put, but the popular ef­ (who is at present librarian of the Butler forts of the Society were tempting targets for Library at Columbia University) has elected his wit. to interpret his subject's work in the context Indeed, the whole volume is a tribute to of American librarianship during the last half his exquisite humor (not always deft), for of the nineteenth century. Thus, in a very real it is this which carries him through moun­ sense, the volume is a kind of synthesis of tainous detail about independent, state, and

273 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1964 local historical agencies and associations and dling of legislatures implies "conditions of makes of a compendium a readable volume. reciprocal back-scratching by voters and leg­ For bringing together in one volume a host islators [which] might affect the general of details with a minimum of error, about so policies of a society," as Whitehill notes in a many historical agencies, he has done a com­ footnote, does not cultivation of private ben­ mendable service. But for painting so wide a efactors imply a certain amount of bending picture on so narrow a canvas and for fram­ and weaving? The actuality in both cases is ing it so inadequately, Whitehill has failed his substantially less than malignant, and White- mission and his purpose. hill's brave statement that "the independent The book is an apologia for independent— historical society is as reliable and suitable that is, privately supported—historical socie­ a recipient of such funds as a university or a ties which cluster on the Eastern seaboard laboratory" is easily applicable to the major with such elegance and distinction that one public historical societies. wonders why an apologia is needed. The an­ Quite properly he reserves his choicest swer is clearly stated in the preface: the White­ thrusts for those museums and restorations hill study, conceived by the leading independ­ for which excitement is the chief criterion and ents and subsidized by the Council for Library numbers of visitors the chief reward. The Research, is a platform on which to base fi­ tourist trap has long been a favorite target, nancial requests by the independent societies and Whitehill pens his "J'accuse" with the to individual and foundation benefactors. In authority of a master. Since his sympathies the name of history, the independents have are so much on the side of the scholarly in­ girded themselves for the battle for funds stitution, his jibes at historic sites are too all- against the scientists. inclusive. He judges them, he writes, on the basis of "the extent to which efforts in his­ This is one element of Whitehill's panora­ toric preservation have contributed to re­ mic picture, and the independents occupy the search and publication in American history," foreground in the sympathetic postures, while and there follows a brief listing of titles ema­ the background is a maze of shadowy organi­ nating from respectable historical restora­ zations of questionable origin and practices. tions. The fact that an exhibit or a restora­ His subtitle declares his work to be an en­ tion is in itself a publication is of no conse­ quiry into the "research and publication func­ quence to him, although he does admit that tions" of independent historical societies, yet some restorations are the product of meticu­ over half of the book is devoted to the other lous research. kinds of historical societies and associations. By adopting a strait-laced definition of "re­ This is a large book, a compendium after the search and publication," he is able to cast eighteenth century, with a point of view, a light and shadow almost at will. Research and flair, and a moral. Soon after it was pub­ publication, in his view, are largely confined lished, a group of representatives of public to the monographic work of the professional­ historical societies were sitting around a table ly trained historian. Other forms of publica­ discussing its virtues and vices. Someone tion which require intensive and even original urged that a book should be written about research, such as museum exhibits, history for public historical societies to offset the impact juveniles and for adult laymen, radio and tele­ of this book. "Yes," quipped another in ad­ vision programs, historic sites restorations, miration, "and we should get Whitehill to and the like, are dismissed as a drain on the write it." We should, indeed. financial and physical resources which should be concentrated on scholarly pursuits. LESLIE H. FISHEL, JR. The Stale Historical Society of Wisconsin Whitehill fusses diligently over his color scheme. He sees publicly supported historical societies—in Reuben Gold Thwaites' word— Will Success Spoil Jeff Davis? Tlie Last Book "coddling" legislatures, but the legislative pro­ About the Civil War. By T. LAWRENCE CON­ cess is a vast gray area to him. In truth, this NELLY, with illustrations by CAMPBELL GRANT. process can not be reduced to a word or a (McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. phrase, if only because it is exceedingly more 1963. Pp. 143. $3.95.) complicated and less devious than any word or phrase can suggest. On the other hand, the If this book were read aloud, any listener work of building endowments and attracting might think he was in the midst of a generally special gifts is a comparable process, equally amusing cocktail party at the home of a complicated and straightforward. If the cod­ learned but somewhat frivolous professor of

274 BOOK REVIEWS

American history. Some chapters, like some take apart national Civil War Centennialism party talk, compel attention and evoke a (author's definition of his topic). genuinely risible response. Other chapters con­ Re-enactments, souvenir sellers, armchair vince one that his time would be spent better strategists. Civil War nomenclature, and third- elsewhere, perhaps with Bill Nye or Robert generation regional patriotism all take a lick­ Benchley. ing at Mr. Connelly's hands. Mr. Grant fol­ lows along nicely with some barbed drawings Party witticisms suffer when transformed that make their points as well as anything in into cold print. In this case they fall flat the book. It is unfortunate that the level of the enough to provide an embarrassing context for satire is not consistently high enough to en­ some authentic and less than ephemeral humor able the reader to take the book as lightly as that shines brightly in this pretty little orna­ it should be taken. It was a misfire. ment for the Civil War bookshelf. This judgment has to be cast because the One has to suggest that perhaps success has opportunities for uproariously funny treat­ spoiled T. Lawrence Connelly and Campbell ment of our present Civil War celebration mad­ Grant, the latter a gifted illustrator long in ness are legion. He who has ever tried to keep league with that light-hearted spooler of his­ his face straight while "reviewing" a twen­ tory, Richard Armour. Outrageous puns, ill- tieth-century Civil War skirmish unit will at­ devised fictitious proper names, and jokes so test to that. But one must give Mr. Connelly old and obvious that their creaking and wheez­ credit for trying—and for doing a little pin- ing might be heard above the shot and shell of pricking, too. One can only regret that he was Shiloh (or Pittsburg Landing, if you prefer) armed with a popgun instead of one of Beech- are the skeleton of this book. There is very er's Bibles. little flesh on the bones, and it is dressed in butternut, for the Union side gets only a few GLENN E. THOMPSON whacks as author and illustrator attempt to National Trust for Historic Preservation

BOOK REVIEWS:

Blegen, Minnesota: A History of the State, reviewed by Vernon Carstensen 267 Bogue, From Prairie to Corn Belt: Farming on the Illinois and Iowa Prairies in the Nineteenth Century, reviewed by Morton Rothstein 266 Connelly, Will Success Spoil Jeff Davis':" The Last Book About the Civil War, reviewed by Glenn E. Thompson 274 Destler, Henry Demurest Lloyd and the Empire of Reform, reviewed by John D. Hicks 271 Diamond (ed.), The Nation Transformed: The Creation of an Industrial Society, reviewed by Charles N. Glaab 261 Dowie and Espelie (eds.), The Swedish Immigrant Community in Transition: Essays in Honor of Dr. Conrad Bergendoff, reviewed by Carl Wittke 270 Eaton (ed.). The Leaven of Democracy: The Growth of the Democratic Spirit in the Time of Jackson, reviewed by Charles N. Glaab 261 Gromme, Birds of Wisconsin, reviewed by David S. Lovejoy 263 Hine and Bingham (eds.), The Frontier Experience: Readings in the Trans- Mississippi West, reviewed by Charles N. Glaab 261 Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1962, reviewed by Josephine L. Harper 271 Lampard, The Rise of the Dairy Industry in Wisconsin: A Study in Agricultural Change, 1820-1920, reviewed by Hugh L. Cook 264 McKern, The Clam River Focus, reviewed by Robert L. Hall 269 Swichkow and Gartner, A History of the Jews of Milwaukee, reviewed by Julius Weinberg 268 Whitehill, Independent Historical Societies: An Enquiry into Their Research and Publication Functions and Their Financial Future, reviewed by Leslie H. Fishel, Jr 273 Williamson, William Frederick Poole and the Modern Library Movement, reviewed by Jesse H. Shera 272

275 Contributors

BEULAH FOLKEDAHL, a fre­ Movement in Wisconsin, 1914-1917." Mr. quent contributor to the Mag­ Finnegan is currently a project assistant for azine, was born in South Da­ Professor David A. Shannon of the Univer­ kota, reared on a farm in sity's department of history and next year will Green County, Wisconsin, and begin teaching at Ohio University. was graduated from the Blan­ chardville High School. Her undergraduate work was done at St. Olaf College and her graduate work at DAVID P. THELEN continues in this issue his Teacher's College, Columbia University, from three-part series of studies of Robert M. La which she received her master's degree. She Follette as the young district attorney of Dane has taught in the academies of the Evangelical Lutheran church in Illinois, Iowa, and Wis­ County. For biographical information see the consin, and in recent years has been engaged Winter, 1963-1964, issue. in various historical research projects, some of them under the Society's auspices. Her book, A Dream Come True: The Homme For biographical material concerning RICHARD Homes at Wittenberg (1956), was the result W. E. PERRIN, see the Summer, 1963, issue. of her researches in the field of Norwegian- American history. Since 1960 Miss Folkedahl has been processor of manuscripts in the Archives of the Norwegian-American Histori­ cal Association in the Rolvaag Memorial Li­ brary, St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota. Index Available The annual index for volume 46 (Au­ tumn, 1962, through Summer, 1963) has come from the printer. Curators,

JOHN P. FINNEGAN, a native exchanges, schools, and libraries auto­ New Englander, is a graduate matically receive copies. All other sub­ of Boston College where he scribers receive copies only on written majored in English literature. request. Indexes are mailed without After service with the National charge. Security Agency and Army Intelligence, he came to the Address: University of Wisconsin to Magazine Index study American political and military history. His article on the National Guard and the State Historical Society of Wisconsin Mexican border incident in this issue is drawn Madison, Wisconsin 53706 from his master's thesis, "The Preparedness

276 1^ ^^^s^^s^s^Q^^^^&s^SB^s'e^ys^^s^ss^&s'^^^^^s'®^^®^^^^^ ^

Brief Manifestation of Art Preservative •••*•*•••• A FAMILY FASS TO I **********

Thousands of Wisconsinites annually make history a family affair. A family membership in the State Historical Society costs just seven dollars, and it provides a pass admitting parents and children to Villa Louis at Prairie du Chien, Old Wade House at Greenbush, Stonefield at Cassville, and the Circus World Museum at Baraboo. Members also receive a year's subscription to Badger •f*'^m^. History, Wisconsin Then and Now, The Thirtieth Star, and the Wisconsin Magazine of History. For children H^pbs and adults alike, a family membership can represent a pniii"w fascinating introduction to the Wisconsin heritage. Write l^p^^ to the Society at 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. To promote a wider appreciation of the American heritage The Purpose with particular emphasis on the collection, advancement, of this and dissemination of knowledge of the history of Wisconsin Society shall be and of the Middle West.

State Historical Society of Wisconsin 816 State Street Madison 6, Wisconsin Second class postage paid Return Requested Madison, Wisconsin