Index

Page numbers in boldfaced type indicate illustrations.

Abamectin, 748 Acheta Abdomen A. assimilis, circulatory system, 576 structure, 83–84 A. domesticus, 190, 190 appendages, 59, 84–89 Achilidae, 219 embryonic development, 608 Acoustic parasitism, 383 Abdominal epidermis, differentiation at Acrida,egg pod, 591 metamorphosis, 635 Acrididae, 186, 193 Abdominalganglia, 411 hearing, 380, 381 Abdominal gills, 480 Acridoidea, 185, 186, 191, 193–194 Absorption, 502–503 Acridomorpha, 187 of insecticides,502 Acroceridae, 255 Acalymma vittata, 324 Acron,60 Acalyptratae, 247, 256, 257–260 Acronycta rumicis, diapause induction, 673, 673 Acanthoscelides Acrosternite, 59 A. obtectus, 323, 324 Acrotergite, 59, 74, 83 as control agent, 324 Activating factor, 360, 362 Accessory hearts, 518 Activation center, 598, 599 Accessory pulsatile organs, 516, 518, 519, 520, Aculeata, 331, 333, 334, 335, 341–349 521 Acyrthosiphon pisum Accessory reproductive glands biocontrol, 773 embryonic origin, 612 as disease vector, 741 female host-plant resistance, 767 functions,565, 590–591 mycetocytes, 505 in Glossina, 616, 617 polyphenism, 668 structure, 565 Adelgidae, 219 male,507,541,565, 579 Adephaga, 307, 308, 309–310 functions, 568, 574, 580, 584, 585, 586 Aderidae, 322 hormonal control,580 Adiheterothripidae, 236 structure, 568 Adipohemocytes, 525–526 Acentropus, larvalgas exchange, 479 Adipokinetic hormone, 418, 419, 464 Acerentomidae, 119 Admirals, 291 Acerentomoidea, 119 Aedeagus, 87, 87 Acerella barberi, 118 Aedes,93 Acetophenone, 426 A. aegypti Acetylcholine, 413 anal papillae in larva, 551, 555 Acetylglucosamine, 358, 362, 505, diurnal rhythms of egg laying,665 524 endocrine control of egg development, 577,578

783 784 Aedes (Continued) Alary muscles, 517, 520 excretory products, 543 embryonic origin, 612 Index hearinginmales, 380 Alderflies, 297, 298, 299 hemolymph osmotic pressure, 548 Aldrin, 508, 747 hormonal control of larval salt and water balance, Alena, 300 555 Aleurocanthus woglumi, 746 vitellogenesis, 578 biocontrol, 758 A. atropalpus Aleurodidae, 213, 215 vitellogenesis, 578 Aleurodoidea, 213, 215 A. canadiensis, 250 Aleurothrixus floccosus, biocontrol, 759 A. detritus Aleyrodidae, 215 hemolymph osmotic pressure, 548 Alfalfa weevil: see Hypera postica osmoregulation, 552 Alienicolae, 667 A. taeniorhynchus Alimentary canal osmoregulation, 552, 553 physiology, 496–503 absorption of amino acids, 503 structure, 489–496, 490 as disease vector, 738 Alinotum, 73, 74, 453 egg diapause, 618 Alkaloids, 295 glycogen, 503 as feeding deterrents, 488, 695 midgut regional differentiation, 495–496 Allantoic acid, 541, 543 Aegiale hesperiaris, as human food,733 Allantoin, 541, 543, 545 Aeolothripidae, 235–236 Allatostatic hormone, 418,578, 640 Aeropyles, 572 Allatotropic hormone, 418, 430, 578, 640, 643 Aeshna Allelochemicals, 421 A. cyanea Allomones, 421, 427, 429–430 hemolymph composition, 522–523 Alsophila pometaria, 289, 729 larval excretory products, 542 Alticinae, 324 diffusion of oxygen to flight muscles, 475 Alucitidae, 287 distance perception, 395 Alucitoidea, 287 Aeshnidae, 143 Alydidae, 230 Aeshnoidea, 143 Amblycera, 203, 204, 205, 206–207 Agaonidae, 340 Ambrosia beetles: see Scolytinae Agasicles hygrophila, as control agent, 324 American cockroach: see Periplaneta americana Agathiphaga, 280 Ametabola, 13, 98, 113 Agathiphagidae, 280 Amino acids Agathiphagoidea, 280 absorption, 502 Agglutinins: see Lectins as excretory products, 541 Aggregation pheromones, 424, 425–426 in hemolymph, 523 Aggression songs, 582 metabolism, 506 Aglossata, 279, 280 as phagostimulants, 488 Agriotes mancus, 316 Amitermes,171 Agrius, 294 A. hastatus, 172 Agromyza frontella, biocontrol, 759 Amitus spp., as control agents, 758, 795 Agromyzidae, 258 Ammonia, 539, 541, 543, 545, 550 Agromyzoidea, 258 Amnion, 605, 606 Agrotis, 294 Amniotic cavity,605–606 A. infusa, 732 Amniotic fluid, 619 as human food, 731 Amniotic folds, 605, 606 A. ipsilon,asr pest type, 744 Amorphoscelidae, 159, 162 A. orthogonia, 295 Amphibicorisae, 213 Agrypon flaveolatum,ascontrol agent, 729, Amphicerus hamatus, 319 759 Amphientomidae, 201, 202 Agulla, 300 Amphiesmenoptera, 43, 239, 279 A.adnixa, 300 Amphipneustic condition, 470 Ahuahutle, 733 Amphipsocidae, 202 Air sacs, 470, 472, 478 Amphipterygidae, 138 Alarm pheromones, 426–427 Anabrus simplex: see Mormon cricket Anacridium aegyptium,reproductive diapause, larva and pupa, 250 785 574–575 pathogenic bacteria, 715 Anagasta kuhniella¨ Anoplotermes, 171 Index male reproductive organs, 566 Anoplura, 97, 98, 203, 204, 205, 206, as parasitoid host, 710 208–209 pupal heartbeat rate, 521 Anormenis septentrionalis, 220 spacing pheromone, 428, 429 Ant crickets, 190 Anagyrus nr. kivuensis,as control agent, 758 Antarctoperlaria, 149 Anajapygidae, 121 Anteclypeus, 63 Anajapyx, 121 Antecostae, 59, 73, 83 A. vesiculosus, 120 Antecostal sulcus,59 Anal angle, 82 Antennae, 60, 63, 64, 64, 65 Anal gills, ion uptake, 551 Antennal lobes, 410 Anal margin, 82 Antennal sclerite,64 Anal papillae, 89, 552 Antennal segment, 60 hormonal control of sodium uptake, 555 Antennal sulcus, 62 ion uptake, 551 Anterior cervical sclerites, 63 Anal veins, 81 Anterior mediavein, 81 Analogy,96 Anterior notal process, 73, 453, 458 Anamorphosis, 113, 119 Anterior tentorial arms, 63 Anaphes flavipes, as control agent, 759 Anterior tentorial pits, 62 Anapterygota, 98 Antheraea, 293 Anasa tristis, 230, 231 A. pernyi Anastrepha ludens, genetic control, 766 hormonal control of eclosion, 643–644 Anatrepsis, 602, 604,606, 618 pupal diapause, 669 Anax,93 Anthocoridae, 228 A. imperator Anthomyiidae, 260 diapause induction, 673 Anthonomus, 324 A. junius A. grandis, 324 compound eye resolution, 394 adult diapause, 669 Andrena, 348 genetic control, 766 diurnal segregation, 708 male sex attractant, 424 Andreninae, 348 Anthophorinae, 349 Androconia, 277 Anthrenus, 318 Androgenic hormone, 420 A. scrophulariae, 318 Angel insects, 195 Anthribiidae, 324–325 Angumois grain moth, 284 Antibacterial peptides, 527, 531, 532, 533, 565, Anisembiidae, 156 637 Anisolabididae, 178 Antibiosis, 767 Anisomorpha buprestoides, 181 Anticarsia gemmatalis, viral control, 761 Anisoplia austriaca, microbial control, 716 Antidiuretic hormones, 554, 555 Anisopodidae, 249 Antifreeze proteins, 659, 660, 661 Anisops, 226 Antigonadotropic hormone, 421, 569, 575, 579 Anisoptera, 36, 37, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, Antixenosis, 767 143–144 Antlike stone beetles, 313 larval swimming,452 Antlions, 301, 304, 305 Anisotomidae, 313 Antliophora, 43, 239 Anisozygoptera, 140 Antonina graminis, biocontrol, 759 Annuli,64, 362, 472 Ants, 330, 342–345 Annulipalpia, 270, 271–272 castes, 342–344, 344, 345 Anobiidae, 318 fungus gardens, 502 cellulase, 499 mutualism withhomopterans, 344, 711, 711 Anobium punctatum, 318 spectral sensitivity, 396 Ano-jugal area, 82 See also Formicidae Anopheles Aonidiella aurantii,parasitoids, 705 A. quadrimaculatus, 250 Aorta,515, 519 as disease vector, 738 embryonic origin, 611 786 Apanteles Apomorphy, 96 A. cajae, 338 Apophyses, 59 Index as control agent, 339 Apoptosis, 641 A. melanoscelus Aposematic coloration, 295, 697, 709 host acceptance, 710 Appendages Apatelodidae, 293 abdomen, 84–89 Aphaniptera, 264 embryonic development, 635–637 Aphelinidae, 341 head,64–72 as control agents, 758, 759 postembryonic development, 635–637 Aphelinus mali, 341 thorax, 75–83 Aphelocheirus,plastron, 482, 483 Applemaggot fly: see Rhagoletis pomonella Aphididae, 217–218 Apple sucker, 215 Aphidius smithi, as control agent, 773 Appletwig borer, 319 Aphidoidea, 211, 213, 216–219 Apposition image, 393 Aphids, 211, 217 Aptera, 97 avoidance of toxins in food plants, 696 Apteropanorpa tasmanica, 243 paedogenesis, 617 Apteropanorpidae, 240, 243 as plant-disease vectors, 212, 741, 742 Apterygogenea, 98, 99 pseudoplacental viviparity, 615 Apterygota, 13, 98, 113 saliva, 491 Aquatic insects symbiotic bacteria, 211, 505 factors affecting distribution, 677– wing polymorphism, 645–647 678 Aphis osmoregulation, 550–554, 532, 677 A. craccivora Arachnida, 6, 7–8, 16, 18, 97 as disease vector, 741 Arachnomorpha, 19 host-plant resistance, 767 Aradidae, 229 A. fabae Aradoidea, 229 as disease vector, 741 Aradus acutus, 229 polymorphism, 646 Araecerus fasciculatus, 325 as r pest type, 744 Araschnia levana, seasonaldimorphism, Aphrophora, ocellus, 399 667 Aphrophoridae, 220 Archaeolepis mane,279 Aphytis spp. Archeognatha, 25, 122 as control agents, 758, 759 Archescytinidae, 38, 213 interspecific competitive exclusion, 705–706, Archidermaptera, 177 706, 707 Archiperlaria, 149 spatial segregation, 706 Archips argyrospilus, control, 772 Apical angle, 82 Archipsocidae, 202 Apical cell, 567 Archizygoptera, 36, 140 Apical margin, 82 Archodonata, 35 Apicotermes, l71 Archostemata, 308–309 Apicotermitinae, 171 Arctic insects, activity,657 Apidae, 347–349 Arctiidae, 295 Apinae, 349 Arctoperlaria, 148, 149–153 Apini, 349 Arctotypus, 35 Apionidae, 325 Argentine ant: see Iridomyrmex humilis Apis, 349 Argidae, 335 A. mellifera: see Honey bee Arixenia, 177, 177 Aplomyiopsis epilachnae, 262 Arixeniina, 176, 177 Apneustic condition, 470 Armored scales, 216 Apocrita, 44, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337–349 Army ants, 344 Apodemes, 59 Armyworms, 294 Apoidea, 332, 334, 342, 347–349 Arolium, 76, 77 Apolysial membrane, 363 Arrestant pheromones, 583 Apolysis, 362, 365 Artematopidae, 316 of embryonic cuticle at hatching, 619 Artematopoidea, 316 in pupa, 632 Arthropleona, 114, 115, 116 Arthropods Axymyiidae, 248 787 evolutionary relationships, 14–21 Axymyiomorpha, 248 features,3 Aysheaia pedunculata, 16, 16 Index types, 3 Azadirachtins, 748, 749 Arrhenotoky, 613 Arsenicals, 746, 747 Bacillus Ascalaphidae, 305 B. cereus,asinsect pathogen, 714 Aschiza, 247, 255, 256–257 B. larvae,asinsect pathogen, 714 Ascia monuste,migration, 682–684 B. lentimorbus Ascodipteron, 263 as control agent, 715, 760, 761 Asilidae, 254 as insect pathogen, 714 salivary toxins, 491 B. popilliae Asiloidea, 254–255 as control agent, 715, 760, 761 Asilomorpha, 246, 254–255 as insect pathogen, 714 Asobara tabida, anti-immune response, 532 B.sphaericus Assassin bugs: see Reduviidae as control agent, 715, 761 Assembly zone, 358 as insect pathogen, 714 Asteiidae, 258 B. thuringiensis Asteioidea, 258 as control agent, 714–715, 760, 761, 762 Atalophlebia, male head, 128 genetic engineering, 761, 768, 774, Atelocerata, 9, 20 as insect pathogen, 712, 714 Athrocytes, 518 resistance, 761 Atrium, 69, 473 Back swimmers, 225–226, 226 Atropine, 696 Bacteria Atta, trail-marking pheromone, 428 as cellulose-digesting agents, 501 Attacins,523,531 as control agents, 757, 761 Attacus, 293 crystalliferous, 714 Attagenus, 318 in gut, 495, 501 A. piceus as insect pathogens, 712, 713–715 excretory products, 542 Bacteriocytes, 504 cystine excretion, 541 Bacteriomes,505 Auchenorrhyncha, 41, 210, 213, 219–222 Baculoviruses, 715, 716 Aulacidae, 339 as microbial control agents, 763 Australembiidae, 156 Baetidae, 132 Australian bush fly: see Musca vetustissima Baetis, 129 Australian cockroach, 160 adaptations to rheophilic life, 677 Australian field cricket, 190 B. vagans, 132 Australian plague grasshopper: see Austroicetes Baetisca, 131 cruciata B. bajkovi, 131 Australian plague locust, 194 Baetiscidae, 131 Austroicetes cruciata Baetoidea, 132 effect of temperature on development, 656 Bagworm moth and larva, 282, 283 population density, 702–703 Balloon flies, 255 Austromerope poultoni, 243 Bark beetles: see Scolytinae Austroperlidae, 149 Barklice, 199 Austrophasmatidae, 184 Barnacles, 9 Autapomorphy, 96 Basalbulb,87 Autointoxication,508–509 Basal lamina, 355, 356, 390, 435, 472, 518 Autotanning, 365 Basalar, 74, 453 Autoventilation, 470, 478–479 Basalar muscle, 453, 459, 460 Auxiliary hearts, 518 Basicosta, 76 Avermectins, 748–749, 774 Basicostal sulcus, 76 Axiidae, 290 Basisternum, 74 Axillary muscle, 453 Basket, 79 Axillary plates, 32 Bat flies, 263, 263 Axillary sclerites, 32, 73, 74, 80, 453, 459 Bean weevils, 323, 323, 324 Axioidea, 290 Bean beetle tachinid, 262 788 Beauveria bassiana Blaberoidea, 159 as control agent, 717, 764 Black andyellow muddauber, 347 Index as insect pathogen, 716 Black death, 726, 737 Bedbugs, 228, 228 Black flies, 251, 252 Bee flies, 255, 255 as disease vectors, 251 Bees: see Apoidea microbial control, 761 Beet armyworm: see Spodoptera exigua Black swallowtail, 292 Beet leafhopper, 222, 222 Blackfly,217 Beetles: see Coleoptera Bladder grasshopper, 192 Behningiidae, 133 Blastoderm Behningoidea, 133 differentiation, 598–599, 600 Bellicositermes natalensis, nest, 167, 167 formation, 598, 599 Belostomatidae, 225 syncitial stage, 598 Beltian bodies, 697, 698, 699 uniform stage, 598 Beneficial insects, 725, 726–736 Blastokinesis, 602, 608 as control agents, 725, 728–731, 755–757 Blastothrix as human food, 725–726, 731–733 B.sericea, 731 species with commercially valuable products, 725, larvalgas exchange, 484 727–728 Blatta orientalis,160, 161 value as pollinators, 725, 728 excretory products, 542 Berothidae, 301, 303 Blattaeformia, 99 Berytidae, 230 Blattariae, 99 Bethylidae, 342 Blattella Bethyloidea, 341 B. germanica, 160, 161 γ-BHC: see Lindane insecticide resistance, 750 Bibio albipennis, 253 larval heartbeat rate,521 Bibionidae, 252 oenocytes, 363 Bibionomorpha, 246, 252–253 oocyte hydrocarbons, 570 Big-headed flies, 256 uric acid as excretory product, 541 Binocular vision, 395, 488 ootheca, 591 Binomial system, 92 Blattellidae, 158, 159, 160–161 Biological clocks, 662 Blattida, 100 Biological control, 753–766, 772 Blattidae, 159, 160 advantages, 755–756 Blattiformia, 156 augmentative, 753, 754–755 Blattodea, 156 classical, 753, 755, 757 classification, 160–161 conservation, 753–754 life history and habits, 157–158 disadvantages, 756 phylogeny, 159, 159 examples, 729–731, 754, 755,756, 757, structure, 157 758–759 Blattoid orders, 40, 156–173 importance of sibling species, 93 Blattoidea, 159, 160–161 insect agents, 728–731 Blattopteriformia, 156 naturally occurring,753, 754 Blephariceridae, 248 neoclassical, 753, 755 Blephariceromorpha, 248 “new association” approach, 753, 755 Blissus leucopterus, 230, 231 strategies, 753–755 microbial control, 716 success, 754, 756–757 regional differentiation in midgut, 494, 494 of weeds, 324, 757 Blister beetles, 322 Biological species, 93 Blood-brain barrier, 407 Birdlice, 203 Bloodsucking conenose, 229 Biroella, 192 Blow flies, 261 Biscuit weevil, 318 collagenase in larva, 498 Biston betularia, transient polymorphism, 645 Bluebottles, 261 Biting midges, 251 Blues, 291 Bittacidae, 239, 240, 242 Bogong moth: see Agrotis infusa Bittacus pilicornis, 242 Bohartillidae, 330 Blaberidae, 158, 159, 160, 161 Bojophlebia prokopi,35 Boll weevil: see Anthonomus grandis Brown lacewings, 303 789 Bombini, 349 Brown-banded cockroach, 160 Bombus vosnesenskii, 348 Brown-tail moth: see Euproctis chrysorrhoea Index Bombycidae, 293 Bruchidae, 323–324 Bombycoidea, 291–294 Bruchidius, germ band, 603 Bombykol, 423 Bruchus pisorum, 324 Bombyliidae, 255 Brunneria borealis, 158 Bombylioidea, 254, 255 Bt: see Bacillus thuringiensis Bombyx Bubas bison,ascontrol agent, 735 B. mori, 293 Bubonic plague, 265,737 diapause induction, 673 Buccal cavity, 489 egg diapause, 618, 669 Budworm moths, 285 pupae as human food, 733 Buffalo treehopper, 222, 222 sex attractant, 423 Buffalo fly: see Haematobia irritans diapause hormone, 419 Buffalo gnats, 251 larval hemolymph protein, 507, 626 Bumble bees, 349 oviposition reflex, 414 Buprestidae, 315–316 silk production, 727 infrared sensitivity, 389 storage hexamers, 507 Buprestoidea, 315–316 Booklice, 199 Burnets, 286 Boopidae, 207 Burrowing, 448–449 Boreidae, 240, 242–243 Burrowing mayflies, 480 Boreus brumalis, 242 Bursa copulatrix, 564 Bostrichidae, 319 Bursicon, 366, 418, 419 Bostrichiformia, 311, 317–319 role in eclosion, 643 Bostrichoidea, 307, 318–319 Bush crickets, 189 Bot flies, 261, 262,740 Bush fly: see Musca vetustissima Botanicals, 746, 747 Bushkatydid, 189 Bound vortex, 455, 456, 458, 458 Butterflies, 276, 279, 282, 290 Boundary layer, 480 mimetic color polymorphism, 645 Bovicola, 208 spectral sensitivity, 396 B. ovis, 714 See also Lepidoptera Brachycentridae, 274 Byrrhidae, 315 Brachycera, 246, 253–263 Byrrhoidea, 315 Brachypanorpa, 243 Byrsotria fumigata, courtship, 583 Brachypsectridae, 316 Bracon cephi, 339 Cabbage aphid: see Brevicoryne brassicae larval supercooling, 660 Cabbage looper: see Trichoplusia ni Braconidae, 338–339 Cabbage root fly,260 as control agents, 339, 758, 759 Cabbage worms, braconid parasite, 339 Brain Cactoblastis,93 as coordinating center, 414 C. cactorum,288 embryonic differentiation, 611 as control agent, 729, 730, 756, 758 role in walking,415, 447 Caddisflies, 268 structure, 409, 412 ion uptake by larval gills, 551 Branchial chamber, 480 See also Trichoptera Branchinecta, 9 Cadelle, 319 Brentidae, 325 Cadra, 288 Brevicoryne brassicae Caeciliidae, 202 as disease vector, 741 Caecilius, 202 host-plant resistance, 768 Caelifera, 39, 185, 186, 187, 191–194 phagostimulants, 488 Caenidae, 134–135 Brevitentoria, 274 Caenis simulans, 135 Brine flies, 259 Caenoidea, 133, 134–135 Bristletails, 25, 113, 122 Calamoceratidae, 276 Brown chicken louse, 208 Calandra, 324 Brown cockroach, 160 Cales noacki,ascontrol agent, 759 790 Callidulidae, 290 excretion of uric acid, 543–544, 544 Calliduloidea, 290 excretory products, 542 Index Calling in moths, 422, 665 hemolymph osmotic pressure, 542 Callipharixenidae, 330 color, 369 Calliphora, 261 Carbamates, 509, 748 action of diuretic hormone, 555 Carboxylic acids, in hemolymph, 523 C. erythrocephala, salivaryglands, 490 Carcinophoridae, 178 C. stygia, calliphorin level during growth, 626–627 Carcinoscorpius,6 C. vomitaria, taste sensitivity, 386 Cardenolides, 295, 430, 686, 695, 696 dietary requirements, 694 Cardiac glycosides, 695 osmoregulation in rectum, 549 as antimicrobial agents, 697 pupal fat content, 627 Cardioblasts,612 spectral sensitivity, 396 Cardo, 65, 66 Calliphoridae, 261 Carides, 16 Calliphorin, 626–627 Carnoidea, 259 Callirhipidae, 316 Carolina grasshopper, 193 Callitroga, 261 Carolina mantid, 162 Callosamia promethea, 293 Carotenoids, 369 Caloneurodea, 39, 41 Carpenter bees, 349 Calopteron reticulatum, 317 Carpenter moths and worms, 284–285 Calopterygidae, 142 Carpet beetles, 318, 318 Calopterygoidea, 140, 142 Carpet moth,283 Calopteryx,blastokinesis, 604 Carposinidae, 287 Calosoma sycophanta, 310, 311 Carrot rust fly, 258 as control agent, 310 Case-making clothes moth andlarva, 283 Calotermes,93 Caste-recognition pheromones, 370 Calpodes ethlius, 362 Caste-regulating pheromones, 425 control of wax synthesis, 366 Castes tracheal tufts, 471–472, 473 of ants, 342–344, 344, 345 Calypter, 256 of honey bee, 349 Calyptratae, 247, 256, 260–263 of termites, 165–166, 170, 172 Calyx, 533, 564 endocrine control of differentiation,647–648, Camel crickets, 188, 189 648 Camnulapellucida, mortality due to pathogens, 676 of yellow jacket, 346 Campaniform sensilla, 375, 376, 376, 462 Castniidae, 285 Campodea, 120, 121 Castnioidea, 285 C. augens, circulatory system, 516 Cat flea, 266 Campodeidae, 120, 121 Cataglyphis bicolor, ocelli, 398–400 Campodeoidea, 99 Catalepsis, 181 Camponotus Catantopinae, 194 C. carolinensis, 189 Cattlewarble fly, 262 C. clarithorax, locomotor activity, 663, 664 Caudalfilament, 89 Cantharidae, 317 Caudal lamellae, 88, 137, 480 Cantharidin, 322 Caudal sympatheticsystem, 411 Cantharoidea, 317 Cave crickets, 188 Capnia nana, 152 Cecidomyiidae, 253 Capniidae, 150, 152 Cecropins, 523, 531, 533 Caproicacid, 423 Celerio, energy requirements at metamorphosis, Capsidae, 227 627 Carabidae, 310 Cellulase Carabinae, 310 in gut, 499 Caraboidea, 309–310 in saliva, 490 Carapacea, 131 Cement layer, 359, 363, 368 Carausius Cenocorixa blaisdelli, endocrine control of allometric growth, 626 osmoregulation, 555 C. morosus, 180, 181 Centipedes, 11, 11 diurnal activity, 663 Central American locust: see Schistocerca paranensis Central body, 409 thick-walled (uniporous), 384–386, 385 791 inregulation of walking,415 thin-walled (multiporous), 385, 386 Central inhibition, 413 Chemotaxis, 528 Index Central pattern generator, 414, 479 Chermidae, 219 Centroptilum, adaptations to rheophilic life, 677 Chewing lice, 203, 204, 205, 206 Cephalobaena tetrapoda, 4 Chicken body louse, 204, 206 Cephidae, 337 Chicken eyeworm, 161 Cephoidea, 337 Chicken headlouse, 208 Cephus cinctus, 337, 337 Chigoe flea, 267 braconid parasite oflarva, 339 Chigoes, 266 control of pupation, 643 Chill intolerance, 659 Cerambycidae, 323 Chill tolerance, 659 cellulase inwood-boring species, 499 Chilo suppressalis, 288 Ceraphronidae, 338 Chilopoda, 9, 11, 20 Ceraphronoidea, 338 Chimarra, larva, 272 Ceratina China wax, 728 C. acantha, 348 Chinch bug: see Blissus leucopterus C. dupla, nest, 348 Chinese oak silk moth, see Antheraea pernyi Ceratitis capitata, 257, 258, Chironomidae, 251 genetic control, 766 Chironomus Ceratophyllidae, 267 C.plumosus, pupal swimming,451 Ceratophylloidea, 267 C. tentans, larva and pupa, 251 Ceratophyllus styx, 267 larval gas exchange, 479 Ceratophysella,117 Chitin Ceratopogonidae, 251 production from glycogen in egg, 506 Cerci, 84, 88 production from trehalose, 505 Cercopidae, 220 structure, 358–359, 358 Cercopoidea, 212, 220–221 Chitin synthetase, 362 Cervical sclerites, 73 Chitinase, 365, 499 Cervix: see Neck Chlordane, 508, 747 Cerylonidae, 322 Chloride transport-stimulating peptide, 555 Ceuthophilus, 188 Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 508, 747, 751 C. maculatus, 189 Chlorocyphidae, 142 Chaetocruiomyia,93 Chloroperlidae, 150, 151 Chagas’ disease, 212, 229, 738 Chloropidae, 259 Chalastogastra, 334 Chloropoidea, 259 Chalcididae, 340 Choline,506 Chalcidoidea, 331, 332, 333, 340–341 Cholinesterase, binding of insecticides, 509 Chalcoides aurata, jumping,448 Chordotonal organs, 375, 376–377, 377 Chaoboridae, 249 Chordotonal sensilla, 376–377, 377, 380, 381 Chaoborus astictopus, 251 Choreutidae, 285 Character, 92 Chorion,571–572, 571 Character polarity, 95 disappearance in polyembryony, 614 Character state, 92 rupture at hatching, 619 Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, 317 Choristidae, 243 Checkered beetles, 319, 320 Choristoneura, 285 Cheleutoptera, 179 C. fumiferana Chelicerata, 6–8, 19 phagostimulants, 488 Chelisochidae, 178 influence of weather, 679 Chelopistes meleagridis, 207, 208 Choristotanyderus, 43, 246 Chemical control, 746–753 Chortoicetes terminifera, 194 Chemoreception, 384–387 Christmas beetles, 314 Chemosensilla Chrysididae, 342 location, 384 Chrysidoidea, 334, 341, 342 role in feeding, 488 Chrysobothris stimulation, 387 C. femorata, 316 structure, 384–386, 385 larva, 316 792 Chrysocaris punctifacies,ascontrol agent, Clavalfurrow, 81 759 Clavus, 82 Index Chrysolina quadrigemina, as control agent, Clavicornia, 320 758 Clear lake gnat, 251 Chrysomelidae, 324 Clearwings, 285 Chrysomelinae, 324 Cleavage, 597–598, 599 Chrysomeloidea, 49, 306, 319, 323–324 Cleavage center, 597, 598 Chrysomphalus spp., biocontrol, 759 Cleavage energids, 598, 599 Chrysopa, 304, 774 Clegs, 253 C. carnea,ascontrol agent, 304, 773 Cleptoparasitism, 342, 347 Chrysopidae, 302, 303–304 Cleridae, 319 Chrysops, 253 Cleroidea, 319–320 as disease vector, 739 Click beetles, 316 Cibarium, 66 Clistogastra, 334 Cicadas, 221 Cloeon, compound eye, 390 Cicadellidae, 222 Clothes moth: see Tinea pellionella Cicadelloidea, 212, 222 Clothodidae, 155 Cicadidae, 221 Clotting: see Hemolymph coagulation Cicadoidea, 212, 219, 221 Clusiidae, 258 Cicadomorpha, 213, 220–222 Clypeolabral segment, 60 Cicindela sexguttata, 311 Clypeolabrum, 60 Cicindelinae, 310 Clypeus, 60, 63, 65 Cimbex americana, 335, 336 Coagulocytes, 526, 528, 529 Cimbicidae, 335 Coagulogens, 507, 528, 529 Cimex Coccidae, 216 C. hemipterus, 228 Coccinella C. lectularius, 228, 228 C. septempunctata initiation of molt cycle, 642 as control agent, 756 orientation to heat, 389, 465 preylocation, 429 Cimicidae, 228 color, 369 Cimicoidea, 228 Coccinellidae, 307, 321 hemocoelic insemination, 212, 228, 586 Coccoidea, 211, 215–216 Cimicomorpha, 214, 227–229 metamorphosis, 213 Circadian rhythms, 416, 663–666, 664 Coccophagus, 731 clocks, 666, 672 Cochliomyia, 261, 740 sperm release, 568 C. hominivorax, 262 Circulatory system, 515–536 genetic control, 766 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 Cockchafers, 314 embryonic origin, 611 Cockroaches, 156, 157, 158, 159 physiology, 519–521 escape response, 416 structure, 515–519, 516 salivaryglands, 490 Circulifer tenellus, 222, 222 ventral diaphragm, 518 Citral, 427 See also Blattodea, Blattella germanica, Citronellal, 427 Periplaneta americana Citrus rust mite: see Phyllocoptruta oleivora Cocoon, 631, 632, 633, 639 Cixiidae, 219 Cocoon cutters, 639 Cixius angustatus, 220 Codling moth: see Cydia pomonella Cladograms, 95 Coelom, 611 Clap and fling mechanism, 458, 458 formation, 604–605 Claspers, 84, 88 Coelomomyces spp. Class resistance, 750 as control agents, 717 Classification, 94–101 as insect pathogens, 717 artificial, 94–95 Coelopulses, 519 definition, 91 Coenagrion, 141 history,96–101 C. angulatum natural, 95–96 temperature-synchronizeddevelopment, Clausenia purpurea,ascontrol agent, 758 658 C. resolutum Conopidae, 257 793 larval spatial separation, 707 Conopoidea, 257 seasonal segregation, 708 Contact pheromones, 370 Index larval oxygen uptake, 480 Contact poisons, 747 Coenagrionidae, 141 Convergence, 96 Coenagrionoidea, 140–141 Convergent ladybug: see Hippodamia convergens Coffee bean weevil, 325 Cootie, 209 Cold-hardiness, 659–662, 676 Copeognatha, 199 Coleophoridae, 284 Coppers, 291 Coleoptera, 39, 41, 42, 48, 49, 51, 305–326 Coprinae, 314 classification, 97, 98, 100, 308–325 Copromorphidae, 287 larval mouthparts, 67 Copromorphoidea, 287 life history and habits, 307–308 Coptotermes, 166 phylogeny, 308, 309 Copulation, 583–584 structure, 306–307 female receptivity, 583–584 Coleorrhyncha, 213, 222–223 See also Mating Collagenase, 498 Cordilura criddlei, 260 Collateral glands, 565 Cordulegastridae, 143 Collembola, 13, 113, 114–118 Cordulegastroidea, 143 aggregation pheromone, 425,426 Corduliidae, 143 classification, 98, 99, 100, 116–117 Coreidae, 230 life history and habits, 115–116 Coreoidea, 230 phylogeny, 116 Corioxenidae, 330 structure, 114–115 Corium, 76 Colleterial glands, 565 Corixidae, 226–227 Colletinae, 347 Corixoidea, 226–227 Collophore, 115 Corn earworm: see Helicoverpa zea Color Corneal lens, 390, 392, 394 functions, 369 Cornitermes, 171 production, 365, 369–370 Corpora pedunculata, 409 Color vision, 396–397 See also Mushroom bodies Colorado potato beetle: see Leptinotarsa Corporotentorium, 63 decemlineata Corpus allatum, 45, 417, 419–420, 430 Colydiidae, 322 activity duringgrowth, 640 Comadia redtenbachi, 733 embryonic origin, 609 Comb,79 role in egg development, 575–576 “Commitment center”, 600 Corpus cardiacum, 410, 417–418 Common cattle grub: see Hypoderma lineatum embryonic origin, 418, 611 Common chemical sense, 384 secretions, 418–419 Common names,92 Corrodentia, 98, 99, 199 Common sooty wing, 290 Corydalida, 297 Competitive exclusion, 705–706, 706 Corydalidae, 297, 298, 299 Compound eyes, 60, 389–398 Corydalus cornutus, 298 functions, 392–398 Corythuca ciliata, 227 holoptic, 389 Cosmopterigidae, 284 resolution, 394 Cossidae, 284–285 role in flight control, 461 Cossoidea, 284–285 structure, 390–392 Cossus, larval oxygen requirement, 475 Compsilura concinnata,as control agent, 756 Costa, 81 Conceptacula seminales, 586 Costal area, 32 Conditioning, 416 Costal margin, 82 Confusedflour beetle: see Tribolium confusum Costelytra zealandica, microbial control, 761 Conifer sawflies, 335 Cotesia,ascontrol agent, 339 Coniopterygidae, 301, 302–303 Cotton stainers, 230, 231 Coniopterygoidea, 302–303 Cottony-cushion scale: see Icerya purchasi Conjunctivae, 59 Cottony maple scale, 216 Conocephalus strictus, 189 Courtship, 582–583 794 Courtship-inhibiting pheromones, 583 Culicomorpha, 249–252 Coxa, 59, 76, 77, 85, 443 Culiseta inornata, osmoregulation, 552 Index Coxotergal muscle, 453 Cultural control, 769, 773 CPV: see Cypoviruses Cupedidae, 308 Crab louse, 207, 209 Cupedoidea, 308–309 Crabs, 9 Curculionidae, 324 Crambinae, 288 Curculionoidea, 49, 306, 319, 324–325 Crane flies, 248, 248 Cuterebrinae, 261 Crawling, 448–449, 449 Cuticle, 50, 57, 355, 357, 373 Crayfish,9,10 embryonic, 608 Crickets, 184, 186, 188, 189, 190 formation, 360–363, 361 wing polymorphism, 645 role in resistance to disease,530 Crochets, 89 structure, 357–360, 357 Crop, 491, 492, 493 tanning, 363–365, 364 Cross resistance, 750, 752 Cuticulin envelope, 357, 360, 362, 363, 439, 472, 473 Crustacea, 9, 16, 17, 18, 97 Cutworms, 294–295 success, 9, 48 microbial control, 765 Crustacean cardioactive peptide, 643–644 Cyclopedia greefi, 263 Cryoprotectants, 659–660, 661, 662, 669, 670, 675 Cyclorrhapha 246, 253 Cryptocerata, 214 juvenile hormone, 420 Cryptocercidae, 159, 160 Cydia pomonella, 285, 286 Cryptocercus, 160 control, 731, 772 C. punctulatus, 160, 168 as K pest type, 744, 745 protozoa in hindgut, 160, 501 Cydnidae, 232 Cryptochaetum iceryae, 729 Cylindrachetidae, 191 Cryptonephridia, 307, 539, 540, 550 Cynipidae, 332, 339–340 Cryptophagidae, 320–321 Cynipinae, 339–340 Crystalline cone, 390, 392, 394 Cynipoidea, 333, 339–340 Ctenocephalides Cypermethrin, 747 C. canis, 266 Cypoviruses, 715, 716 as disease vector, 739 as control agents, 763 C. felis, 266 Cyrtacanthacridinae, 193 Ctenophthalmidae, 266 Cyrtobagous singularis,asweed control agent, 757 Cuckoo bumble bees, 349 Cystocytes, 525, 526 Cuckoo-spit insects, 220 Cytorhinus mundulus,ascontrol agent, 758 Cuckoo wasps, 342 Cyzaenis albicans, as control agent, 729, 759 Cuclutogaster heterographus,208 Cucujidae, 322 Dacnonypha, 281 Cucujiformia, 307, 311, 319–325 Dacnusa dryas, as control agent, 759 Cucujoidea, 319, 320–322 Dactylopius, 212, 216 Cucumber beetles, as disease vectors, 742 Dacunsa, swimming, 452 Cucurbitacins, 695, 696, 697 Dacus Culex D. cucurbitae, genetic control, 766 C. pipiens, 250 D. dorsalis, biocontrol, 758 pupal swimming, 451 D. tryoni,cleavageandblastoderm formation, 599 uptake of ions by larva, 551 excretory system, 539 C. tarsalis mating, 584 as disease vector, 737, 738 Daddy longlegs, 248 osmoregulation, 554 Damalinia as vector of western equine encephalomyelitis D. bovis, 207, 208 virus, 737 D. equi, 208 larva, 250 D. ovis, 208 oviposition pheromone, 426 Damp-wood termites, 170 oviposition-site selection, 589 Damselflies: see Zygoptera pathogenic bacteria, 715 Danainae, 291 Culicidae, 244, 249 Danaus plexippus, 292 Culicoides dovei, 252 cardenolide content, 430,686 juvenile hormone level, 680 Diapause, 574, 618, 659, 661, 667, 668–674 795 mate guarding, 583 adult (reproductive), 574, 669 migration, 681, 684–686, 685 embryonic, 618, 668–669 Index mimicry, 292, 645 endocrine activity, 575 Dance flies see Empididae facultative,671 Darkling beetles, 322 induction, 643–644, 671–674, 672, 673 Dascillidae, 315 larval, 669 Dascilloidea, 315 nature,669–671 Dasyleptus, 26 obligate, 671 Dasymutilla occidentalis, 343 occurrence,668–669 DDT, 508, 731, 747, 750, 751 phases, 669–671, 670 Deathwatch beetles, 318 photoperiodic clocks, 672 Decticus, tympanal organ, 382 pupal, 669 Deer flies, 253 syndrome, 670 Defensins,531 termination, 674 Deinacrida heteracantha, 188 Diapause hormone, 419, 669 Deladenussiridicola,ascontrol agent, 760, 765 Diaphania, 288 Delayed (dynamic) stall, 456, 458, 458 Diaphanopterodea, 30, 32, 34, 35 Delphacidae, 219 Diapriidae, 339 Deltamethrin, 747 Diaspididae, 216 Dendroctonus brevicomis,753 Diatraea saccharalis, 288, 288 Dendroleon obsoletum, 304 Diazinon, 509, 748 Derbidae, 219 Dicellura, 120 Dermal glands, 356, 360, 363 Dichlorvos, 748 Dermaptera, 39, 147, 175–179 Dichropus, 194 classification, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 177–178 Dictuoptera, 156 life history and habits, 176–177 Dictyopharidae, 219 phylogeny, 177 Dictyoptera, 39, 40, 147, 156–163 structure, 176 classification, 159–162 Dermestes,318 life history and habits, 157–158 D. lardarius, 318 phylogeny, 159 Dermestidae, 318 structure, 157 Dermestoidea, 318 Dieldrin, 502, 508, 747 Dermoptera, 175 Differentialgrasshopper, 193 Desert locust: see Schistocerca gregaria Differentiation center, 598,600 Deutocerebral segment, 60 Diffusion of gases, 469, 475 Deutocerebrum, 409, 410–411 Digestion, 498–502 Development by microorganisms, 501–502 ametabolous, 97,623,628, 629 Digestive enzymes, 498–499 control, 639–645 Digger bees, 349 embryonic, 597–622 Digger wasps, 347 factors affecting, 617–619 Digging wasps, 342, 343 special forms, 612–617 Dilaridae, 303 hemimetabolous, 97, 623, 628, 629, 640 Dimethoate, 509 holometabolous, 97,623,628–633, 629,640 Dineutes americanus, 311 hormonal control, 640–643, 641 Diopsidae, 258 postembryonic, 623–652 Diopsoidea, 258 Diabrotica Diploglossata, 99, 100 D. unidecimpunctata Diplolepis rosae, 340 cucurbitacins,697 Diplopoda, 9, 11, 20 host-plant resistance, 767 Diploptera punctata, 158 D. virginifera, host-plant resistance, 767 Diplura, 13, 113, 120–121 Diacrisia virginica, larval diapause, 675 classification, 99, 100, 121 Diamondback moth: see Plutella xylostella life history andhabits, 121 Diamphipnoidae, 149 phylogeny, 121 Diamphipnopsis samali, 30 structure, 120–121 Diaparsis temporalis,as control agent, 759 Diprion,335 796 Diprionidae, 335 male reproductive organs, 566 Dipsocoroidea, 223 micropyle orientation, 588 Index Dipsocoromorpha, 223 vitelline membrane,570 Diptera, 41, 43, 48, 49, 239, 243–264 wax secretion by follicle cells, 571 classification, 97, 98, 100, 246–263 D.obscura, sperm, 567–568 daily emergence patterns, 665 D. robusta, flight activity, 663, 664 as disease vectors, 738 eclosion rhythm, 665 halteres, 460, 462, 463 excretory system, 539 life history and habits, 245–246 flight maintenance, 462 mouthparts humidity perception, 387–388 adult, 69–71, 71, 72 imaginal discs, 612, 635 larva,69, 70 male accessory glands, 574 phylogeny, 246, 247 oocyte volume, 564 structure, 244–245 polytrophic ovariole, 570 viviparity in pupiparous forms, 616 population density effects, 573 Diptericins, 531 sound reception, 379 Dipylidium caninum, 208 wingdevelopment, 637 Diseases, 711–718 Drosophilidae, 260 infectious, 711, 712 Drosophiloidea, 259–260 insects as vectors, 736, 737–743 Drugstore beetle, 318, 319 non-infectious, 711–712 Drumming, 148 resistance, 530–533 Dryinidae, 342 Dissosteira carolina, 193 Dryopoidea, 307, 315 Distance perception, 395–396 Dry-wood termites, 171 Ditrysia, 277, 281, 282–295 Dufour’s gland, 331, 332, 427 phylogeny, 280 Dung beetles, 314, 734,748 reproductive system, 565 as control agents, 733–735 Diuraphis noxia, 746 Dung flies, 260, 261 Diuretic hormone, 418, 419,554–555 Dusty wings, 302 Diurnal segregation, 708 Dyar’s law, 624–625, 624 Divingbeetles, 311 Dynastes Dixidae, 249–251 D. hercules,306 Dixippus:see Carausius D. tityus, 314 Dobsonflies, 297, 298, 299 Dynastinae, 314 Dog flea: see Ctenocephalides canis Dysaphis plantaginea, 217 Dolichoderinae, 344 lifecycle, 218 Dolichopodidae, 255 Dysdercus, 230 Dormancy: see Diapause, Quiescence color, 369 Dorsal closure,606, 607,608,611 D. fasciatus Dorsal diaphragm, 517, 517 excretion of allantoin, 545 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 excretory products, 542 Dorsal longitudinal muscle, 73, 83, 453, 458 D. suturellus, 231 Dorsal vessel, 515, 516, 516,517 diuretic hormone,554 reverse peristalsis, 520 storage excretion of uric acid, 545 Dorsoventral muscle, 453 Dytiscidae, 310, 312 Dorylinae, 343, 344 gas store, 483 Dragonflies, 136, 138 Dytiscus ion uptake by larvae, 551 D. verticalis, 311 larval jet propulsion, 452 hemolymph composition, 523 See also Anisoptera larva, 311 Drepanidae, 289 larval mandible,67, 68 Drepanoidea, 289 male leg, 77–78, 78 Drosophila, 260 swimming, 451 circadian rhythms, 417, 666 D. melanogaster Earwigs: see Dermaptera eggdevelopment rate, 656 Eastern tent caterpillar: see Malacosoma americanum as genetic tool, 736 Ecdysial membrane, 363 Ecdysial line, 59, 62, 363 Eleutherata, 305 797 Ecdysiotropin, 640 Elipsocidae, 202 Ecdysis Ellipura, 13, 100, 113 Index hormonal control, 643–645, 644 Elm sawfly, 336 mechanics, 363 Elmidae, 315 Ecdysis-triggering hormone, 421, 643–644 Elmis, plastron, 483 Ecdysone, 356, 640 Elytra, 83, 306, 322 in eclosion, 643 Elytroptera, 305 effect on hemocyte numbers, 524 Embia major, 154 effect on spermatogenesis, 579–580 Embiida, 153 in embryonic development, 618 Embiidae, 155 in male accessorygland activity, 580 Embiidina, 153 production in ovaries, 421, 578 Embiodea, 153 production in testes, 421, 580 Embioptera, 39, 40, 147, 153–156 receptor, 642 classification, 98, 100, 101, 155–156 in vitellogensis, 507, 575, 578 life history and habits, 155 See also Molting hormone phylogeny,155 α-Ecdysone, 420 structure, 154 β-Ecdysone, 365–366, 419, 420 Embonychidae, 156 Ecdysterone: see β-Ecdysone, 20- Hydroxyecdysone Embryogenesis, 597–622 Echidnophaga gallinacea, 266 fats as energy source, 506 Echinophthiriidae, 208 Embryonic area, 597 Eclosion,627,639 Embryonic cuticle, 608, 619 Eclosion hormone, 366, 418, 643–644 Embryonic ectoderm, 603, 606, 607, 608 Eclosion muscles,638 Embryonic primordium, 598, 600,601, 601,602, 602, Eclosion rhythms, 665 606 Economic injury threshold, 751 Empididae, 255 Ectadenia, 568 courtship dance, 583 Ectobiidae, 159 Empidoidea, 254, 255 Ectobius lapponicus, diapause, 668 Empoasca, 222 Ectognatha, 122, 123 E.fabae, 222, 222 Ectoperitrophic space, 492–493 host-plant resistance, 767 Ectopsocidae, 202 Enallagma Ectopsocus E. boreale E. californicus, 202, 202 spatial separation, 707 E. pumilis, 202 seasonal segregation, 708 Ectotrophi, 122, 123 larval oxygen uptake, 480 Egg bursters, 619 Encapsulation, 526, 527, 532, 533 Egg development neurosecretoryhormone: see Encyrtidae, 341 Ovarian ecdysiotropic hormone as control agents, 758, 759 Egg laying: see Oviposition Enderleinellidae, 208 Egg maturation, 569–572 Endites, 59, 76 effect of temperature, 574 Endocrine system, 405, 410, 417–421 effect of humidity, 574 Endocuticle, 357, 358–359 effect of photoperiod, 574–575 Endocytosis, 526 Egg pod, 187, 590 Endomychidae, 321 Egg shell: see Chorion Endopeptidase, 499 Eggars, 293 Endoperitrophic space, 492, 499 Egyptian tree locust: see Anacridium aegyptium Endophallus, 87 Ejaculatory duct, 87, 565, 568, 584 Endopterygota, 98 Elaiosomes, 700, 701 Endopterygote orders, 36, 41 Elateridae, 316–317 δ-Endotoxin, 714, 762, 768 Elateriformia, 311, 315–317 Endrin,508, 747 Elateroidea, 316, 317 Enicocephalidae, 223 Elenchidae, 42, 330 Enicocephaloidea, 223 Elenchus tenuicornis,328 Enicocephalomorpha, 223 Elephant beetles, 314 Enoclerus nigripes, 320 798 Ensifera, 39, 185, 186, 187–191 Episternum, 74 Entognatha, 13, 113, 120 Epistomal sulcus, 62, 63 Index Entomobrya nivalis, 114 Episyron quinquenotatus, 343 Entomobryidae, 116, 117 Epitracheal glands, 421 Entomobryoidea, 117 Epitrix, 324 Entomophthora E. cucumeris, 323 E. grylli, 675 Epizootics, 712–713, 716, 717 as insect pathogen, 717 Equine encephalitis, 249 Entotrophi, 120 Eretmocerusserius, as control agent, 758 Enzootics, 712 Ericerus pela, China wax production, 727, 728 Eolepidopterix jurassica, 279 Eriococcidae, 216 Eosentomidae, 119 Eriocraniidae, 281 Eosentomoidea, 119 Eriocranioidea, 281 Epermeniidae, 287 Eriosoma lanigerum, parasitoid, 341 Epermenioidea, 287 Eriosomatidae, 218 Ephemerellidae, 134 Eristalis,larval respiratory siphon, 481 Ephemerelloidea, 133, 134 Erotylidae, 321 Ephemerida, 98, 127 Erythemis simplicollis, 138 Ephemeridae, 134 Escape reactions, 406, 415,416 Ephemeroidea, 133, 134 Esophageal invagination, 491–492 Ephemeroptera, 34, 35, 50, 127–136 Esophagus, 491 classification, 97, 98, 100, 101, 130–135 Estigmene acraea, 772 daily emergence patterns, 665 Estivation,574, 668 homology oflarval gill plates, 28, 29 Eucinetiformia, 311, 313 larval swimming,451 Eucinetoidea, 313 life history andhabits, 129–130 Eucnemidae, 317 paired gonopores, 83 Eucoilidae, 340 phylogeny, 130, 130 Euconnus clavipes, 313 structure, 128 Eugereon, 33 subimago, 45, 129–130 Euglossini, 349 surface skimming,30 Euholognatha, 149, 150 Ephestia, 288 Eulophidae, 340 See also Anagasta as control agents, 758, 759 Ephippiger ephippiger,sexual selection,583 Eumastacidae, 186, 192 Ephydra Eumastacoidea, 191, 192 E. cinerea Eumenes fraterna, 346 osmoregulation, 552 Eumeninae, 346 E.riparia, 260 Eupelmidae, 341 osmoregulation, 552 Eupeodes volucris, 256 Ephydridae, 259–260 Euplecoptera, 175 Ephydroidea, 259–260 Euplexoptera, 175 Epicauta Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 295 E. vittata, 321 biocontrol, 310, 756 heteromorphosis, 632 Eupsocida, 201 Epicranial suture, 61–62, 63 Eupterotidae, 293 Epicuticle, 357, 359, 362, 363, 367, 472 European corn borer: see Ostrinia nubilalis Epideictic pheromones, 428 European earwig: see Forficula auricularia Epidermis, 355, 356, 359, 360, 362, 369, 472 European elm barkbeetle, 324 embryonic differentiation, 608 European frit fly, 259, 259 Epidinocarsis lopezi,ascontrol agent, 759 European pine sawfly: see Neodiprion sertifer Epilachna, 321 European pine shoot moth: see Rhyacionia buoliana Epimeron, 74 European rabbit flea, 265 Epiophlebia, 140 European red mite: see Panonychus ulmi Epiophlebioidea, 140, 141 European spruce sawfly: see Gilpinia hercyniae Epipharynx, 65 European wood wasp: see Sirex noctilio Epiprocts, 84, 88 Eurosta solidaginis, freezing tolerance, 661 Epipsocidae, 202 Eurypterida, 6,7,16 Eurytomidae, 340 Filariasis, 249 799 Eusternum, 74 File, 83, 186 Eustheniidae, 149 Filipalpia, 149 Index Eusthenioidea, 149 Filter chamber, 495, 495 Euxoa auxiliaris, migration, 684 Fire beetles: see Buprestidae Evaniidae, 339 Firebrats, 114, 123, 125 Evanioidea, 339 Fireflies, 317, 317 Eversiblevesicles, 88, 88, 120 mate location,582 Excretory organs, 537–541 Fitchiellarobertsoni, 220 Exites,59, 76 Flagellum, 64 Exocuticle, 57, 357, 359, 363 Flat-headed borers, 315–316 Exopeptidase, 499 Flatidae, 200 Exoporia, 281 Flavones, 369 Exopterygota, 98 Flea beetles, 77, 324 β-Exotoxin, 714 as control agents, 324 Exsertile vesicles,59 as disease vectors, 741 External genitalia, 84 Fleas, 264 female, 85–87 as disease vectors, 265, 737, 739 male, 87–88 jumping, 447 Extraembryonic membranes, 599, 606 microbial control, 765 formation, 605–606, 605 prepupal water uptake, 367–368 Exuvium, 644 tracheal valve, 474 Eye gnats, 259 See also Siphonaptera Eye-spotted bud moth: see Spilonota ocellana Flesh flies, 261 Flicker effect, 394 Face fly,260 Flight Fairy shrimp, 9, 9 aerodynamics, 453–458 Fall cankerworm, 289, 729 control, 460–462 Fall webworm, 295 evolution and significance, 48, 50 Fannia canicularis, 260 mechanics, 458–459 “Fast” axons, 441, 442–443 metabolism, 462–464 “Fast” eyes, 394 structural basis, 452–453 Fat body, 504 termination, 462 alcohol and ester synthesis, 506 Flight muscle differentiation at metamorphosis, 635, 638 accessory indirect, 453, 454 embryonic origin, 504, 611 direct, 452, 453, 454, 459, 459, 634 protein synthesis, 507 indirect, 452, 453, 454, 459, 634 transamination, 506–507 Flour moth: see Anagasta kuhniella¨ in vitellogenesis, 577–578 Flour beetles, 322 Fauriellidae, 236 Flower bugs, 228 Fecundity-enhancing substances, 425, 590 Follicular epithelium, 564, 569, 570, 571, 572, Feeding, 487–489 577 deterrents, 488 Fontanelle, 164 in initiation of molt cycle, 642 Food selection, 487–489 stimuli, 488 Food termination, 489 and distribution and abundance, 691–694 Felicola subrostratus, 208 and female sexual maturation, 572–573 Felt scales, 216 Footman moths, 295 Feltia, 294 Footspinners, see Embioptera Female-specific proteins, 507, 523, 569 Forceps, 88, 121, 176 Femur, 59, 76, 443 Forcipomyia, wing-beat frequency, 460 Fenestra, 157 Foregut, 489, 491–492 Fenoxycarb, 752 embryonicorigin, 491 Fenvalerate, 747 histology, 491, 492, 493 Fermentation pouch, 496, 501 role in resistance to disease, 530 Fertilization,588–589 Forest tent caterpillar: see Malacosoma disstria Fig insects, 340 Foresters, 286 800 Forficula auricularia, 177, 178 G.mellonella, 288 as plant-disease vector, 742 cecropins, 533 Index Forficulida, 175 gut myogenic centers, 496 Forficulidae, 178 Galleriinae, 288 Forficulina, 176, 177, 178 Galloisiana,175 Forficuloidea, 178 Ganglia, 406, 407 Formic acid, 427 Gas exchange, 469–486 Formica inaquatic insects, 479–484 alarm pheromone, 427 cutaneous,479, 481, 484 F. p o dzolica, mutualism, 701 discontinuous, 475, 476–477, 477 Formicidae, 332, 334, 342–345 in endoparasitic insects, 484–485 Formicinae, 344 in terrestrialinsects, 474–479 Formicoidea, 341 Gas gills, 479, 482–484 Foulbrood disease temporary (compressible), 482, 483 American, 714 permanent (incompressible), 482, 483–484 European, 714 Gas stores, 482, 482 Four-lined plant bug, 228, 228 Gaseous diffusion, 469, 475, 479 Frrankliniella, 236 Gaster, 331 Freezing susceptibility, 659, 660 Gasterophilinae, 261 Freezing tolerance, 659, 660–661 Gasterophilus intestinalis, 262 Frenatae,279 Gasteruptiidae, 339 Frenulum, 82 Gastral groove, 602, 605,611 Fritillaries, 291 Gastropacha, stemma, 399 Froghoppers, 221, 221 Gastrulation, 602–603 Frons, 63 Geadephaga, 310 Frontal ganglion, 411 Gelastocoridae, 225 embryonic origin, 611 Gelastocoroidea, 225 Frontoclypeal area, 63 Gelechiidae, 284 Frontoclypeal sulcus, 62 Gelechioidea, 284 Frost resistance: see Freezing tolerance Gena, 63, 65 Fruit flies, 257, 260 Genealogy, 95 Fruit-tree leafroller: see Archips argyrospilus Genetic control, 766–768 Fulgoridae, 219 Genetic engineering, in pest control, 768, 774 Fulgoroidea, 212, 219–220 Geocoris pallens,as control agent, 773 Fulgoromorpha, 213, 219–220 Geocorisae, 214 Fundatrigeniae, 646,667 Geometers, 289 Fungi Geometridae, 289 as control agents, 717, 757, 762–763, 764 Geometroidea, 289 in gut of leafhoppers, 501 Geotrupidae, 314 as insect pathogens, 712, 716–717 Germ band, 606, 607 mutualisms with insects, 168, 324, 344,502 formation and growth, 598–602, 603 Fungus gardens, 168, 344, 502 Germ cells, 600, 603, 612 Fungus gnats, 253 German cockroach: see Blattella germanica Furadan, 509, 748 Germarium,564,565 Furca,63, 74, 75 Gerridae, 223–224 Furcatergalia, 131, 133 compound eye, 394 Furcula, 115 Gerris Furniture beetle, 318 G. marginatus, 214 running on water, 450 Galea,66 Gerroidea, 223–224 Galeruca tanaceti, diapause, 575 Gerromorpha, 213, 223–224 Galerucinae, 324 Ghost moths, 281 Galls, 253, 333, 339 Giant axons (fibers), 406, 415 Gall midges, 253 Giant shield bugs, 232 Gall wasps, 339–340, 340 Giant silkworm moths, 293 Galleria Giant stag beetle, 314 bacteria in gut, 501 Giant water bugs: see Lethocerus Giant water scorpion, 5, 7 Gossyplure, 774 801 Gibbium psylloides, 319 Gracillariidae, 282 Gigantostraca, 7 Gradient hypothesis, 600, 600 Index Gills,59, 85, 89, 89, 148, 479–481, 551 Grain thrips, 236 Gilpinia hercyniae Granary weevil, 324 natural control, 716 Granular hemocytes, 525 viral control, 760 Granulocytes, 525, 526, 533 Gizzard,491 Granuloviruses, 715, 716 Gladiators, 182 as microbial control agents, 763 Gladiolus thrips, 236 Grape phylloxera, 218, 219 Glial cells, 405, 406–407 Grapholita molesta, 285 embryonic origin, 609 Grass moths, 288 role at metamorphosis, 638 Grasshoppers, 184, 186, 191, 192, 193, 194 Gliricola porcelli, 207 as disease vectors, 742 Glossae,66 microbial control, 764 Glossata, 277, 278, 279, 281–295 See also Orthoptera Glosselytrodea, 41 Great southern white butterfly: see Ascia monuste Glossina, 262 Green lacewings, 303 adenotrophic viviparity, 616 Green peach aphid, 218, 218 as disease vector, 739 Greenbottles, 261 female accessory glands, 616, 617 Greenfly,217 G. morsitans Greenhouse whitefly, 216 use of proline in flight, 463 Gressoria, 179 humidity perception, 387–388 Gripopterygidae, 149 as K pest type, 711 Gripopterygoidea, 149 See also Tsetse flies Gromphadorhina portentosa, 383 Glossinidae, 261, 262 Groundbeetles, 310, 311 Glossosoma, case with larva, 273 Ground pearls, 216 Glossosomatidae, 273–274 Ground plan, 96 Glucosamine, 358 Grouse locusts, 191, 191 Glucose Growth absorption, 502 biochemical changes, 626–627 metabolism, 505 discontinuous (cyclic), 624 production bygut protozoa, 501 heterogonic (disharmonic, allometric), 625, 626 Glucosinolates, 695, 696 laws, 624–625 Glycerol, 506, 523 physical aspects, 624–626 as cryoprotectant, 659, 660, 661 somatic,624 Glycogen, 505–506 Gryllacrididae, 188 in ovarioles,570 Gryllacridoidea, 187, 188–189 Glycosides, as feeding deterrents, 488 Gryllidae, 190 Gnat bugs, 223 Grylloblatta,175 Goat moths: see Cossidae G. campodeiformis, 174 Goblet cells, 496 Grylloblattaria, 173 Gomphidae, 143 Grylloblattella, 175 Gonadotropic hormone, 419, 647 Grylloblattida, 173 Gonads, 563, 565 Grylloblattidae, 100, 175 embryonic origin, 612 Grylloblattina,175 Gonangulum, 85 Grylloblattodea, 38, 39, 40, 147, 173–175 Gonapophyses, 85 classification, 100, 175 Gonimbrasia belina,ashuman food, 731 life history and habits, 174 Goniodidae, 208 phylogeny, 174–175 Goniodes structure, 173–174 G. dissimilis, 208 Gryllodes G. gigas, 208 G. sigillatus, 190 Gonocoxae, 85 G. supplicans, 190 Gonoplac, 85 Grylloidea, 185, 187, 190–191 Gonopore, 83 Grylloptera, 187 802 Gryllotalpa hexadactyla, 191 Halisidota argentata Gryllotalpidae, 190 circadian flight activity, 663, 664 Index Gryllus larval feeding rhythm, 663 athrocytes, 518 Halofenozide, 753 G. integer, acoustic parasitism, 383 Halteres, 83, 244, 256, 460, 462, 463 G. pennsylvanicus,186 Halteria, 329 G. veletis, 186 Harlequincabbage bug, 230, 232 hemopoietic organs, 518 Harmolita tritici, 341 Gula, 64 Harvester ants, 344 Gurianovaella silphidoides, 38 mutualism with seeds, 700, 701 Gustation: see Taste Harvester termites, 170 Gut Hatching, 619 antiperistaltic movements, 496 Haustellum, 70 bufffering agents, 499, 500 Hawk moths, 293–294 differentiation at metamorphosis, Head, 59, 60–72 637 appendages, 64–72 microorganisms, 501–502 segmentation, 60 movement of food, 496–498 Heart,515 myogenic centers, 496 embryonic origin, 611 peristalsis, 496 Heartbeat,520–521 effect ofhormones, 498 pacemakers, 521 pH, 499–500 rate,521 physiology, 496–503 reversal,521 redox potential, 499, 500 Heaths, 291 structure, 489–496, 490 Hebridae, 223 GV, see Granuloviruses Hebroidea, 223 Gypsy moth: seeLLymantria dispar Hedylidae, 290 Gyrinidae, 306,310 Hedyloidea, 290 Gyrinus Heelwalkers, 182, 183 compound eye, 390 Helaeomyia, 260 leg, 78 Heleomyzidae, 259 swimming, 450 Heleomyzoidea, 259 Gyropidae, 207 Heliconians, 291 Gyropus ovalis, 207 Heliconinae, 291 Gyroscopic organs, 462 Helicopsyche borealis, case, 275 Helicopsychidae, 275 Habituation, 415–416 Helicoverpa zea, 294 Habrobracon juglandis, chorion, genetic control, 766 572 insecticide resistance, 772 Haematobia irritans, 733 Heliothis virescens biocontrol, 735 insecticide resistance, 772, 774 pupal diapause, 669 testisecdysiotropin, 421 Haematomyzus viral control, 760 H. elephantis, 208 Heliozelidae, 282 H. hopkinsi,208 Helodidae, 313 Haematopinidae, 208 Hemagglutinins: see Lectins Haematopinus Hemelytra, 211 H. asini, 208 Hemerobiidae, 303 H. eurysternus, 207, 208 Hemerobioidea, 303–304 H. suis, 208 Hemicordulia flava, 93 Haematopota, 253 Hemimerida, 100 Hagloidea, 187 Hemimerina, 176, 177–178 Hair plates, 374, 375 Hemimerus, 177, 178 Hairstreaks, 291 pseudoplacental viviparity, 615, 616 Hairy rove beetle, 313 Hemimetabola, 98 Halictinae, 347 Hemiptera, 33, 41, 50, 51, 199, 210–233 Halictophagidae, 330 classification, 97, 98, 99, 213–232 Haliplidae, 310 life history and habits, 212–213 mouthparts, 71–72, 72, 210–211 Hippeletes,259 803 phylogeny, 213, 214 Hippoboscidae, 261, 262–263 structure, 210–212 Hippoboscoidea, 256, 260, 261–263 Index Hemipteroid orders, 40, 41, 100, 199–238 Hippodamia convergens, 321 Hemocoel, 515 induction of diapause, 674 embryonic development, 611–612 migration, 684 Hemocytes, 355, 515, 518, 521, 524–530 Hippotion scrota, wing-coupling, 82 embryonic origin, 604, 611 Hirsutellathompsonii,ascontrol agent, functions, 526–530 760 numbers,524 Histeridae, 312 postembryonic origin, 524 Histeroidea, 312 recognition of foreignness, 527–528 Histoblasts, 609, 634–635 storage of glutamate, 529 Hodotermes mossambicus, 170 types, 525–526, 525 Hodotermitidae, 164, 166, 169, 170 Hemolymph, 515, 517, 521–530, 537 Holognatha, 149 bidirectional flow,520 Holometabola, 98 coagulation, 526, 528–529, 529 Holopneustic condition, 470 in resistance to disease,530 Holotype, 92 tidal flow, 520 Homogametic sex, 613 unidirectional flow,519–520, 519 Homology,95 Hemopoietic organs, 518, 524 Homoplasy, 96 Hepialidae, 281 Homoptera, 210, 213 Hepialoidea, 277, 281 Homopterans, 210, 211, 212, 213 Heptachlor, 508, 748 filter chamber, 495, 495 Heptachlorepoxide, 508 Homorocoryphus, 190 Heptagenia flavescens, 133 Honey ants, 344 Heptageniidae, 132–133 replete, 345 Heptagenioidea, 132 Honeybee, 94, 349, 349 Hesperiidae, 290–291 alarm pheromone, 427 Hesperioidea, 290–291 color vision, 396–397, 397 Hesperoctenes, paedogenesis, 617 diseases, 714, 717 Hessian fly: see Mayetiola destructor flight maintenance, 462 Heterobathmia,280 glucose in hemolymph, 505 Heterobathmiidae, 280 glycogen content in mature larva, 505 Heterobathmiina, 279, 280 learning, 416 Heterobathmioidea, 280 leg, 79, 79 Heterocera, 279 light compass reaction, 397, 465 Heteroceridae, 315 management, 727 Heterogametic sex, 613 mouthparts, 68 Heterojapyx, 120 number of sperm inspermatheca ofqueen, Heteromera, 320, 322 587 Heteromorphosis, 255, 302, 322, 326, 332, 631, 632; oocyte glycogen, 570 see also Hypermetamorphosis queen pheromones, 423, 424 Heteroneura, 281–295 polarized light sensitivity, 397 Heteroptera, 41, 210, 211, 212, 213, pollinating value, 728 222–232 products, 727 Heterorhabditidae, as control agents, 765 pupal glycogen, 626, 627 Heterorhabditis roleof Johnston’s organ, 380 as insect pathogens, 718 social dominance, 704 H. bacteriophora spectral sensitivity,396 anti-immune response, 533 sperm use, 587–588 Heterothripidae, 236 spermatophore formation, 585 Hexagenia limbata, 134 sting, 86 Hexapoda, 13, 17, 19, 20–21 taste sensitivity,386 Hibernation,574, 668 waggle dance, 380, 397 Hierodula, egg pod, 591 wing-beat frequency,460 Hindgut, 489, 496 Honeydew, 246, 541 histology, 497 Hook-tip moths, 289 804 Hoplopleuridae, 208 H. brassicae, 261 Horizon response, 462 H. coarctata, 260, 261 Index Horn fly, 70 H. strigosa,ovoviviparity, 614–615 Hornets, 346–347, 346 Hylesia lineata, larval trail-marking pheromone, 428 Horntails, 336 Hylurgopinus rufipes,asdisease vector, 324, 742 Hornworms, 294 Hymenolepis Horse bot fly, 262 H. diminuta,267, 739 Horse flies, 253, 254 antigonadotropin production, 569 mouthparts, 70, 72 H. nana, 739 Horseshoe crab,6,7 Hymenoptera, 33, 39, 41, 44, 48, 49, 51, 297, 330–351 House cricket, 190, 190 classification, 97, 98, 100, 101, 334–349 House fly,260, 260 life history and habits, 332–333 abdomen, 84 mouthparts, 67–68 insecticide resistance, 750 phylogeny, 333–334, 334 mouthparts, 69, 71 structure, 331–332 sex pheromone, 423 Hymenopteroidea, 297 See also Musca domestica Hypera Hover flies, 256–257, 256 H. brunneipennis, 746 Human body louse: see Pediculus humanus H. postica, estivation,575 Human flea: see Pulex irritans Hypercapnia, 476,479 Human headlouse, 209 Hyperglycemic hormone, 418, 505 Humeral angle, 81 Hypericin, 695 Humidity perception, 387–388 Hypericum perforatum, biocontrol, 758 Humidity receptors, 388 Hypermetamorphosis, 274, 283, 307, 631; see also Humpbacked spider beetle, 319 Heteromorphosis Hyalophora cecropia Hyperparasitism, 337, 341 cecropins in plasma, 531 Hyphantria cunea, 295 chorion,572 influence of weather,679 diapause, 669, 674 Hypocerebral ganglion, 411 discontinuous ventilation in pupa, 476, 477 embryonic origin, 611 Hyblaeidae, 287 Hypoderma Hyblaeoidea, 287 H. bovis, 262, 740 Hydradephaga, 310 H. lineatum, 740 Hydrobiosidae, 273 host range, 489 Hydrocampa nympheata, swimming, 452 Hypodermatinae, 261 Hydrocorisae, 214 Hypodermis, 355 Hydrofuge hairs, 481, 481, 482, 483 Hypogastrura denticulata,117 Hydrometra, 224 Hypogastruridae, 116–117 H. martini, 224 Hypognathous head, 60, 61 Hydrometridae, 224 Hypopharynx, 60, 63, 64, 66 Hydrometroidea, 224 Hypostoma, 69 Hydrophilidae, 312 Hypostomal bridge, 63 Hydrophiloidea, 312 Hypostomal sulcus, 62 Hydrophilus triangularis, 312 Hypoxanthine, 541 Hydroprene, 752 Hypoxia, 476,479 Hydropsyche simulans, larva and adult, 272 Hystrichopsyllidae, 265,267 Hydropsychidae, 272 Hydropsychoidea, 271, 272 Ice crawlers, 173 Hydroptilidae, 274 Icerya purchasi, 216, 217, 746 Hydroscaphidae, 310 biocontrol, 729, 755, 758 20–Hydroxyecdysone, 420, 640, 642, 643 Ichneumon flies, 338, 338 5–Hydroxytryptamine, 413, 521 as control agents, 339, 759 9–Hydroxy-2–decenoicacid, 423, 424 Ichneumonidae, 338 Hygrokinetic response, 464–465 Ichneumonoidea, 328–339 Hygroreceptors, 388, 388 Identification Hylemya key for insect orders, 103–110 as plant-disease vector, 742 methods, 102–103 monothetic keys, 102 Instar, 623 805 polythetic keys, 102 Integrated pest management, 770–774 Idiostolidae, 229 apple pests, 772 Index Idiostoloidea, 229 cotton pests, 772–774 IGRs: see Insect growth regulators definition, 770 Ileum, 496, 497 phases, 770, 771 in osmoregulation, 539 Integripalpia, 270, 271, 274–276 Imaginal discs, 30, 609, 612, 634, 635, 635,637, 638, Integument, 58, 355–370 639 embryonic differentiation, 608 suppression by juvenile hormone, 640 functions Immidae, 286 color, 369–370 Immoidea, 286 permeability, 367–368 Immunity, 530–533 strength and hardness, 366–367 acquired (induced), 530, 531–532 structure, 355–360, 356 innate (natural), 530–531 in success ofinsects, 47 resistance by parasites and pathogens, 532 Intercalary segment, 60 Imported currant worm, 335, 336 Intersegmental folds, 58 Inchworms, 289 Intersegmental muscles, 453 Incurvariidae, 282 Intersternites, 74 Incurvarioidea, 282 Intima, 491 Infraepimeron, 74 Intimidation displays, 710 Infraepisternum, 74 Intromittent organ, 84, 87 Ingluvial ganglion, 411 Invasitermes, 166 embryonic origin, 611 Ionic regulation: see Osmoregulation Inka cells, 421, 644 IPM: See Integrated pest management Inner esophageal nerve, 411 Iridescent colors, 369–370 Inocelliidae, 300 Iridescent viruses, 715, 716 Insect growth regulators, 752–753 Iridomyrmex humilis, trail-marking pheromone, 428 Insect pathogens, 712–718 Ischnocera, 204, 205, 206, 207–208 Insect-animalinteractions, 702–711 Ischnopsyllidae, 267 Insect-fungi mutualisms, 168, 324, 344, 501–502 Ischnura, 141 Insect-insect mutualisms, 711 I . cervula, 142 Insect-plant interactions, 694–702 Isodrin,508 detritivores, 701–702 Isolan, 509, 748 herbivores, 694–697 Isoperla confusa, 151 mutualisms, 695, 697–701 Isoptera, 40, 46, 147, 163–173 Insecticides caste differentiation, 647–648, 648 annual amount used, 725 classification, 97, 98, 99, 100, 170–171 arsenicals, 746, 747 colony formation, 165–166 bioconcentration, 751 life history and habits, 46, 165–168 botanicals, 746, 747 microorganisms in gut, 165, 168, 501 control, 745, 746–753 nests, 166–167, 167 as health hazards, 751 phylogeny, 168–169, 169 metabolism,507–509 structure, 163–165 partition coefficient, 368 Isotomidae, 116, 117 permeability of integument, 368 Issidae, 220 problems, 749–751 Ithonidae, 302 production costs, 748 Ithonoidea, 302 resistance, 49, 50, 507, 749–751 Itoplectis conquisitor site and mode of action,508–509 acceptability of prey, 710 synergism, 509, 751 attraction to host, 710 synthetics, 747–753 Ivermectin, 748 Insectistatics, 752–753 IVs: see Iridescent viruses Insectorubin, 356 Ixodes ricinus, cultural control, 769 Insemination, 584–586 hemocoelic,586 Jalysus wickhami, 231 without a spermatophore, 585–586 Janus integer, 337 806 Japanese beetle: see Popillia japonica Labidura riparia,178 Japygidae, 121 Labiduridae, 178 Index Japyx, 121 Labiduroida, 175 Jassidae, 222 Labiidae, 178 Jerusalem crickets, 188 Labioidea, 178 Jewel beetles, 315 Labium,60,63,64, 66, 66 Jiggers, 266 Labrum, 60, 63, 64 Johnston’s organ, 64, 380, 381 Lac insect: see Laccifer lacca Joints,57, 58, 443 Laccifer lacca, 216 Jugalfold, 81, 82 lac production, 727–728 Jugal veins, 81 Lacciferidae, 216 Jugatae, 279 Lacebugs, 227 Jugum, 81, 82 Lacewings, 303–304, 304 Julus terrestris, 11 as control agents, 303–304 Jumping, 447–448 eye color, 390 Jumping plant lice, 215 Lachesilla pedicularia, 203 June bugs, 314 Lachesillidae, 203 Juvenile hormone, 45, 366, 419–420, 419, 422,521, Laciniae,66 533, 574 Lacunae, 81 in control of development, 640–641 Ladybird beetles, 321 in control of polymorphism, 647–648, 649 as control agents, 321 in diapause, 575 Ladybugs, 321 effect on egg development, 507, 575–578 Laemobothriidae, 206 effect on female receptivity, 584 Laemobothrion, 206 effect on hemocytes, 524 Lampyridae, 317 effect on male accessory glands, 580 Lampyris effect on spermatogenesis, 579–580 compound eye, 393 in embryonic development, 618 L. noctiluca, androgenic hormone, and migratory behavior, 679–680 420 mimics as insecticides, 752 Lancets, 87 site and mode of action, 642 Landmark recognition, 416 in suppression of imaginal discs, 640 Languriidae, 322 Lantern flies, 219 K pests, 744, 745 Lappet moths, 293 Kairomones, 370, 421, 429 Larch sawfly, 335 in pest control, 753 Larder beetle, 318 Kalotermitidae, 164, 166,169, 171 Large chicken louse, 208 Karschiellidae, 178 Large turkeylouse, 207, 208 Karschielloidea, 178 Larval types Karumiidae, 315 acephalous, 245, 630,631 Katatrepsis, 602, 604, 606, 618 apodous, 631 Katydids, 184, 185, 186, 189 campodeiform, 630, 630, 631 Kawanaphila lexceni, 93 coarctate, 322, 631 Keds, 262 eruciform, 630,631 Keratin digestion, 499 eucephalous, 245, 630, 631 Kerriidae, 216 hemicephalous, 245, 630, 631 Kineses, 464 oligopod, 630 King crabs, 6 polypod, 631 King crickets, 188 scarabaeiform, 630–631, 630 Kinoprene, 752 Larvapods, 89 Kukalova´ americana, 35 Lasiocampidae, 293 Lathridiidae, 322 Labellum, 70 Lauxaniidae, 258 Labialglands, 490 Lauxanioidea, 258 as excretory organs, 539 Leafbeetles, 324 Labial palps, 66 Leaf insects, 179 Labial segment, 60 Leaf-rolling crickets, 188, 189 Leaf-cutter bees, 348, 348 Leptophlebioidea, 133 807 Leafhoppers, 222 Leptopodidae, 224 as disease vectors, 742 Leptopodoidea, 224 Index gut fungi, 501 Leptopodomorpha, 213, 224 Learning, 409, 415–417 Leptopsyllidae, 267 Lecanium Lesser grain borer: see Rhizopertha dominica L. coryli, 731 Lestes L. pruinosum,731 L. congener, egg diapause, 618, 674 Lectins,527,531, 768 L. disjunctus Legs, 59, 75–79 egg diapause, 618 basic structure, 76 survival of overwintering eggs, 676 ground plan, 76 L. unguiculatus, survival of overwintering eggs, modifications, 77–79 676 muscles, 443–444, 444 seasonal segregation among species, 708 Legal control, 746 Lestidae, 142 Leiodidae, 313 Lestinoidea, 140, 142 Leistrophus versicolor, allomones, 430 Lethocerus,225 Lemophagus curtus,ascontrol agent, 759 L. americanus, 226 Lens cylinder, 392, 392, 393, 394 L. indicus,ashuman food, 731–733 Leopard moths: see Cossidae Leucania, 294 Lepiceridae, 310 Leucophaea Lepidopsocidae, 201 control of oviposition, 590 Lepidoptera, 41, 43, 48, 49, 239, 276–296 L. maderae,161 classification, 97, 98, 100, 279–295 male accessoryglands, 580 endocrine control of vitellogenesis, 578 Leuctridae, 150, 152 life history andhabits, 278–279 Levuana iridescens, biocontrol, 758 mouthparts, 68–69, 69 Libellula quadrimaculatus,hormonal control oflarval phylogeny, 279, 280 salt and water balance, 555 polymorphism, 278, 291 Libellulidae, 143 sex pheromones, 423 Libelluloidea, 143–144 structure, 277–278 Lice: see Phthiraptera tympanal organs, 380–381 Life history, in success of insects, 48 wing coupling, 82, 82, 277, 291 Lift Lepidosaphes control reflex, 460 L. beckii, biocontrol, 758 in flight, 453, 455, 457, 458, 458, 459, 460 L. ulmi, 216, 217 Light-compass reaction, 397, 465, 681 control, 772 Ligula, 66 Lepidostomatidae, 274 Limacodidae, 286 Lepidotrichidae, 26, 124, 125 Lime sulfur, 750 Lepinotus inquilinus, 201 Limenitis archippus, 292 Lepisma mimicry, 292, 645 athrocytes, 518 Limnephilidae, 274 ovipositor, 85, 86 Limnephiloidea, 269, 274–275 Lepismatidae, 124, 125 Limnephilus Lepismodes inquilinus, 122, 125 L. indivisus,larva and case, 275 Lepthemis, 138 termination of diapause, 674 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 323, 324 Limnodites, swimming, 452 adult diapause, 575, 669, 672, 674 Limothrips,236 control by genetic engineering, 768 L. cerealium, migration, 684 flight metabolism, 463 Limulus, 16, 19 insecticide resistance, 750 L. polyphemus,6,7 migration, 684 Lindane,508, 747 preferred host plants, 696,726 Linognathidae, 208 walking, 415 Linognathus spp., 204 Leptoceridae, 275–276 L. vituli, 207 Leptoceroidea, 274, 275–276 Liothrips citricornis, 237 Leptophlebiidae, 133 Liparidae, 295 808 Lipids Lucanidae, 314 absorption, 503 Lucanus elaphus, 314 Index metabolism,506 Lucerne flea, 117 Lipophorins, 464, 507, 528 Lucilia, 261 Lipoptera, 203 dietary requirements, 694 Liposcelidae, 201, 202 haltere, 463 Liposcelis, 202, 202 L. cuprina Lithobius, 11 collagenase in larva, 498 Litomastix truncatellus, polyembryony, 614, 615 excretion of ammonia,545 Lobster cockroach, 161 trehalase inadult, 498 Lobsters,9 L. sericata Locusta excretory products, 542 biochemical changes duringgrowth, 627 landing, 462 L. migratoria, 194 in maggot therapy, 736 alimentary canal, 490 as pest, 736 antigonadotropic hormone, 569, 579 Lycaenidae, 291 control of flight, 460 Lycidae, 317, 322 development, 574 Lyctus, 319 ecdysone in ovaries, 578 Lygaeidae, 230 effect of population density, 573 Lygaeoidea, 230 effect of temperature on egg flight metabolism, Lygus 464 L. hesperus, 772 food selection, 488 L. lineolaris, 227, 228 hemolymph composition, 523 Lymantria dispar, 295 male sexual behavior,581 biocontrol, 310, 339, 756, 757 mate guarding, 583 genetic control, 766 molt cycle, 642 as parasitoid host, 710 release of digestive enzymes, 500 testis ecdysiotropin, 421 learning, 416 viral control, 760 opening of proventriculus, 498 Lymantriidae, 295 structure of chorion, 571 Lymexylidae, 320 tracheal system, 470, 471 Lymexyloidea, 319, 320 Locusts, 184, 193, 194 Lynchia americana, 263 aggregation pheromone, 426 Lyonetiidae, 283 gregarious, 649 Lysozyme, 523, 530, 531 jumping, 447 Lytta nuttalli, male reproductive organs, 566 maturation pheromones, 573 phase polymorphism, 194, 648–649 Machaerotidae, 220 salivary glands, 490 Machilidae, 122, 123 solitary, 648–649 Machilis, 113, 122, 123 See also Locusta, Schistocerca number of abdominal ganglia, 411 Lonchaeidae, 257 Machiloidea, 123 Lonchothripidae, 236 Macrolepidoptera, 279 Lonchothrips linearis, 236 Macromia magnifica, 144 Long-horned beetles, 323 Macrosiphum euphorbiae Long-hornedgrasshoppers, 187, 189, 189 as disease vector, 741 Long-legged flies, 255 host-plant resistance, 767 Long-nosed cattle louse, 207, 208 Macrosoma, 290 Long-tailed mealybug, 217 Macrotermitinae, 168, 171 Longitarsus jacobaeae,ascontrol agent, 324 Macrotrichia, 80, 277 Lophocorona, 281 Madagascar hissing cockroach, 383 Lophocoronidae, 281 Madeira cockroach, 161 Lophocoronina, 281 Maggot therapy,736 Lophocoronoidea, 281 Magicicada septendecim, 221, 221 “Louse factor”, 714 Maguey worms: see Aegiale hesperiaris Louse flies, 262 Maindroniidae, 125 Loxostege,288 Malachius aeneus, 320 Malacopsyllidae, 266 March flies, 252, 253, 253 809 Malacopsylloidea, 266 Margarinotus immunis, 312 Malacosoma Margarodidae, 216 Index M. americanum, 293 Masarinae, 346 M. disstria,larval trail-marking pheromone, 428 Mason wasps, 346 Malaria, 249, 726, 738 Mastotermes, 40, 163, 164, 165, 167 Malathion,509, 748 M. darwiniensis, 170 Mallee moths, 284 Mastotermitidae, 169, 170 Mallophaga, 98, 99, 203, 206 Mate guarding, 583, 586–587 Mallophorina pulchra, 255 Mate location,581–582 Malpighian tubules, 496, 537–539 Mate recognition, 581–582 cryptonephridial arrangement, 539, 540,550 Mating embryonic origin, 611 behavior, 581–587 in nitrogenous waste removal, 543–545 diurnal rhythms, 665 number,537–538 effect on sexual maturation, 573–574 in osmoregulation, 547–548 Mating disruption, in pest management, 753 structure, 538–539, 538 Maturation-accelerating pheromones, 424–425, 573, Mamestra brassicae, sound reception, 379 581 Mandibles, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66 Maturation-inhibiting pheromones, 424–425, 573 Mandibular bristles, 71 Maxillae, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 66 Mandibular glands, 427, 490, 491 Maxillary bristles, 71 Mandibular segment, 60 Maxillary palps, 66 Mandibulata, 8, 17 Maxillary segment, 60 Manduca, 294 Maybeetles (bugs), 314, 314 host plant preferences, 696 Mayetiola destructor, 253, 253 M. sexta, 294 antibiosis in wheat, 767 amino acid absorption, 503 biocontrol, 339 braconid parasite, 339 host-plant resistance, 767 color vision, 397 Mayflies: see Ephemeroptera cultural control, 769 Mayriella overbecki, trail-marking pheromone, 428 epitrachealglands, 421 Meadow browns, 291 genetic control, 766 Meadow katydid, 189 heartbeat reversal, 521 Meadow spittlebug, 221, 221 hormonal control of ecdysis, 644 Mealworms, 322 prothoracicotropic hormone, 419 Mealybugs, 216 Mannitol, as cryoprotectant, 659 Mechanoreception, 374–379 Mantida, 100 signal detection, 378–379 Mantidae, 159, 162 Mechanoreceptors, 415 Mantis religiosa, 162 See also Mechanosensilla Mantispa cincticornis, 303 Mechanosensilla, 374 Mantispid, 301, 303 Meconium, 545 Mantispidae, 301, 302, 303 Mecoptera, 41, 43, 239–243, 297 Mantispoidea, 303 classification, 97, 98, 100, 101, 241–243 Mantodea, 99, 156 life history andhabits, 240–241 classification, 161–162 phylogeny, 241, 241 foreleg, 77, 78 structure, 240 life history and habits, 158 Median mesoderm, 605, 611 phylogeny, 159 Median ventral nerve, 411 structure, 157 Medicinal maggots, 736 Mantoidea, 159, 162 Mediterranean flour moth: see Anagasta kuhniella¨ Mantophasmatidae, 184 Mediterranean fruit fly, 257, 258 Mantophasmatodea, 39, 41, 147, 182–184 Megachile classification, 184 M. latimanus, 348 life history and habits, 183–184 M. rotundata, 348 phylogeny,184 Megachilinae, 348 structure, 183 Megalodontidae, 335 Many-plume moths, 287 Megalodontoidea, 335 810 Megaloptera, 42, 297–299 Merostomata, 7 classification, 299 Merothripidae, 235 Index life history and habits, 298 Mesadenia, 568 phylogeny, 298–299 Mesenteric ceca, 494, 502 structure, 297–298 Mesenteron, 492 Megalyridae, 337 Mesobiliverdin, 369 Megalyroidea, 337 Mesocuticle, 358 Meganeuridae, 35 Mesomeres,87 Meganeuropsis permiana, 36 Mesopsocus, microhabitat selection, 707–708 Meganisoptera, 35 Mesoveliidae, 223 Megapodagrionidae, 142 Mesovelioidea, 223 Megasecoptera, 33, 34, 35 Metabolism Megaspilidae, 338 of amino acids,506–507 Megoura viciae, polyphenism, 646, 647, 668 of carbohydrates, 505–506 Meinertellidae, 122, 123 of insecticides,507–509 Melanic moths, 50, 645 of lipids, 506 Melanin, 365, 369, 527, 533 of proteins, 507 Melanization, 363, 365, 366 sites,503–505 Melanophila acuminata, infrared sensitivity, 389 Metamorphosis Melanoplus, 194 endopterygote, 634–639 control of egg development, 575–576 exopterygote, 634 M. bivittatus, mortality due to pathogens, 676 fats as energy source, 506 M. differentialis, 193 histological changes, 634–639 egg diapause, 618 metabolism,504 M. packardii, mortality due to pathogens, 676 role of endocytosis, 526 M. sanguinipes Metamorphosis-inhibiting hormone, 419 effect of population density on reproduction, 704 Metaphycus californicus,731 food plants, 694 Metarhizium anisopliae male accessoryglands, 580 as control agent, 716,762, 764 reproductive organs, 562, 566 as insect pathogen, 716 Melipona, 349 Methoprene, 752 Meliponini, 349 Micro-caddisflies, 274 Meloidae, 42, 307, 322 Microbial control, 755, 757–766, 774 Melolontha strategies, 760–761 M. melolontha, flight metabolism, 463 Microcentrum rhombifolium, 189 M. vulgaris,excretory products, 542 Microcoryphia, 13, 25, 65, 113, 122–123 Melolonthinae, 314 classification, 123 Melophagus ovinus, 263 life history andhabits, 123 as K pest type, 744 phylogeny,123 Melyridae, 319 structure, 122–123 Membracidae, 222 Microhabitat selection, 706, 707–708 Memory, 409, 415–417 Microlepidoptera, 279 Menacanthus Micromalthidae, 308–309 M. eurysternus, 204 Micromalthusdebilis, 309 M. stramineus, 204, 206 Micropezidae, 257 Mengea tertiaria, 329 Micropezoidea, 257 Mengeidae, 329 Microplitis, learning, 416 Mengenillidae, 327, 328, 329 Micropterigidae, 43, 68, 279, 280 Mengenillidia, 329 Micropterigoidea, 280 Menopon gallinae, 206, 207 Microptysmella, 43 Menoponidae, 206 Micropyles, 572 Menotaxis, 465 Microsporidae, 310 Mentum,66 Microsporidia Merimnaatrata, thermosensitivity, 389 as insect pathogens, 717 Meron, 76, 77 as control agents, 760, 763, 764 Merope tuber, 243 Microtrichia, 80 Meropeidae, 243 Midgut, 489, 492–496 embryonic origin, 598, 611 Mormon cricket, 190 811 as excretory organ, 539 microbial control, 764 glycogen accumulation, 505 Morphinae, 291 Index histology, 493 Morphos, 291 subdivisions, 494, 494 Morphospecies, 93 Migration, 678, 679–686,704 Mosaic theory, 392–394 categories, 681–686 Mosquitoes, 249, 250 navigational cues, 681 anticoagulants insaliva, 491 Migratorygrasshopper: see Melanoplus circadian feeding activity, 489, 663–665 sanguinipes circadian mating behavior, 665 Migratorylocust: see Locusta migratoria as disease vectors, 249, 737, 738 Milichiidae, 259 endocrine control of egg development, 577,578 Milkweed butterflies, 291 genetic control, 766 Milky disease, 715, 760, 761 ion uptake by larval anal papillae, 551 Millipedes, 11, 11 male accessoryglands, 574, 585 Mimallonidae, 291 microbial control, 761, 764 Mimallonoidea, 291 migration, 684 Mimicry, 295, 645 orientation to heat, 389 Batesian, 292, 709–710 oviposition site selection, 589–590 Mullerian,¨ 709 release of digestive enzymes, 500–501 Miomoptera, 39, 41 respiratory siphon in larva, 481 Miridae, 227–228 spermatophore formation, 585 Miroidea, 227–228 stretch receptor, 378 Mirror, 186 swarm formation, 665 Mites, 7 See also Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Culicidae, Mixed-function oxidases, 508, 696 Taeniorhynchus Mixocoel, 612 Mothflies, 249, 249 Mnesarchaeidae, 281 Moths, 276, 279, 282 Mnesarchaeoidea, 277, 281 See also Lepidoptera Molecrickets, 190, 191 Motion parallax, 395, 396 leg,78, 78 Mouthparts microbial control, 765 ectognathous, 65, 122, 123 Molt cycle, 360–365 entognathous, 65, 101, 113, 118, 120, 121 initiation, 642–643 typical, 65, 66 termination, 643–644 modifications, 66–72 Molt glands, 417, 418, 420 Muddaubers, 347 degeneration, 641 Murgantia histrionica, 230, 232 embryonic origin, 609 Musca in solitary adult locusts, 649 cuticular waxes, 360 Molting: see Ecdysis dietary requirements, 694 Molting fluid, 362 M. autumnalis, 260, 746 Moltinggel, 360 M. domestica, 260, 260 Molting hormone, 533 oostatic hormone, 420,569,579 mimics as insecticides, 753 pheromone production, 422, 423 in production of embryonic cuticle, 608, 618 as r pest, 744 in production of serosal cuticle, 606 vitellogenesis, 569 in regulation of development, 640 M. vetustissima, 260 See also Ecdysone biocontrol, 735 Monarch butterfly: see Danaus plexippus oocyte glycogen, 570 Monkeygrasshoppers, 192, 192 See also House fly Monochamus maculosus, 323 Muscidae, 260 Monomorium pharaonis,ffat body, 504 Muscle, 437–443 Monophyletic group, 96 antagonisticpairs, 442 Monotrysia, 281 asynchronous (myogenic) contraction, 51 459, Monura, 25, 26 463 Mopanie: see Gonimbrasia belina attachment to cuticle, 438–439, 438 Mordellidae, 322 bi-functional, 453, 455, 634 812 Muscle (Continued) Nabidae, 228 close-packed, 440, 440, 441 Nabis americoferus,ascontrol agent, 773 Index differentiation at metamorphosis, 634, 638 Nacerdes melanura, 322 embryonic origin, 611 Nagana, 262 fibers, 439, 439 Nannochorista, 240 fibrillar, 440, 440, 441, 459, 479 Nannochoristidae, 101, 240, 241, 242 flight, 453, 454 Nannomecoptera, 101, 242 innervation, 441, 442–443, 443 Nasonia vitripennis physiology, 441–443 female reproductive organs, 562 skeletal, 438, 440, 441 host location, 710 structure, 438–441, 440 larval diapause, 669 synchronous (neurogenic) contraction, 459, 463 Nasute soldiers, 171, 172 tubular (lamellar), 440–441, 440,479 Nasutitermes, 165 visceral, 438, 440, 441 Nasutitermitinae, 164, 171 Muscle attachment fibers, 438–439 Native elm bark beetle: see Hylurgopinus rufipes Muscoidea, 260–261 Native frosted scale, 731 Muscomorpha, 69, 244, 245, 246, 255–263 Naucoridae, 225 Musculature Naucoroidea, 225 of coxa, 444 Nauphoeta cinerea, 161 of grasshopper hindleg, 444 male sex attractant, 423–424 Mushroom bodies, 409, 411, 415, 416 Neanuridae, 116, 117 metamorphosis, 638 Neck, 60, 63, 73, 75 Neelidae, 116, 117 Mustard oils, as phagostimulants, 488, 696 Neelipleona, 114, 115, 116, 117 Mustard beetle: see Phaedon cochleariae Neem, 749 Mutillidae, 342 Negha, 300 Mutualisms Negro bugs, 232 ant-aphid, 647, 711 Nematocera, 244, 245, 246, 247–253 insect-insect, 711 Nematodes insect-microorganism, 501–502 as control agents, 757, 765 insect-plant, 695, 697–701 as insect pathogens, 712, 718 Mycetocytes, 504–505 Nematus ribesii, 335, 336 Mycetomes, 205, 211, 505, 541 Nemeritis canescens Mycetophilidae, 252–253 anti-immune response, 532 Mymaridae, 341 host location, 429, 710 as control agents, 758, 759 Nemestrinidae, 255 Myoblasts, 611 Nemopteridae, 305 Myoglossata, 281 Nemoura flexura, 152 Myopsocidae, 203 Nemouridae, 148, 150, 152–153 Myriapoda, 9–13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 97 Nemouroidea, 150 Myrientomata, 118 Neoconocephalus palustris, 189 Myrmecocystus hortideorum, 345 Neodiprion, 335 Myrmecolacidae, 328, 330 N. lecontei, 336 Myrmecophilidae, 190 larval trail-marking pheromone, 428 Myrmeleon, larva, 304 N. sertifer Myrmeleontidae, 304–305 allomones, 430 Myrmeleontoidea, 304–305 viral control, 760 Myrmicinae, 344 Neodusmetia sangwani,ascontrol agent, 759 Myxomatosis Neohaematopinus relictus, 205 spread by fleas, 265 Neomecoptera, 242 spread by mosquitoes, 249 Neopetaliidae, 143 Myxophaga, 308, 310 Neopseustidae, 281 Myzus persicae, 218, 218 Neopseustina, 281 host-plant resistance, 768 Neopseustoidea, 281 insecticide resistance, 750 Neoptera, 30, 32, 33, 36, 100, 101 as plant-disease vector, 741 Neosticta fraseri, 93 polymorphism, 647 Neotenin, 419 Nepa, 225 Niches, 705 813 N. apiculata, 226 Nicoletiidae, 124, 125 Nephrocytes, 519, 546 Nicotine, 695–696 Index Nepidae, 225 Nicotine alkaloids, 747 Nepoidea, 225 Nilaparvata lugens, host-plant resistance, 767 Nepomorpha, 213, 225–227 Nitidulidae, 320 Nepticulidae, 282 Nitric oxide, 527 Nepticuloidea, 282 as neuromodulator, 414 Nerioidea, 257 as vasodilator, 491 Nerve nets, 375, 377 Nitrogenous excretion, 541–546 Nervous system hormonal control,554 central, 408–411, 409 physiology, 543–545 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 Nitrogenous waste products, 541–543 embryonic origin, 609–611 No-see-ums, 251 stomatogastric, 409, 411,573 Noctuidae, 294 embryonic origin, 611 Noctuoidea, 277, 294–295 in molt cycle, 642 Nodule formation, 526, 527 visceral (sympathetic), 411 Nomadacris septemfasciata, 194 Nervous activity biological control, 755 endogenous, 414 diurnalfeeding rhythm, 489 exogenous, 414 effect of population density, 573 Net-winged beetles, 317, 317 Northern rat flea, as disease vector, 739 Net-winged midges, 248 Nosema Neural integration, 411–415 N. apis,as agent of nosema disease, 717 Neural lamella, 407 N. bombycis, as agent of p´ebrine disease, Neureclipsis bimaculata,larva and net, 272 717 Neurilemma cells, 374 N. locustae Neuroblasts, 609–610 as pathogen of grasshoppers, 718 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 for grasshopper biocontrol, 760, 764 Neuroendocrine integration, 430–431 N. lymantriae,as gypsy moth pathogen, 717 Neurohemal organs, 417, 418 N. polyvora, as pathogen of Pieris brassicae, Neuromodulators, 413–414 718 Neuromuscular junctions, 406, 413, 438 N. pyrausta,aspathogen of European corn borer, Neurons, 405–406, 406,408 718 “command”, 447 Nosopsyllus fasciatus, as disease vector, 739 embryonic origin, 609–610 Notiothauma reedi, 243 non-spiking, 412, 414–415 Notiothaumidae, 243 pioneer, 610–611 Notodontidae, 294 spiking, 412 Notoligotomidae, 156 Neuropeptides, in pest control, 752 Notonecta, 226 Neuropiles, 406 gas store, 483 embryonic origin, 610 N. undulata, 226 Neuroptera, 42, 51, 297, 301–305 Notonectidae, 225–226 classification, 97, 302–305 Notonectoidea, 225–226 life history andhabits, 302 Notonemouridae, 150, 153 phylogeny, 302 Notoptera, 100, 173 structure, 301–302 Notum, 73 Neuropteroid orders, 41, 42, 297–305 NPV: see Nucleopolyhedroviruses Neuropteroids, 39, 97, 98 Nucleopolyhedroviruses Neurorthidae, 303 as agents of disease, 715, 716 Neurosecretory system, 417–420 as control agents, 760, 761, 763 inegg development, 578 Nuptial gifts, 240, 255, 586 Neurosecretory cells, 417–418, 419 Nurse cells,564,570 Neurotransmitters, 413 Nycteribiidae, 261, 263 Nevrorthidae, 303 Nymphalidae, 291 Newcomer’s gland, 711 Nymphalinae, 291 Nezara viridula, biocontrol, 758 Nymphon rubrum, 8 814 Oblique dorsal muscle, 453 number, 390 Oblique intersegmental muscle, 453 superposition (scotopic), 391, 392 Index Occipital condyles, 63 Ommochromes, 369, 390 Occipital foramen, 60, 63 Onchocerca volvulus, 251 Occipital sulcus, 62, 63 Onchocerciasis, 251, 748 Occiput, 63 Oncopeltus Ocellar nerves, 409 initiation of molt cycle, 642 Ocelli, 60, 389, 398–400, 399 O. fasciatus, cardiac glycosides, 697 Ochteridae, 225 Onion thrips, 236 Ochteroidea, 225 Onthophagus compositus, nest, 734 Ochthera mantis, 259 Onychiuridae, 116,117 Octopamine, 521 Onychophora, 4, 9, 16, 17, 19, 20 as neuromodulator, 414 Oostatic hormone, 420,569,575, 579 as neurotransmitter, 413 Oothecae, 158, 590–591, 591 role in flight metabolism, 464 Oothecaria, 156 Ocular sulcus,62 Operophtera brumata Odonata, 34, 35, 50, 51, 127, 136–145 biocontrol, 729–731, 759 classification, 97, 98, 100, 101, 140–144 preferred food, 696 distance perception in larva, 395, 395 Opisthognathous head, 60, 62,72 eclosion rhythms, 665 Opisthogonopora, 242 larval mask, 137, 137 Opisthorhynchous head, 60 life history andhabits, 138–140 Opius migration, 684 O. lectus, host location, 429 phylogeny, 140, 141 O. oophilus,ascontrol agent, 758 sperm transfer, 138, 585 Opomyzoidea, 258 structure, 136–138 Opostegidae, 282 territoriality, 138, 705 Optic lobes, 409 Odontomyia hoodiana, 254 Opuntia, 93, 212, 216 Oecanthidae, 190 biocontrol, 729, 730, 758 Oecophoridae, 284 Orange tips, 291 as detritivores, 701 Orchid bees, 349 Oecophylla smaragdina,ascontrol agent, Organophosphates, 509, 748 754 Orgyia pseudotsuga, viral control, 760 Oedemeridae, 322 Oriental cockroach: see Blatta orientalis Oedipodinae, 194 Oriental fruit moth, 285 OEH: see Ovarian ecdysiotropic hormone Oriental rat flea: see Xenopsylla cheopsis Oenocytes, 356, 360, 362, 506 Orientation, 464–465 and cuticular hydrocarbon synthesis, 363 Ormia ochracea, acoustic parasitism, 383 differentiation at metamorphosis, 635 Ornithine cycle, 543 and ecdysone synthesis, 420 Orthoptera, 39–40, 51, 147, 184–195 embryonic origin, 609 classification, 97, 98, 99, 100, 187–194 Oenocytoids, 525, 526, 529 jumping,447 Oestridae, 261 life history and habits, 186–187 Oestrinae, 261 phylogeny, 187, 188 Oestroidea, 260, 261 sound production, 185, 186 Oestrus ovis, 262 structure, 185–186 Olfaction: see Smell territoriality, 704–705 Oligentoma, 114 Orthopteroid orders, 39, 100, 173–194 Oligoentomata, 114 Orthopteroida, 184 Oligoneoptera, 36, 38, 41–44, 100 Orthorrhapha, 69, 246, 253 Oligopause, 671 Orussidae, 333, 336 Oligotoma, 156 Oryctes rhinoceros,asK pest, 744 Oligotomidae, 156 Oryzaephilus surinamensis, 322 Ommatidae, 308 dietary requirements, 694 Ommatidia Oscinella frit, 259, 259 apposition (photopic), 390–392, 391 Osmeterium, 291, 295 in flight control, 461 Osmoconformers, 553–554 Osmoregulation, 418, 537, 546–554 Paleacrita vernata, 289, 289 815 absorption of ions, 547 Paleodictyoptera, 33, 34, 35 in brackish-water insects, 551–554 Paleoptera, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 100, 101, Index and aquatic insect distribution, 677 127–145 in freshwater insects,550–551 Pamphagidae, 194 hormonal control, 554–555 Pamphiliidae, 335 in saltwater insects, 551–554 Panesthia, crop bacteria, 501 in terrestrial insects,546–550 Panonychus ulmi, control, 772 Osmylidae, 301, 302, 303 Panorpa helena, 242 Osmyloidea, 303 Panorpatae, 98, 239 Ostia,516–517, 517,520 Panorpida, 239 Ostrinia nubilalis, 288 Panorpidae, 239, 240, 243 biocontrol, 757 Panorpina, 239 diapause, 669, 673, 674 Panorpodes, 243 genetic control, 768 Panorpodidae, 240, 243 Otitidae, 257 Panorpoid complex, 39, 41, 43, 51, 100, 239–296, 333 Oulema melanopus, 746 Pantopoda, 8 biocontrol, 759 Panzeria,ovoviviparity, 616 host-plant resistance, 767 Paper wasps, 346 Outer esophageal nerves, 411 Papilio polyxenes asterius, 292 Ovarian ecdysiotropic hormone, 418, 419, 420, Papilionidae, 291 569, 578 Papilionoidea, 291 Ovaries Paraglossae, 66 as endocrine glands, 421 Parainsecta, 100 structure, 563–564 Parallelism, 96 Ovarioles, 563–564 Parameres, 87 acrotrophic, 564 Paranagrus optabilis,ascontrol agent, 758 meroistic,564,570, 615 Paraneoptera, 36, 38, 41, 100, 101 number, 563 Paraneuroptera, 136 panoistic, 563,564 Paranotal lobes, 27–29 polytrophic, 563,564,570 Paraphyletic group, 96 telotrophic, 563, 564, 570 Paraplecoptera, 38, 149 Overwintering, 659–662 Paraprocts, 84 Oviducts,564,565 Parasita, 97 Ovipara, 646,667 Parasitic bees, 349 Oviparity, 158 Parasitic wood wasps, 336 Oviposition, 589–591 Parasitica, 333, 335, 337 control,590 Parasitizopus armaticeps, polarizedlight detection, mechanics, 590 398 site selection, 589–590 Parasitoids, 709, 710, 711 Ovipositor, 84, 85–87, 86 Parathion, 502, 509, 748 Oviposition-stimulating hormone, 418, 590 Paratype, 92 Ovoviviparity, 158, 212, 216, 235, 245, 614–615 Parthenogenesis, 129, 155,158, 181, 186, 200, 212, Ovulation, 587 215, 216, 217, 235, 245, 253, 308, 328, 332, Ovulation-inducing hormone, 418, 587 335, 613–614, 617, 618, 646, 667 Owlet moths, 294 types, 158, 613 9–Oxo-2–decenoic acid, 423, 424 Passalidae, 314 Oxyspirura mansoni, 161 Pasteurella pestis, 737 Oystershell scale: see Lepidosaphes ulmi Path integration, 416 Pauropoda, 9, 11, 12, 20 Pacemakers,521 Pauropus silvaticus, 11 Pachytroctidae, 201, 202 PBAN: see Pheromone biosynthesis activating Paedogenesis, 253, 308, 617, 646 neuropeptide Palaeopsylla, 266 Pea aphid: see Acyrthosiphon pisum Palaephatidae, 282 Pea weevils, 323, 324 Palaephatoidea, 282 Peacocks, 291 Pale western cutworm, 295 Pear thrips, 236, 237 816 Pectinophora gossypiella, 284, 746, 772 righting reflex, 376 cultural control, 769 sperm release from spermatheca, 588 Index diapause, 669, 672, 674 water absorption in rectum, 549 genetic control, 766,768, 774 Periplasm of egg, 597, 598 Pedicel, 64, 564 Peripodial cavity, 628, 634, 635 Pedicinidae, 208 Peripsocidae, 202 Pediculidae, 209 Perispiracular glands, 481 Pediculus Peristigmatic glands, 481 P. capitis, 209 Perisympathetic organs, 418 P. humanus, 207, 209, 736 Peritrophic matrix, 492–494, 495,637 as disease vector, 738 role in resistance to disease, 530, 713, 716 Pela wax scale: see Ericerus pela Perivisceral sinus, 517, 518, 519 Peloridiidae, 222–223 Perkinsiella saccharicida, biocontrol, 758 Peloridioidea, 222–223 Perlaria, 147 Peltodytes edentulus, 311 Perlida, 147 Peltoperlidae, 150 Perlidae, 150–151 Pemphigidae, 218 Perlodidae, 149, 150 Penis, 87,585, 586 Perloidea, 149–150 Pentastoma, 4, 5 Permethrin, 747 Pentatomidae, 230–232 Permopsocida, 205 Pentatomoidea, 230–232 Permopsocina, 201 Pentatomorpha, 213, 214, 229–232 Permotanyderus, 43 Peppered moth: see Biston betularia Permotanytarsus, 246 Pergidae, 335 Permothemis, 34 Pericardial cells,518–519 Permothemistida, 34, 35 embryonic origin, 612 Permothrips, 235 Pericardial septum, 517 Permotipula patricia, 43, 246 embryonic origin, 612 Pest control, 743–775 Pericardial sinus,518 Pest insects, 725, 736–743 Perineural septum, 518 chemical control, 746–753 Perineural cells, 406–407 of cultivated plants, 740–743 Perineural sinus, 518, 520 ofdomesticanimals, 740 Perineurium, 406 economic losses due to, 725 Periodiccicada, 221, 221 of storedproducts, 743 Peripatopsis, 4 as vectors of human diseases, 726, 737–740 Peripatus, 16 Pesticides: see Insecticides Peripheralinhibition, 413 Pesticidesyndrome, 770 Periplaneta, 160 Petaluridae, 141, 143 athrocytes, 518 Petiole, 331 gut chitinase, 499 Phaedon cochleariae hemolymph circulation time, 519 as disease vector, 741 locomotor activity, 663, 664 phagostimulants, 488 micropyle orientation, 588 Phagocytes, 525 P. americana, 160, 161 Phagocytosis, 526 alarm pheromone, 427 Phagostimulants, 488 excretory products, 541, 542 Phalacridae, 322 female reproductive organs, 562 Phallobase, 87 hemocyte count, 524 Phallomere, 87 hemolymph composition, 523 Phallotreme, 87 immune response, 532 Phantom crane flies, 249 nitrogenous excretion, 539 Phantom midges, 249 pheromone production, 422, 423 Pharate adult, 632, 639 trail-marking pheromone, 428 Pharnacia serratipes,179 P. australasiae, 160 Pharyngeal dilator muscle, 491 P. brunnea, 160 Pharyngeal pump, 491 P. fuliginosa,160 Pharynx, 491 proventricular opening, 497 Phasmatidae, 181 Phasmatodea, 179 life history and habits, 204–205 817 Phasmatoptera, 179 phylogeny,205–206, 206 Phasmida, 39, 147, 179–182 structure, 204 Index classification, 99, 101, 181–182 Phthiridae, 209 life history and habits, 181 Phthirus phylogeny, 181 P. gorillae, 209 structure, 180–181 P. pubis, 207, 209, 736 Phasmodea, 179 Phthorimaea operculella, 284 Pheidole instabilis, castes, 345 Phycitinae, 288 Phenacoccus manihoti, biocontrol, 759 Phylliidae, 181 Phenograms, 95 Phyllium,179, 180 Phenoloxidases, 359, 364,523,527,529,531 Phyllocoptruta oleivora, fungal control, 760 Phenolics, as feeding deterrents, 488, 695 Phyllophagarugosa, 314 Phenylacetonitrile, 424, 583 Phyllotreta, 324 Pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide, 418, microhabitat selection, 708 422 preferred host plants, 696 Pheromones, 421, 422–428 Phylloxera vitifoliae, 218, 219 control of production by corpus allatum, 422 Phylloxeridae, 219 in mate location, 422,582 Phylogenetic trees, 96 in pest management, 753, 774 Physapoda, 233 Philaenus spumarius, 221, 221 Physcus fulvus,as control agent, 759 Philopotamidae, 272 Physical colors, 369–370 Philopotamoidea, 271–272 Phytophaga: see Mayetiola Philopteridae, 208 Picture-winged flies, 257 Philotarsidae, 203 Pieridae, 291 Phiphiptera, 97 Pieris, 29l Phlaeothripidae, 236–237 bursa copulatrix, 377 Phlebotomus, 249 leg development, 636 as disease vector, 738 oviposition site selection, 589 Pholisora catullus, 290 P. brassicae Phoresy, 339 diapause induction, 673 Phoridae, 256 excretory products, 542, 543 Photinus spacing pheromone, 428 P. ignitus,sexual selection, 583 P. rapae, 291 spermatophore, 574 preferred host plants, 696 Photokinesis, 464 wing development, 636 Photoperiod Piesmatidae, 230 clocks, 672 Piesmatoidea, 230 daily influences, 662–666 Pigeon tremex, 336 effect on egg development, 574–575 Pigment cells, 390, 392 effect on reproduction, 668 Pigmentary colors, 369 inregulation of growth and molting, 643 Pill beetles, 315 seasonal influences, 666–674 Pimpla instigator, host acceptance, 710 Photopiceyes, 393 Pine processionary moth: see Thaumatopoea Photoreception, 389–400 pityocampa Phototaxis, 465 Pinhole borers, 324 Phototropism, 681 Pinkbollworm: see Pectinophora gossypiella Photuris pennsylvanica, 317 Pipunculidae, 256 Phragmata, 73, 83 Pisciforma, 131–132 Phryganea cinerea, case, 275 Pistillifera, 242–243 Phryganeida, 268 Pitcher-plant mosquito, 669 Phryganeidae, 269, 274 Pitching,461, 461 Phryganeoidea, 274 Pits, 59 Phryganoidea, 268 Plague, 265, 726, 737 Phthiraptera, 41, 199, 203–210 Planidia, 631 classification, 101, 206–209 Planipennes, 97 foreleg, 77, 78 Plannipennia, 301 818 Planococcus kenyae, biocontrol, 758 Poduroidea, 116 Planoneoptera, 37, 38 Poecilanthrax autumnalis, 255 Index Plant hoppers, 219 Poecilocapsus lineatus, 228, 228 Plant lice, 217 Poison gland, 87, 427 Plant resistance to insects, 695–697, 767–768 Polarized light sensitivity, 397–398, 400, 416, 681 Planta, 89 Polistinae, 346 Plasma,515, 521,522–524 Pollination by insects, 697–700 composition, 522–524 energetics, 698–700 functions,524 value, 728 Plasmatocytes, 524, 525, 527, 533 Polycentropodidae, 272 Plasterer bees, 347 Polydnaviruses, 533 Plastron, 212, 315, 482, 482, 483–484,572 Polyembryony, 339, 613, 614, 615 Plataspidae, 232 Polyhydroxyl cryoprotectants, 659, 660, 661, 662 Platycnemididae, 141 Polymitarcyidae, 134 Platygaster hiemalis, polyembryony, 614 Polymorphism, 645–649 Platygasteridae, 339 in ants, 343 as control agents, 758, 759 in aphids, 645–647 Platygasteroidea, 339 balanced, 645 Platypezidae, 256 caste, 645, 647–648 Platypezoidea, 256 color, 645, 667 Platypodinae, 324 continuous, 648 Platystictidae, 141 discontinuous,648 Platystomatidae, 257 genetic (obligate), 645 Plecoptera, 38, 39, 73, 147–153 hormonal control,647–648, 648,649 classification, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 149–153 in Lepidoptera, 278, 291, 645 life history andhabits, 148–149 in locusts, 194, 645, 648–649 phylogeny, 149, 150 phase, 194, 645, 648–649 structure, 148 in phasmids, 181 surface skimming,30 phenotypic (facultative), 645 Plecopteroid orders, 38, 147–156 in termites, 165–166, 647–648 Plectoptera, 127 transient, 645 Plenitentoria, 274 wing,645 Plesiomorphy, 96 Polynema, swimming, 452 Pleura, 73, 453 Polyneoptera, 36, 100, 101 Pleural apophyses, 453 Polyphaga, 307, 308, 310–325 Pleural area,59 Polyphagidae, 159, 160 Pleural arms, 74 Polyphagoidea, 159, 160 Pleural ridges, 73 Polyphenism, 645,649 Pleural sclerites, 73 inaphids, 646,667–668 Pleural sulcus, 74 in Hemiptera, 680 Pleural wing processes, 74, 453, 458, 460 induction by photoperiod, 667–668 Pleurites,59 inmigratory species, 680 Pleuropodia, 608 in Orthoptera, 667 role in hatching,619 Polyphyletic group, 96 Pleurosternal muscle, 453, 460 Polyplacidae, 208 Pleurostomal sulcus, 62 Polyspermy, 588 Plicipennes, 97 Polysubstrate monooxygenases: see Mixed-function Pliconeoptera, 36,38 oxidases Plodia, 288 Pomace flies, 260 Plume moths, 287 Pompilidae, 342, 343 Plutella xylostella, 284, 284 food specificity, 488–489 phagostimulants, 488 Pompiloidea, 341 effect of photoperiod on fecundity, 668 Pond skaters, 223, 224 Plutellinae, 283 running on water, 449 Pneumoridae, 192–193 Ponera Pneumoroidea, 191, 192–193 P. pennsylvanica, castes, 344 Podites, 59 P. punctatissima, compound eye, 390 Ponerinae, 344 Prolegs, 45, 85, 89, 89 819 Pontania,egg, 600 embryonic development, 608 Popillia japonica, microbial control, 715, 760 Proline Index Population ascryoprotectant, 659 density, 702 use in flight, 463–464, 543 underpopulation, 702–703 asphagostimulant, 488 overpopulation, 703–705 Promethea moth, 293 Pore canals, 359 Prometopia sexmaculata, 321 Porrotermes adamsoni, 93 Prominents, 294 Postalar arms, 73 Pronotum, 75 Postclypeus, 63 Pronymph, 187 Posterior cubitus vein, 81 Prophenoloxidases, 529, 531, 533 Posterior mediavein, 81 Propodeum, 83 Posterior notal processes, 73, 453, 458 Proprioceptors, 374, 375–378 Posterior tentorial arms,63 Proscopiidae, 192 Posterior tentorial pits, 61 Prosopistoma, 131 Postgenae, 63 Prosopistomatidae, 131 Postmentum,66 Prosopistomatoidea, 131 Postnotum, 73 Prospaltella spp., as control agents, 758 Postoccipital ridge, 73 Protanisoptera, 36,140 Postoccipital sulcus, 61 Protelytroptera, 40, 42 Postoccipital suture, 62 Protentomidae, 119 Postocciput, 63 Prothoracic glands, 420 Postphragma, 453 Prothoracicotropic hormone, 418, 419, 640, 641, 642, Potato flea beetle, 323 643, 644 Potato leafhopper, 222, 222 Protocephalon, 601 Potato moth, 284 Protocerebral bridge, 410 Potter wasps, 346, 346 Protocerebral segment, 60 Powder-post beetles, 319 Protocerebrum, 409–410 Praedatophasma maraisi, 183, 184 neurosecretory cells, 417 Prawns,9 Protocoleoptera, 42, 308 Praying mantis, 162 Protocorm,601 Prealar arms, 73 Protodiptera, 43, 246 Preantennal segment, 60 Protodonata, 35, 36,50 Predator-prey relationships, 709–711 Protoephemeroptera, 35 Pre-ecdysis triggering hormone, 421, 643, 644 Protohemiptera, 33 Prementum,66 Protohymenoptera, 33 Prephragma, 453 Protoneuridae, 141 Prepupa, 46, 213, 235, 241, 631 Protoperlaria, 38, 149 Prescutal ridge, 73 Protophormia Press, 79 feeding inhibition, 413 Prestomal teeth, 70 labellar hairs, 386–387 Pretarsus, 59, 76 Protoptera, 33 Primary excretory fluid, 546, 550, 553, 555 Protorthoptera, 33, 38, 39, 41, 323 Primary phallic lobe, 87, 87 Protozoa Primary sternal plate, 74 as control agents, 757, 763–765 Pristiphora erichsonii, 335 as insect pathogens, 712, 717–718 Proboscis, 49, 69, 71, 281 Protura, 13, 113, 118–119 Proctodeum, 603, 611 classification, 99, 100, 119 Proctolin, 413 life history and habits, 119 Proctotrupidae, 339 phylogeny, 119 Proctotrupoidea, 333, 339 structure, 118–119 Procuticle, 357, 362, 363, 472 Proventricular valve, 497 Prodenia, 294 Proventriculus, 491, 492, 493 Prognathous head, 60, 62,64 Pro-wings, 27, 29 Prohemocytes, 525 Pselaphidae, 313 Projapygidae, 121 Psephenidae, 307 820 Psephenoides gahani, pupal spiracular gill, 482 Pterygota, 13, 26, 98 Pseudagrion jedda,93 phylogeneticrelationships, 33–44 Index Pseudaletia unipuncta, 294 Ptiliidae, 306 ventral diaphragm, 518 Ptilinum, 244, 246, 639 Pseudechiniscus suillus, 4 Ptilodactylidae, 315 Pseudocaeciliidae, 203 Ptinidae, 318–319 Pseudococcidae, 216 Ptinus, dietary requirements, 694 Pseudococcus, 216 PTTH: see Prothoracicotropic hormone P. citriculus, biocontrol, 758 Ptychomyia remota, as control agent, 758 P. longispinus, 217 Ptychopteridae, 249 Pseudocoelom, 5 Ptychopteromorpha, 249 Pseudocolleterial glands, 565 Pubic louse: see Phthirus pubis Pseudoculi,118 Pulex, 266 Pseudomyrmex, mutualism with acacia, 697, 698, 699 P. irritans, 266, 267 Pseudopods, 89 as disease vector, 739 Pseudopupa, 322, 631 Pulicidae, 266 Pseudorhynchota, 203 Pulicoidea, 266 Pseudotracheae, 70 Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 216 Psila rosae, 258 Punkies, 251, 252 Psilidae, 258 Pupa, 41, 213, 215, 623, 628, 631–633 Psilopa petrolei,260 adecticous,633, 633,639 Psithyrus, 349 apolysis, 632 Psocidae, 203 decticous, 633, 633, 639 Psocodea, 41, 100 exarate,633, 633 Psocomorpha, 201, 202–203 evolutionary origin, 44–47, 44 Psocoptera, 39, 41, 199–203 evolutionary significance, 49 classification, 98, 100, 101, 201–203 functional significance, 46,47 life history and habits, 200–201 movements, 632 phylogeny,201 obtect,633, 633,639 structure, 199–200 Puparium, 633, 638, 639 Psoquillidae, 201 Pupiparia, 256, 260, 261 Psychidae, 282–283 Pycnogonida, 6, 8 Psychoda, 249 Pycnopsyche, coexistence between species, 708–709 Psychodidae, 249 Pycnoscelus Psychodomorpha, 246, 249 control of oviposition, 590 Psychomyiidae, 272 P. surinamensis, 158, 161 Psylla Pygidicranidae, 178 P. mali, 215, 215 Pygidicranoidea, 178 P. pyricola, 215 Pygiopsyllidae, 267 Psyllidae, 215 Pygmygrasshoppers, 191 Psyllipsocidae, 201 Pygmy mole crickets, 191 Psylloidea, 213, 215 Pyloric sphincter, 496 Pteridines, 369, 545 Pyloric valve, 496 Pteromalidae, 341 Pylorus, 496 Pteronarcyidae, 150 Pyralidae, 288 Pteronarcyoidea, 150 Pyraloidea, 288 Pteronarcys californica, 151 Pyrameis atalanta, taste sensitivity, 386 Pterophoridae, 287 Pyrase, as salivary anticoagulant, 491 Pterophoroidea, 287 Pyrausta:see Ostrinia Pterostichus brevicornis Pyraustinae, 288 freezing tolerance, 661 Pyrethrins, 509 glycerol synthesis, 661 Pyrethroids, 747, 774 Pterostigma, 82 Pyrgomorphidae, 192 Pterothorax, 453 Pyrgomorphoidea, 191, 192 tracheal system, 478 Pyrgotidae, 257 Pterothysanidae, 290 Pyrolan, 509 Pterygogenea, 98, 99 Pyrrhocoridae, 230 Pyrrhocoris, color, 369 Reticulitermes 821 Pyrrolizidine alkaloids, 696 R. flavipes,171 R. hesperus, 171 Index Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, 216 Retinaculum, 82, 115 resistance to insecticide, 750 Retinular cells, 390, 392, 396, 398 Quarantine, 703, 746 Reverse peristalsis, 520 Queen substance, 424 Rhabdom, 390, 391 Quiescence, 618, 668, 671 Rhabdomere, 390 Quinones, 359, 363, 364, 365, 527, 533 Rhagionidae, 254 Rhagoletis pomonella, 257, 726 r pests, 744, 745 spacing pheromone, 428 Radial sector, 81 Rhaphidophoridae, 188 Radius, 81 Rheophilic insects, adaptations, 677 Rain, as cue for copulation, dispersal, and oviposition, Rheotanytarsus, food collection,678 678 Rhinoceros beetles, 314, 314 Rake, 79 Rhinotermitidae, 164, 166, 169, 171 Ramsdelepidion schusteri, 26, 26, 124 Rhipiceridae, 315 Ranatra, 225 Rhipidiinae, 322 R. fusca, 226 Rhipiphoridae, 42, 322 Raphidiidae, 300 Rhipipteryx, quadrupedal gait, 446 Raphidiodea, 299 Rhizopertha dominica, 319 Raphidioidea, 299 population density,703 Raphidioptera, 42, 297, 299–301 Rhodnius classification, 300 antidiuretic hormone, 555 life history and habits, 300 control of oviposition, 590 phylogeny,300 as disease vector, 738 structure, 299–300 diuretic hormone, 419, 430, 554 Raptipedia, 242 excretion of uric acid,544–545, 544 Raptophasma kerneggeri, 184 initiation of molt cycle, 642 Rattailed maggots, respiratory siphon, 481 Malpighian tubules, 538, 538 Receptivity-inhibiting substances, 425, 584 micropyles in egg, 588 Rectal gills, 137–138, 480–481 orientation to heat, 389, 465 in osmoregulation, 551 ovulation, 587 Rectal pads, 496 R. prolixus, 229 Rectum, 496, 497 antigonadotropic hormone, 421, 569, 579 ion resorption, 549–550, 551, 553 endocrine control of egg development, 575–576, water resorption, 548–549, 549 576, 577, 578 Recurrent nerve, 411 excretory products, 542 Red admiralbutterfly: see Pyrameis atalanta female reproductive organs, 562 Red agave worm: see Comadia redtenbachi hemolymph osmotic pressure, 548 Red cattle louse, 207 pheromone production, 422 Red locust: see Nomadacris septemfasciatus termination offeeding, 489 Redheaded pine sawfly: see Neodiprion lecontei release of ecdysone from ovary, 587 Reduviidae, 228–229 release of myotropic peptide, 587, 590 salivary toxins, 491 spermatogenesis, 579–580 Reduvioidea, 228–229 spermatophore formation, 585 Reflex bleeding, 429 thoracotropic hormone, 430 Remigium, 82 transfer of sperm into spermatheca, 585 Reproductive capacity, in insect success, 48, 561 Rhodopsins, 390 Reproductive organs Rhopalocera, 279, 290 female,562–565, 562 Rhopalopsyllidae, 266 male,565–568, 566 Rhopalopsyllus, 266 embryonic development, 612 Rhyacionia buoliana,as parasitoid host, 710 differentiation at metamorphosis, Rhyacophila, 273 638–639 R. fenestra, 273 Resilin, 359, 447, 453 R. fuscula,larva, 273 Respiratory siphon, 481 Rhyacophilidae, 273 822 Rhyacophiloidea, 270, 273–274 ammonia excretion, 539, 545, 550 Rhynchites bicolor, 325 endocrine control of egg development, 576, 577 Index Rhynchophthirina, 204, 205, 206, 208 S. kellyi, 262 Rhynchota, 98, 210 Sarcophagidae, 261 Rhyniella praecursor, 33, 116 food specificity, 489 Rhyniognatha hirsti, 33 Saturniidae, 293 Rhysodidae, 310 Satyrinae, 291 Rhyssa persuasoria, 338 Satyrs, 291 Rice weevil, 324 Saurodectes, 41 Rice-stem borer, 288 S. vrsanskyi, 205 Ricinidae, 207 Saurophthiroides, 43, 266 Rickettsias, as insect pathogens, 712, 715 Saurophthirus, 43, 266 Rickettsiella popilliae,as control agent, 715 Saw-toothed grain beetle: see Oryzaephilus Righting reflex, 376 surinamensis Riptortus clavatus,juvenile hormone, 419 Sawflies, 330, 335 River blindness, 251 Scale insects, 215 Robber flies, 254, 255, 491 Scape, 64 Rock crawlers, 173 Scarabaeidae, 313–314 Rodolia cardinalis, 216 Scarabaeiformia, 311, 313–315 as control agent, 321, 729, 755, 758 Scarabaeinae, 314 Roll, 461, 461 Scarabaeoidea, 306, 313–314 Root maggot flies, 260–261 Scathophagidae, 261 Rose curculio, 325 Scatopsidae, 249 Rostrum, 70 Scatter diagrams, 95 Rosy apple aphid, 217 Scavenging insects, 733–735 life cycle, 218 Scelionidae, 339 Rotenoids, 747 as control agents, 758 Rove beetles, 313 Sceliphron caementarium, 347 Running on water, 449–450 Schistocerca Ruspolia, 190 absorption of organic molecules, 502–503 Rutelinae, 314 antidiuretic hormone, 555 color, 369 Saldidae, 224–225 diuretic hormone, 554–555 Saldoidea, 224–225 fat body, 502 Saliva, 490–491, 498 rectal ion resorption, 549–550 anticoagulants, 491 rectal water resorption, 548 enzymes, 491 S. americana, 193, 194 gall induction, 491 S. gregaria, 194 toxins, 491 aggregation pheromone, 590 Salivarium, 66 bifunctional muscles, 453, 455 Salivary duct, 66 control of flight, 461 Salivaryglands, 489–491, 530 effect of population density, 573, 704 embryonic origin, 609 effect of rain,678 Saltatoptera, 184 endocrine control of egg development, 576 Saltatoria, 99, 184 estivation, 575 Samamura gigantea, 35 hemolymph osmotic pressure, 546, 548 Samia, 293 male sexual behavior,581 San Jose scale, 216 mate guarding, 583 Sand fleas, 266 maturation-acceleratingpheromone,424,573,581 Sandflies, 249 maturation-inhibiting pheromone, 424, 573 oviposition pheromone, 426 migration, 682, 683 Sand gropers, 191 orientation to heat, 388 Sand wasps, 347 ovulation,587 Sand-martin flea, 267 as r pest, 744 Sapbeetles, 320, 321 ventilation, 478, 479 Sarcophaga wing-beat frequency, 460 S. bullata S. paranensis, effect of population density, 573 Schizaphis borealis, pheromone-producingglands, Semiochemicals, 405, 421–430 823 423 Semper’s cells, 390 Schizophora, 244, 247, 255,257–263 Sense organs, 373–403 Index Schizopteridae, 223 embryonic differentiation, 608–609 Schreckensteinia, 287 Sensilla coeloconica, 384 S. festaliella, 287 Sensilla placodea, 386 Schreckensteiniidae, 287 Sensilla trichodea, 374 Schreckensteinioidea, 287 Sepsidae, 258 Schwann cells, 407, 408 Sericostomatidae, 275 Sciaridae, 252 Sericostomatoidea, 274, 275 Sciomyzidae, 258 Serosa, 605, 606 Sciomyzoidea, 258 modification in polyembryony, 614 Scirtidae, 313 Serosal cuticle, 606, 608, 619 Sclerites,57 Serotonin, 413, 490,554, 555 Scleromata,59 Serratia Sclerotin, 359 S. entomophila,ascontrol agent, 761 Sclerotization, 363 S. marcescens, as insect pathogen, 714 Scoli, 293 Serritermes serrifer, 171 Scolia dubia, 343 Serritermitidae, 169, 171 Scoliidae, 342 Sesiidae, 285–286 Scolioidea, 341 Sesioidea, 285–286 Scolopale, 374, 376 Setipalpia, 149 Scolophorous sensilla, 376 Setisura, 131, 132–133 Scolopidia, 376 Sevin,509, 748 Scolops perdix, 220 Sex attractants, 422, 423 Scolytinae, 324 in pest control, 752, 753 aggregation pheromone, 425, 426 Sex peptide, 574 as disease vectors, 742 Sex pheromones, 370, 422–425 fungal cells, 502 Sexual behavior, endocrine control in male insects, hemicellulase, 499 580–581 spacing pheromone, 428 Sexual maturation Scolytus in female,568–579 as plant-disease vector, 742 effect of environment, 572 S. multistriatus, 324 effect of food,572–573 S. rugulosus, 325 effect of mating, 573–574 Scopuridae, 150 effect of population density, 573 Scorpionflies, see Mecoptera endocrine control, 575–579 Scorpions, 7 in male,579–581 Scotopiceyes, 393 endocrine control, 580–581 Scraper, 83, 186 Sexual selection,583 Screwworm flies: see Cochliomyia Sexuparae, 667 Scuterellidae, 232 Shadflies: see Ephemeroptera Scutigerella immaculata, 11 Shaft louse, 206, 207 Scutoscutellar ridge, 73 Sheep blow flies, 261 Scydmaenidae, 313 Sheep body louse, 714 Sea spiders, 8 Sheep bot fly, 262 Seasonal dimorphism, 667 Sheep ked, 263 Seasonal segregation, 708 Shellac, 216, 359, 728 Secondary plant metabolites, as feedingdeterrents, Shield bugs, 230 488, 695, 696 Shining leaf chafers, 314 Seducin, 423–424 Shore bugs, 224 Segmentation Shore flies, 259–260 embryonic origin, 604 Short-horned grasshoppers, 187, 193 primary, 58, 58 Short-nosed cattle louse, 207 secondary, 58,59 Shot-hole borer, 325 Seminal fluid,579,585, 586 Shrimps, 9 Seminal vesicle, 565, 568 Sialidae, 297, 298, 299 824 Sialis mohri, 298 Snakeflies, 299, 300 Sialoidea, 297, 299 Snipe flies, 254 Index Sibling species, 93 Snout beetles, 324 Sigara atropodonta, 227 Snow fleas, 116, 243 Silk glands, 490 Social bees, 342, 347 Silk production, 491, 727 Social parasitism, in ants, 345 Silkworms, 293 Social wasps, 334, 342, 346 See also Bombyx mori Socialia, 163 Silverfish, 25, 26, 114, 123, 125 Sociality Simple eyes, 398–400 in Hymenoptera, 333, 342–344, 346–347, Simuliidae, 251 347–349 Simulium, 251 in termites, 165–168 larval gas exchange, 479 in thrips, 237 oviposition pheromone, 426 Soft scales, 216 S. nigricoxum, 252 Soft-winged flower beetle, 320 as vector of disease, 251 Soil-dwelling insects, 733–735 See also Blackflies Solanine, 696 Sinentomidae, 119 Soldier beetles, 317, 317 Sinentomoidea, 119 Soldier flies, 254, 254 Sinentomon erythranum, 119 Soldier-inducing hormone, 647 Sinophorus validus, synchrony with host, Soldier-inhibiting pheromone, 425 679 Solenopsis, trail-marking pheromone, 428 Siphlonuridae, 130, 132 Solitary bees, 332, 342, 347, 349 Siphonaptera, 41, 43, 239, 264–268 Solitary wasps, 332, 342, 346 classification, 97, 98, 100, 266–267 Somite formation, 604, 605 as disease vectors, 265, 739 Soothsayer, 162 life history and habits, 265–266 Sorbitol, 523 phylogeny, 266 ascryoprotectant, 659, 661 structure, 265 Sorrel dagger moth, 673 Siphunculata, 98, 99, 203 Sound Siphunculina, 259 production, 185, 186 Sirex noctilio, control by nematodes, 760, 765 reception, 185, 379–383 Siricidae, 333, 336 South American locust, 193, 194 Siricoidea, 332, 333, 336–337 Spacing pheromones, 428 SIRM: see Sterile insect release method Spatial segregation, 706–707 Sister groups, 95 Spatial selection, 706 Sisyphus rubrus, 734 Spectral sensitivity, 396 Sisyridae, 302, 303 Sperm Sitophilus apyrene, 567 S. granarius, 324 competition, 587 S. oryzae, 324 displacement, in male Odonata, 138, 585–586 Sitotroga cerealella, 284 entry into egg, 588 Skin beetles, 318 entry into spermatheca, 585 Skippers, 290 flushing, 588 Slave-making ants, 345 precedence, 587 Sleeping sickness, 262 production: see Spermatogenesis “Slow” axons, 441, 442–443 pyrene, 567 “Slow” eyes, 394 removal,588 Small carpenter bee, nest, 348 stratification, 587–588 Smell, 384, 387 Spermalege, 586 Sminthuridae, 116, 117 Spermatheca, 564, 584, 586, 587 Sminthuroidea, 117 Spermatodesms, 567 Sminthurus Spermatogenesis, 567, 579 S. purpurescens, 114 endocrine control,579–580 S. viridis, 117 Spermatophore, 568, 579 Smokey-brown cockroach, 160 production, 584–585 Smyrna fig, 340 as source of nutrients, 574 Spermatophylax, 584 Stereokinesis, 465 825 Sphaeroceridae, 259 Sterile insect release method, 766–767 Sphaeroceroidea, 259 Sternacosta, 74 Index Sphecidae, 347 Sternacostal sulcus, 74 Sphecoidea, 342 Sternal apophyses, 74, 453 Spherule cells, 525, 526, 529 Sternal glands, 427 Sphingidae, 293–294 Sternal plate, 59, 74 Sphinx moths, 294 Sternellum, 74 Spicipalpia, 271, 273–274 Sternites, 59 Spiders, 7, 97 Sternopleurites, 74 Spider beetles, 318 Sternorrhyncha, 41, 210, 212, 213, 215–219 Spider mites, 772 Sternum, 58, 59, 75 Spider wasps: see Pompilidae Stickgrasshoppers, 192 Spilonota ocellana, control, 772 Stick insects, 179 Spilopsyllus cuniculi, 265 Sticktight flea, 266 larva, 267 Stictocephala bubalus, 222, 222 Spinasterna, 74 Stigmellidae, 282 Spinosyns, 748, 749, 774 Stigmelloidea, 282 Spiracles, 470, 473–474, 474, 481 Stilt bugs, 230, 231 Spiracular closing mechanisms, 50, 473, 474 Stilt flies, 257 Spiracular gills, 307, 482, 482, 483 Stingless bees, 349 Spiracular valves, 473–474, 474, 476, 478, 479 Stinkbugs, 230 Spirochetes, as insect pathogens, 712 Stinkflies, 304 Spittlebugs, 220 Stipes, 65,66 Spodoptera exigua, control, 772, 774 Stomach poisons, 747 Spongeflies, 303 Stomodeal invagination, 491 Spongillaflies, 303 Stomodeum, 603, 611 Spongiphoridae, 178 Stomoxys calcitrans, 70, 260 Spongiphoroidea, 178 digestive enzyme release, 500 Spotted pine sawyer, 323 yolk-protein production, 569 Spring cankerworm, 289, 289 Stone crickets, 188 Springtails: see Collembola Stoneflies: see Plecoptera Squash bug, 230, 231 Storage excretion, 504, 545–546 Stable fly: see Stomoxys calcitrans Storage hexamers, 507, 533 Stadium, 623, 626, 627 Stratiomyidae, 254 Stag beetles, 313 Strebla vespertilionis, 263 Stagmomantis carolina, 162 Streblidae, 261, 263 Stalk-eyed flies, 258 Strepsiptera, 41, 42, 43, 297, 320, 322, 326–330 Staphylinidae, 307, 313 classification, 97, 100, 101, 329–330 Staphyliniformia, 311, 312–313 hemocoelic insemination,586 Staphylinoidea, 312, 313 hemocoelic viviparity, 616–617 Staphylinus maxillosus villosus, 313 life history and habits, 328–329 Starting vortex, 455, 456, 458 phylogeny, 329 Stegobium paniceum, 318, 319 structure, 327–328 Steinernema,asinsect pathogen, 718 Streptococcus pluton, 714 Steinernematidae, as control agents, 765 Stretch receptors, 375, 377–378, 378 Stem group, 96 Stridulation, 185, 186, 414 Stem sawflies, 337 Striped blister beetle, 321 Stemmata, 41, 389, 398, 399,400 Striped cucumber beetle, 324 Stenocranus dorsalis, 220 Styli, 88, 88 Stenodictya, 34 Stylopida, 326 Stenomatidae, 284 Stylopidae, 42, 320, 329–330 Stenopelmatidae, 188 Stylopidia, 328, 329–330 Stenopelmatoidea, 187 Stylopoids, 326 Stenus, surface skimming,450 Stylops pacifica, 327 Stephanidae, 337 triungulin larva, 327 Stephanoidea, 337 Subalar, 74, 453 826 Subalar muscle, 453, 459, 460 mouthparts, 70, 71, 72 Subcosta, 81 T . nigrovittatus, cultural control, 769 Index Subesophageal ganglion, 411, 418 T . opacus, 254 as coordinating center, 414 Tachinidae, 261 embryonic differentiation, 611 as biocontrol agents, 261, 758, 759 role in walking, 415, 447 Tachycines asynamorus, 188 Subgena, 63, 65 Tachypleus, 6 Subgenal bridge, 63 Tactile hair, 375, 376 Subgenal sulcus, 62, 63 Taenidium, 362, 472, 478 Subgenital plate, 84 Taeniopoda eques, ventilation control, 479 Subgenual organs, 383 Taeniopterygidae, 150, 151–152 Subimago, 45, 129 Taeniorhynchus fuscopennatus,egg-laying rhythm, Submentum, 66 665 Subocular sulcus, 62, 63 Taeniothrips Subulicarnes, 97 T . inconsequens, 236, 237 Suckinglice: see Anoplura T . simplex, 236 Sucrose Tagmosis, 3, 18, 59 as cryoprotectant, 659 Tannins, 696, 701 as phagostimulant, 488 Tanning, 359, 363, 364,366 Suctoria, 264 Tanyderidae, 249 Sugarcane borer, 288, 288 Tanypezoidea, 258 Sulci,59 Tanzaniophasma, 183 Sulfurs, 291 Tanzaniophasmatidae, 184 Supella Tardigrada, 4–5 S. longipalpa, 160, 161 Tarnished plant bug, 228, 228 S. supellictilium, 160 Tarsal claws, 76 Supercooling, 659, 660 Tarsal reflex, 462 Superlinguae, 66 Tarsomeres, 76 Superposition image, 393, 394 Tarsus, 59, 76 Supraepimeron, 74 Taste, 384, 386–387 Supraepisternum, 74 Taxa, 91, 93, 94 Suprapedal lobe, 89 Taxes, 464, 465 Surface running, 449–450 Taxonomy, definition, 91 Surinam cockroach, 161 Tebufenzoide, 753 Sutures,59 Teleogryllus commodus, 190 Swallowtails, 291 Teloleuca pellucens, 225 Swift moths, 281 Temperature Swimming, 450–452 as development synchronizer, 658–659 Sycamore lacebug, 227 and diapause, 658–659, 671, 672, 673 Sympathetic nervous system, 411 effect on activity and dispersal, 657–658 Symphyla, 9, 11, 13, 20 effect on development rate, 655–657, 656 Symphylan Theory, 20 effect on egg development, 574, 656 Symphypleona, 114, 115, 116, 117 lethal limits, 655 Symphyta, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335–337 perception, 388–389 Synapomorphy,96 survival at extremes, 659–662 Synapses, 406, 412, 413 Temporal segregation, 706, 708 Syrphidae, 256–257 Tendipedidae, 251 larval respiratory siphon, 481 Tenebrio, 322 Syrphoidea, 256–257 antidiuretic hormone, 555 Systellognatha, 149 hemolymph circulation time, 519 Systematics, definition, 91 hemolymph osmotic pressure, 546 larval oxygen requirement, 475 Tabanidae, 244, 253–254 Malpighian tubules, 540 eye color, 390 T . molitor, 321 Tabanomorpha, 246, 253–254 digestive enzyme release, 500 Tabanus, 253 male sex attractant, 424 as disease vector, 738 uptake of atmospheric water, 367–368, 547 trypsin and chymotrypsin of larva and adult, Tettigoniidae, 189–190 827 498 Tettigonioidea, 185, 187, 189–190 Tenebrionidae, 322 Thaumaleidae, 252 Index Tenebrionoidea, 320 Thaumastocoridae, 227 Tenebroides mauritanicus, 319 Thaumastocoroidea, 227 Tent caterpillars, 293 Thaumatopoea pityocampa,larval trail-marking Tenthredinidae, 335 pheromone, 428 Tenthredinoidea, 335–336 Thelytoky, 613 Tentorial bridge, 63 Therevidae, 254 Tentorial glands, 420 Thermal constant, 656 Tentorium, 61, 63, 63 Thermal-hysteresis proteins, 659 embryonic origin, 609 Thermobia Tephritidae, 257 T. domestica, 125 Tephritoidea, 257 number of molts,628 TEPP, 748 uptake of atmospheric water, 547 Teratembiidae, 156 Thermoreceptors, 388, 389 Terebrantia, 234, 235–236 Thermoregulation, 520, 657 Tergal plate, 59 Thermotaxis, 465 Tergites, 59 Thoracic ganglia, 411 Tergocoxal muscle, 458 Thorax, 72, 73–83 Tergopleural muscle, 453 appendages, 75–83 Tergosternal muscle, 458 Thread-waisted wasps, 347 Tergum, 58, 59, 73 Threitol, as cryoprotectant, 659 Termes,171 Thripida, 233 Terminal filament,564 Thripidae, 236 Termites, 163 Thrips, 236 as detritivores, 701 T . tabaci, 236 fungus gardens, 502 Thrips: see Thysanoptera gut cellulose, 499 Thrixion, larvalgas exchange, 484 hindgut bacteria, 501 Thrust, in flight, 456, 457, 459, 460 hindgut protozoa, 501 Thuringiensin, 714 juvenile hormone as pheromone, 422 Thyrididae, 287–288 microbial control, 765 Thyridium, 269 See also Isoptera Thyridoidea, 287–288 Termitida, 163 Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis, 283 Termitidae, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 171 Thysanoptera, 41, 46, 199, 233–238 Termitina, 163 classification, 98, 99, 235–237 Termitinae, 171 as disease vectors, 234, 236, 741 Termitomyces, 168 eusociality, 237 Termitoxenia, ovoviviparity, 614–615 life history and habits, 46, 234–235 Termopsidae, 166,169, 170–171 metamorphosis, 235 Terpenoids, as feeding deterrents, 488, phylogeny, 235, 236 695 structure, 234 Territoriality, 704–705 Thysanura, 13, 97, 98, 99, 113, 122, in male Odonata, 138–139, 705 123 in parasitoids, 705 Tibia,59, 76 Tessaratomidae, 232 Ticks,7 Testajapyx thomasi, 121 Tidal flow, 478 Testes, 565 Tidal volume, 478 as endocrine glands, 421 Tiger beetles, 310, 311 Testis ecdysiotropin, 418, 421 distance perception, 395 Testis follicles, 565, 567 Tiger moths, 295 Tetramesa tritici, 341 Timema, 182 Tetrastichus julis,ascontrol agent, 759 Timematidae, 182 Tetrigidae, 191 Tinea pellionella, 283, 283 Tetrigoidea, 187, 191 Tineidae, 282, 283 Tetrix subulata, 191 Tineoidea, 282–283 828 Tineola Trremex columba, 336 cystine excretion, 541 Triadophlebiomorpha, 140 Index larval keratinase, 499 Triaenodes tarda, adultandlarva in case, 275 T . biselliella, 283 Trialeurodes vaporariorum, 216 Tingidae, 227 host-plant resistance, 767 Tingoidea, 227 Triarthrus eatoni, 5 Tiphiidae, 342 Triatoma, 229 Tiphioidea, 341 T.infestans, escape reaction, 400 Tipula T. sanguisuga, 229 mouthparts, 70 Tribolium, 322 T . simplex, larval aggregation pheromone, 425–426 dietary requirements, 674 T . trivittata, 248 T . castaneum, humidity preference, 387 Tipulidae, 248 T . confusum, 321 Tipulomorpha, 248 egg cannibalism, 704 Tischeria, 282 flour “conditioning”, 704 Tischeriidae, 282 Trichoceridae, 249 Tischerioidea, 282 Trichodectes canis, 208 Toadgrasshoppers, 194 Trichodectidae, 208 Toadbugs, 225 Trichogen cell, 374 Tobacco budworm: see Heliothis virescens Trichogramma minutum, 341 Tobacco hornworm: see Manduca sexta Trichogrammatidae, 340–341 Token stimuli, 488, 659, 672, 674 Tricholepidion gertschi, 26, 101, 125 Tongue worms, 5 Trichophaga tapetzella, 283 Tonofibrils, 438 Trichoplusia ni, 294, 772 Tormogen cell, 374 Trichopoda pennipes,as control agent, 758 Tornus,82 Trichoptera, 41, 43, 239, 268–276 Torridincolidae, 310 classification, 97, 98, 100, 270–276 Tortoiseshells, 291 life history and habits, 269–270 Tortricidae, 285 phylogeny, 270, 271 as detritivores, 701 structure, 268–269 Tortricoidea, 285 Tricorythidae, 134 Torymidae, 340 Tridactylidae, 191 Tracheae, 81, 470–472, 472 Tridactyloidea, 187, 191 Tracheal end cell, 470, 472 Trigona, 349 Tracheal gills, 479, 480 Trigonalyidae, 337–338 Tracheal pore, 473 Trigonalyoidea, 337–338 Tracheal system Trilobita,5,6, 16, 19 closed, 470, 479–481 Trimenopodidae, 207 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 Trinervitermes, nasute soldier, 172 embryonic origin, 470, 609 Triozidae, 215 movement of gases, 474–479 Trissolcus basalis, as control agent, 758 open, 479, 481–484 Tritocerebral segment, 60 of pterothorax, 470 Tritocerebrum, 409, 411 structure, 469, 470–474, 471 Triungulin larva, 42, 327, 328, 631 Tracheal tufts, 472, 473 Trochantellus, 331 Tracheata, 16, 20 Trochanter, 59, 76, 443 Tracheoblast, 470 Troctomorpha, 201–202 Tracheoles, 469, 470–473, 472 Trogiidae, 201 Trail-marking pheromones, 427–428 Trogiomorpha, 201 use by parasitoids, 711 Trogium pulsatorium, 201, 202 Transition temperature, 367 Trogoderma, 318 Translucent filament, 392 T . variabile, 318 Transverse ridge, 73 Trogossitidae, 319–320 Tree crickets, 185, 190 Trophallaxis, 168 Treehoppers, 222 Trophamnion, 614 Trehalose, 362, 502, 505, 523 Trophic relationships, 691–694, 692, 693 as cryoprotectant, 659, 661 Trophocytes, 504, 564 Trophospongium, 407, 408 Vairimorpha necatrix,ascontrol agent, 829 Tropicalhouse cricket, 190 764 True bugs: see Hemiptera Valvifers, 85 Index True flies: see Diptera Valvulae, 85 True wasps: see Vespidae Vannus, 82 Trypanosoma, 262, 739 Vasa deferentia, 565, 568 T. cruzi, 212, 229, 738 Vedalia beetle: see Rodolia cardinalis Trypanosomiasis, 212 Velia, surface skimming,450 Trypetidae, 257 Veliidae, 223, 224 Tsetse flies, 262 Velvet ants, 342, 343 aggregation pheromone, 426 Velvetbean caterpillar: see Anticarsia gemmatalis amino acid excretion, 541 Venom glands, 332, 490 cultural control, 769 Venoms as disease vectors, 739 in female accessoryglands, 533, 565 genetic control, 766 in saliva, 491 orientation to host, 488 Ventilation, 470 mouthparts, 70, 71 active, 475, 477–479 See also Glossina control, 414, 479 Tshekardocoleus, 42, 308 discontinuous (passive, suction), 475, 476–477, Tubulifera, 234, 235, 236–237 477 Tunga penetrans, 267 Ventral diaphragm, 517, 518, 520, 521 Tungidae, 266 differentiation at metamorphosis, 638 Tussock moths, 295 Ventral head glands, 420 Two-striped walking stick, 181 Ventral tube, 115 Tympanal organs, 185, 379, 380–383, 382 Ventricular ganglion, 411 functional significance, 381–382 Ventriculus, 492 sensitivity, 381, 383 Venturia: see Nemeritis Type genus, 93 Veratrole, 426 Type locality,93 Verbenone, 428 Type series, 92 Verson’s glands, 644 Type species, 93 Vertex, 63 Typhus, 265, 726 Verticillium lecanii,as control agent, 717 Tyrrannophasma gladiator, 184 Vespa crabro, trail-marking pheromone, 427–428 Vespida, 330 Ultraspiracle, 642 Vespidae, 346–347 Unaspis yanonensis, biocontrol, 759 Vespinae, 346–347 Undecane, 423, 427 Vespoidea, 334, 341, 342–347 Uniramia, 9, 17, 19, 20 Vespula Uraniidae, 289 V. pennsylvanica, 346 Uranioidea, 289 V. vulgaris, trail-marking pheromone, 427–428 Urate cells, 504 Viceroy: see Limenitis archippus storage of uric acid, 539 Vine phylloxera, 219 Urea, 541, 543 Viruses Ureter,537 as control agents, 757, 761–762, 763 Uric acid,504,539,541 as insect pathogens, 712, 715–716 in color production, 369 plant, with insect vectors, 212, 218, 219, 222, 234, excretion, 543–545 236, 741–742 synthesis, 543 Vision, 389–400 Urocytes, 504, 545 Vitellarium,564 Urodidae, 286 Vitelline membrane,570–571,597, 619 Urodoidea, 286 Vitellogenesis, 564, 569–570, 574 Urogomphi,89 endocrine control,575–579 Uropsylla tasmanica, 266 Vitellogenins, 507, 523, 569, 570, 577 Uterine milk, 616 Vitellophages, 598, 611 Utriculi majores, 541 Viteus: see Phylloxera Uzelothripidae, 235 Viviparity,158, 177, 212, 216, 217, 235,245, 308, Uzelothrips scabrosus, 235 613, 614–617, 667, 668 830 Waggle dance, 380, 397 articulation, 27, 28, 29, 32 Wake capture, 456, 457–458, 458 ground plan, 32 Index Walking, 443–447 cells, 82 neural control, 414–415 control of movement, 460–462 rhythms of leg movements, 446–447 coupling, 82,82, 269, 277, 291, 298, 331 structural basis, 443–446 development, 79, 628, 635–637, 636, 637 Walking sticks, 179 flapping, 27, 28, 31, 459, 460 Warble flies, 261, 262, 740 flexion lines, 33, 80, 80, 81 Warehouse beetle, 318 folding, 28, 30, 32, 459 Wasps: see Hymenoptera folding lines, 33, 80, 80 Water margins, 81, 82 as determinant ofdistribution and abundance, membranes, 80 674–678 modifications, 82–83 as diapause cue, 675 movements during flight, 458–459 effect on pathogen abundance, 676 origin and evolution, 27–33 importance in embryogenesis, 675 gill theory, 28–29 loss through cuticle, 367–368 paranotal theory, 27–28 Water bears, 4 pronation, 459 Water boatmen, 226, 227 scales, 80 Water crickets, 224 structure, 79–82 Water measurers, 224, 224 supination, 459 Water scorpions, 225, 226 twisting, 31, 453, 460 larval respiratory siphon, 481 venation, 30, 31, 32, 80–81, 80 Water striders, 223 differentiation at metamorphosis, 637 surface running, 449 fluting, 30, 31, 81 Waxes ground plan, 32,80 ofegg, 571 use in classification, 99 ofepicuticle, 356, 359, 360, 366 Wing-beat frequency, 51, 460, 463 as antimicrobial agents, 370 Wing buds, differentiation at metamorphosis, 634, permeability, 367, 368 635–637, 636 as semiochemicals, 370, 429 Wing flexor muscle, 453, 459 secretion, 363 Winter crane flies, 249 Wax moth: see Galleria Winter moth: see Operophtera brumata Wax scales, 216 Winter stoneflies, 151 Weather, effect on distribution and abundance, Wireworms, 316–317 678–686 Wood nymphs, 291 Webspinners: see Embioptera Wood wasps, 332, 336 Webworms, 288 Woodlice, 9, 97 Weevils, 324 Woolly aphids, 218 Weissman’s ring, 419 Woolly apple aphid: see Eriosoma lanigerum West Nile fever, 249 Woolly bears, 295 Western tarnished plant bug: see Lygus Wound healing, 530 hesperus Wyeomyia smithii, diapause, 669 Wetas, 188 Wheat bulb fly, 260, 261 Xeniaria,177 Wheat jointworm, 341 Xenopsylla Wheat stem sawfly: see Cephus cinctus as disease vector, 739 Wheat wireworm, 316 X. cheopsis, 265, 266, 739 Whirligig beetles, 310, 311 Xenorhabdus,as insect pathogen, 718 White ants, 163 Xiphosura, 6, 16 Whiteflies, 215 Xiphydriidae, 336–337 Whites, 291 Xyelidae, 44, 333, 335 Wind, as dispersal factor, 678 Xyeloidea, 335 Wings Xylorictidae, 284 angle of attack, 456 angles, 81, 82 Yaw,461, 461 areas, 80, 81 Yellow fever, 249, 737, 738 Yellow jackets, 346–347 Zorotypida, 195 831 Yellow mealworm, adult, 321 Zorotypidae, 197 Yellow woolly bear: see Diacrisiavirginica Zorotypus, 195 Index Yellow-faced bumblebee, 348 Z. gurneyi, 196 Yolk, 564 Z. hubbardi, 100, 196 composition, 569 Z. nascimbenei, 196 production, 569–570 Zygaenidae, 286 Yponomeutidae, 283–284 Zygaenoidea, 286 Yponomeutoidea, 283–284 Zygentoma, 13, 25, 26, 113, 114, 123–125 classification, 125 Zeugloptera, 279 gut cellulose, 499 Zeugoducus depressus, control of pupation, 643 life history andhabits, 124 Zeuzera pyrina, 285 phylogeny, 124–125 Zootermopsis structure, 124 germ band, 603 Zygoptera, 35, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, Z. angusticollis, caste differentiation,647–648, 648 141–142 Z. nevadensis, trail-marking pheromone, 423 larval cannibalism, 704 Zoraptera, 37, 39, 40, 195–197 larvalgas exchange, 480 classification, 99, 100, 101, 197 larval swimming, 451 life history and habits, 196 mate guarding, 139, 583 phylogeny,196–197 seasonal segregation among species, 708 structure, 195–196 spatial segregation among larvae, 706–707