A Difficult Inheritance: Moroccan Society under King Muhammad VI By Michael M. Laskier*
This article addresses King Hasan II's legacy and the central problems facing his son and successor, Muhammad VI. These problems include the need for reform in human rights and democracy, the Islamist challenge, the role of women, and the Berber awakening. While Morocco has begun making key reforms over the past decade to better deal with these issues, in practice, even many of these reforms have been entirely stalled or only been partially implemented.
On July 23, 1999, Hasan II died after DEMOCRATIZATION, HUMAN thirty-eight years as King of Morocco. In RIGHTS, AND FIGHTING the final years under his tenure, the CORRUPTION country underwent some reforms, and the Despite the proliferation of political accession of his son, Muhammad VI, parties that predate national added momentum to this process. independence, and since 1988, the Morocco, however, faces key challenges. founding of non-governmental (NGO) The population is expanding, from 10 human rights organizations, trends million in 1956 to 31 million in 2003, at toward genuine democracy in Morocco an annual growth rate of 2.1 percent--this, were of negligible importance before the despite its high infant mortality rate of 57 late 1990s. Human rights violations on per thousand. As a result, the country the part of the monarchy and the suffers from water scarcity and governments subordinate to it abounded, unemployment has reached 20 percent, while corrupt bureaucratic practices went according to official figures. The real unchecked. True, the 1996 Constitution figure, however, may be much higher, provided for a parliament and an and this percentage is increasing by 7 independent judiciary. However, under percent annually. In addition, there are the leadership of King Hasan II, as well major problems with accessing education, as under the current leadership, much of particularly in rural areas.(1) the political power within the country This article highlights four challenges rests with the palace. confronting the kingdom: 1) King Muhammad VI continues to democratization, human rights, and the preside over the Council of Ministers (the fight against corruption; 2) Islamist governing cabinet), appoints key radicalism capitalizing on the malaise members of the government, and may, at affecting Moroccan society; 3) the status his discretion, terminate the tenure of any of women; 4) Berber cultural and minister. He is invested with the authority linguistic awakening. to dissolve the parliament, call for new elections, and rule by decree. Since 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of a Lower House, elected every five years
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 1 Michael M. Laskier through universal suffrage and an upper October 2002 encouraged sweeping "Chamber of Counselors," whose reforms, including completely free members are elected by various regional, elections and the "closing of the books" local, and professional councils.(2) on Morocco's dark human rights past. In In March 1998, Hasan II named a November 1998, the government coalition government headed by announced measures to ensure wider opposition Socialist leader Abd al- human rights activism, including training Rahman Yussufi, composed largely of teachers and developing curricula to ministers drawn from the Union promote human rights in elementary Socialiste des Forces Populaires (USFP) schools.(5) and the nationalist Istiqlal party. This was Human rights and democratic reforms the first time since 1960 that the were inextricably linked when the matter monarchy entrusted authority to the of the forced disappearance of the opposition parties in forming a monarchy’s political opponents came up government. It came in the wake of the before and following Hasan II's death. November 1997 legislative elections as a Since 1998, the Yussufi government had confidence-building measure by King pledged to ensure that such policies Hasan toward increased democratization: would not reoccur and to disclose as a clear signal to these leading parties of much information as possible on past his intent for political unity and cases. Many of those who disappeared coexistence in order to grapple with the were members of the military implicated nation's chronically neglected domestic in attempts to overthrow the government problems. Some could argue that Hasan and monarchy in 1971-1972. Others considered reforms necessary to save the were inhabitants of the Western Sahara monarchy, especially once he would be occupied by Morocco in the 1970s, as gone and his inexperienced successor well as Moroccans who supported their would need to cope with the changes. In territorial claims. Most of those who line with this thinking, one might add that disappeared were held in secret prison the monarch preferred to involve the camps, notably the infamous Tazmamart opposition in this experience so that, in prison colony, while others were killed. case of failure, all sides would share the In the final two years of Hasan's blame.(3) tenure, the Yussufi government was A veteran Moroccan nationalist, Prime already allowed to free many detainees; Minister Yussufi served at one time as however, the most important gestures the editor of al-Tahrir, the daily came under Muhammad VI, who newspaper of the Union Nationale des facilitated the release of thousands of Forces Populaires (UNFP), the group prisoners between the end of 1999 and from which arose the USFP in 1975. He 2003. Simultaneously, leading exiled had been imprisoned in December 1959 political opponents or their families were for allegedly taking part in a plot against granted permission to return to Morocco, then Crown Prince Hasan. In the 1970s, such as the Marxist activist Abraham Yussufi was sentenced to death in Serfaty and the family of the late Mehdi absentia but received a royal pardon in Ben Barka, an opponent of King Hasan 1980. At King Hasan II’s urging, the killed by the Moroccan secret service in Yussufi government declared its Paris during the 1960s. At the same time, intentions to modernize the nation's hundreds of Moroccan families continued administrative and judicial structures, and to be deprived of information about to liberalize the economic and political missing relatives by the regime.(6) systems.(4) Violations of democratic principles, Unlike in previous governments, the especially freedom of expression and Yussufi cabinet of March 1998 to press, began under King Muhammad V
2 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) A Difficult Inheritance: Moroccan Society under King Muhammad VI between 1956 and 1961, and extended damage Morocco’s prospects for foreign into the era of Hasan II and Muhammad trade and investment.(9) VI. In theory at least, the 1996 Within months of Le Journal re- Constitution provides for freedom of opening (under the name Le Journal expression. Further, in the past two Hebdomadaire), its troubles reemerged decades the regime has tolerated the when two of its officials were sentenced publication and dissemination of a vast to short prison terms and heavy fines for array of newspapers and journals in defamation by then Foreign Minister French and Arabic belonging to both Muhammad Benaissa. The minister cited political parties and politically articles accusing him of corruption and independent organizations. Nonetheless, squandering public funds in real estate the Palace and the government restrict transactions while serving as Morocco's press freedom in certain areas. A 1958 ambassador to the United States. On decree, still in effect, authorizes the November 21, 2001, Ali Mrabet, editor of government to register and license Demain, received a four-month jail domestic newspapers and journals. The sentence and a fine for "disseminating authorities can thus use licensing to false information likely to disturb the prohibit the publication of data that they public peace."(10) claim crosses the threshold of tolerable The growing chorus of protests dissent.(7) pertaining to violations of democratic A good example of this can be found principles and corruption included in the sanctions adopted against international and local human rights newspapers that delved into sensitive groups. In the late 1980s and the 1990s, dossiers about past political opponents of NGO’s had urged Hasan II to enhance the Palace. This proved to be very costly liberties and lay the groundwork for a to three popular publications: the French- modern civil society. For instance, they language Le Journal, its Arabic sister pointed out that the parliamentary publication al-Sahifa, and Demain. In elections of November 1997 were not December 2000, Yussufi banned the three completely honest. They failed, however, weeklies for publishing and commenting to muster sufficient support to call for on a letter dating from the early 1970s new elections.(11) which implicated Moroccan socialist Despite the existence of many politicians, including Yussufi himself, in human rights groups, the authorities only an abortive 1972 coup against King recognized three multi-issue Hasan II. The restrictions were enforced organizations: the Organisation despite Muhammad VI's pledge to Marocaine des Droits de l'Homme eliminate all forms of press censorship. (OMDH), the League Marocaine de Justifying the ban, Minister of Culture Défense des Droits de l'Homme and Communication Muhammad Achaari (LMDH), and the Comité de la Défense argued that the newspapers had "launched des Droits Humains (CDDH).(12) The campaigns against the political stability OMDH, most important of the three, of Morocco and its democratic made a wide range of demands on the experience."(8) monarchy: However, these newspapers were allowed to resume their publication soon End forced and arbitrary thereafter, due in no small measure to detentions, rehabilitate pressure on the Moroccan government opposition forces that from international human rights "disappeared" and accelerate organizations and the Committee to the compensation of the Protect Journalists. These groups warned victims' families. the king that renewed censorship would Remove and declassify dossiers about former Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 3 Michael M. Laskier
opponents of the political of the press and the release of political system who "disappeared" and prisoners. cease all intimidation of their Morocco’s problems have provided close relatives. opportunities for Islamist movements to Reexamine the files on past arise and claim they possess the best and use of torture and delve into perhaps only solutions. These groups cases that in the past were include the barely tolerated Jama'at al- classified as death by suicide Adl wal-Ihsan (Justice and Charity), or natural death. founded and led by Shaykh Abd al-Salam Limit the application of Yasin; the legally recognized Hizb al- physical force against Adala wal-Tanmiyya (The Party for opposition elements. Justice and Development) headed by Dr. Prohibit all forms of meddling Abd al-Karim Khatib and Abd al-Illah by the Ministry of the Interior Benkiran; and the clandestine Salafiya in the implementation of Jihadiya (Salafist Jihad). justice, particularly in rural Al-Adl wal-Ihsan (al-Adl hereafter) areas. was founded in 1981 by Shaykh Abd al- Reform the justice system, in Salam Yasin, a brilliant Islamic scholar consultation with attorneys, and orator equal to the most dynamic professors and human rights Islamist leaders and thinkers in other activists who are experts on countries. Yasin was born in the southern legal issues.(13) Moroccan countryside in 1928 and raised in Marrakesh. After having acquired a The combined efforts of such groups deep Islamic and sufficient French have brought significant results during education, he worked in the 1960s and the reign of Muhammad VI, such as early 1970s as an inspector at the payment of compensation to relatives of Ministry of National Education. Yasin deceased political prisoners, as well as knows several European languages and the reduction of the ability to apply has written as many as thirty books on physical force to prisoners. Owing to Islamic jurisprudence. their démarche before the palace and the In 1974, Yasin made his political Yussufi government, Muhammad VI debut when he sent a 114-page letter significantly curtailed the powers of the entitled al-Islam wal-Tufan (Islam and Ministry of the Interior, following the the Deluge), to King Hasan II, ouster in November 1999 of Driss Basri, admonishing him to hold firmly to the its powerful and dictatorial minister. Still, teachings of Islam and forsake the "un- the authorities and parliament have yet to Islamic" policies he had been pursuing. In declassify dossiers and totally end the letter Yasin attributed to the arbitrary arrests. monarchy imperialism, decadent Westernization, and social injustice. He ISLAMIST RADICALISM challenged the king to "get rid of his Islamist groups criticized Morocco’s advisers and entourage (makhzan), seek monarchs and governments even more the advice of the propagators of the da'wa than did those advocating liberal (those who preach in favor of Islamic democracy. They called for a return to revivalism) after abolishing all political traditions, a judicial system based solely parties, establish an Islamic economy, or mainly on the Shari'a, and the and…pronounce repentance loudly and Islamization of governmental and clearly."(14) financial institutions. Modernists and The shaykh's demands landed him in a Islamists did share two common interests, psychiatric hospital-prison for the next however. Both demanded more freedom three years. Upon his release, Yasin
4 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) A Difficult Inheritance: Moroccan Society under King Muhammad VI published the Islamic periodical al-Jama'a associations--the group’s active (The Group), setting the stage for the membership in 2002 reached between foundation of his movement. With the 30,000 and 50,000. One mystery about banning of al-Jama'a in 1983, he began this movement is the extent of its publishing the daily al-Subh (The financial support from foreign Morning). This newspaper was also governments. The relentless efforts to banned and Yasin was sentenced to two trace al-Adl’s finances to Iran, Sudan, years in prison. Though partly tolerated, and Afghanistan notwithstanding, the al-Adl suffered from systematic police Moroccan authorities have thus far been harassment. Scores of its members were unable to prove any reliance on those arrested, tortured, and sentenced to long countries. Its budget is known to depend prison terms. Yasin was arrested again in largely on donations and membership December 1989 and placed under house dues or on Moroccan emigres to Europe arrest for the next decade.(15) and North America (each active member The government's repressive policy is obliged to contribute 2.5 percent of his vis-à-vis al-Adl and its top leader income).(22) notwithstanding, the movement survived. Hasan II's death and Muhammad VI's Indeed, contrary to the monarch’s ascendance to the throne only stimulated expectations, its influence expanded. It al-Adl to increase its activities. This came won considerable popular appeal after the about partly because its members sensed 1991 Gulf War, mobilizing 10,000 that the new monarch planned far- demonstrators for an anti-American reaching social reforms contradicting rally.(16) Al-Adl continued to organize Islamic principles, and also because of cells as well as small Islamist charity and the new regime's readiness to grant welfare societies providing social greater freedom of political and cultural services, food, and medicine to the poor expression. The incentive to challenge the and arranging marriages.(17) These authorities over certain social reforms is efforts enjoyed some successes,(18) and best illustrated by the events following on that basis, Yasin claimed significant Yussufi’s decision to take initial steps to support for his movement.(19) In the reform the Mudawwana, the Code of 1990s, it also worked to organize Personal Status based on the Malikite Moroccan workers and students in France school of Sunni Islamic law. and even on some U.S. campuses.(20) The government intended to revise the Since 1999, the movement’s student code by bestowing on Moroccan women department within Morocco has gained greater equality with men. It called for a support in law, humanities and medicine "Plan of Action for Women's Integration faculties at various universities. Yet, Al- and Development" to address the issues Adl's efforts to infiltrate the well- of raising the age of marriage for girls established militant Union Nationale des from fifteen to eighteen; granting women Etudiants Marocains (UNEM)--the a voice in Islamic courts to present their largest student union affiliated with the side in divorce cases; canceling the USFP--failed for two basic reasons. The guardianship requirement for adult USFP was then in control of the women; outlawing polygamy except in government under Yussufi's premiership certain cases; and allowing women the and managed to foil the attempt through right to half of their husbands' property diverse manipulative strategies. after divorce, as well as to maintain Secondly, the leftist forces within UNEM custody of their children if they remarry. fought hard to expel Islamists.(21) All the Islamist factions in the It is estimated that beyond its country, with al-Adl in the forefront, hundreds of thousands of supporters-- were now determined to stage mass many of them beneficiaries of al-Adl's rallies against the proposed policy, charitable, educational, and recreational particularly once it became known that Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 5 Michael M. Laskier women's and other non-governmental government attracted no more than advocacy organizations were about to several thousand demonstrators.(25) organize a demonstration in Rabat Yasin was finally released in May favoring reforms. On March 13, 2000, al- 2000. Interior Minister Ahmad Midawi Adl and the legally-recognized Hizb al- disclosed to parliament that he would Adala wal-Tanmiyya (al-Adala hereafter) have freedom of movement and speech. launched a big rally in Casablanca to However, he would not be allowed to denounce the Yussufi government's "Plan visit his supporters in prison, most of of Action." Called the “One Million whom were university students. March,” the Islamist manifestation Moreover, al-Adl could still not present proved far more successful (hundreds of candidates for parliamentary and thousands perhaps even a million municipal elections because it did not participated), than the “Women's Day” follow al-Adala in recognizing the counterpart in Rabat, which only religious and political legitimacy of the garnered 40,000 participants. Alawite dynasty.(26) The movement was Despite certain ideological differences allowed to initiate peaceful rallies and between al-Adala and al-Adl, they social or charitable functions. Forbidden collaborated in chartering thousands of to disseminate its ideas in mosques, it buses and lorries to ferry supporters to relied on an extensive network of Casablanca. The "show of force" organizers, cassettes, the internet, and a between the Islamists and the pro-women limited circulation of publications.(27) rally was not only confined to women's Yasin has consistently made known issues. According to Ibrahim Ibrash, a his utter distaste for modern economic political scientist at Rabat University, this and social values. He bitterly complained was a card played both by the Islamists, about "the arrogance" of the European and the pro-USFP government as well as Union and the U.S. economy. In striking other secularist and reformist groups. It similarity to Usama Bin Ladin and the served as a testing ground to determine Egyptian Shaykh Abd al-Rahman, Yasin the extent of grassroots support each attacked what he called the symbolic group could muster.(23) superiority of modern skyscrapers like Among the hundreds of thousands of New York's World Trade Center: Islamist marchers, there were numerous veiled women who claimed that any The modern age is in crisis. Let reform granting women emancipation at us not be deluded by what others the expense of the mudawwana would have built, such as scientific lead to the collapse of the family, skyscrapers strewn all destruction of Islamic values, and around….For them, the human debauchery of every sort.(24) The being has no meaning except the Islamist rally strengthened the position of egoism of the strong, the wasteful al-Adl despite Yasin's prolonged consumption of the wealthy, the detention. Overwhelmed by the anti- pleasures of the rich, and the reformist trend, the government chose to death of the poor in Somalia, of shelve its "Plan of Action" indefinitely. starvation and civil war, or in Equally impressive was the September Bosnia of annihilation, savage 2000 pro-Palestinian rally in support of slaughter and ethnic the second Intifada, to which al-Adl and cleansing….(28) other Islamist factions attracted nearly one million participants. It became the Nonetheless, his rhetoric fell short of largest anti-Israel affair ever launched in condoning terrorism as a measure to the Arab world. A separate Palestinian demolish these symbols. solidarity event organized by the
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What specifically are Yasin's and raise the extremely low salaries paid grievances with the Moroccan political to ordinary Moroccans. Yasin spoke of system and where would he like to lead approximately 100,000 graduates of his country? It is no secret that, had al- higher education--physicians, engineers, Adl been permitted to take part in the teachers, and technocrats--"brooding over September 2002 legislative elections, the their helplessness and deception in the movement would have attained an local cafe." Basing his data on UN electoral victory reminiscent of the statistics, he remarked that Morocco in support won by Abbasi Madani's FIS in 1998-1999 was rated far behind the Algerian elections of 1990-1992, or, neighboring Tunisia and Algeria; 12 at the very least, would have made million Moroccans lived below the substantial gains. Yasin did not conceal poverty line, with less than 10 dirhams his hatred and distrust for the late Hasan (one dollar) per day; almost three- II and regarded the governments in power quarters earned less than the guaranteed since independence in 1956 as powerless, minimum wage of 1,600 dirhams ($160) controlled behind-the-scenes by the pro- per month; and shanty towns proliferated palace makhzan "shadow kitchen at an alarming rate due to increased cabinet." migration from rural to urban areas.(30) In a memorandum of November 1999 Fighting governmental corruption was about "The King of the Poor," the title another issue broached by Yasin as a bestowed on the new King by the serious challenge to Muhammad VI. He Moroccan people, Yasin wrote that after referred contemptuously to the Ominum the honeymoon of promises, harsh Nord Afrique (ONA), the leading realities would remind the youth of its Moroccan industrial conglomerate unenviable lot. Once parades and dominated by King Hasan and his closest cavalcades would be over, "winged confidants, which granted development poetry will give way to the prose of project contracts to private entrepreneurs unemployment and destitution." He in return for hefty bribes. The royal contended that the makhzan, which under family's control over the company was Muhammad VI never ceased to always complete, claims Yasin. It undermine the Yussufi government, enabled Hasan II to amass as much as hoped it could delete from people's $50 billion dollars, money that should be memory decades of despotism and the given to the people to reduce their torture of political prisoners at the nation's colossal public debt, which Tazmamart dungeons. But the people accounted in 1999 for nearly 36 percent would not forget the despotic rule of of the GDP: Hasan II, that "Godless" self-styled "Commander of the Faithful." Fooled for Nothing escaped the royal greedy a long time by "a community of political attention--agriculture, (the) food- schemers," the masses expected sweeping processing industry, the tourist changes, not hollow words. The trade and luxury hotels where the unemployed and drug addicts were guests of our dear King (Hasan) fleeing the "ungrateful society" and the were received. These were next young only saw bleak economic to nothing before the fabulous prospects.(29) wealth comprising, among others, What should the young King do? banking, insurance business, Yasin, who characterizes, almost sugar refineries, oil industry, affectionately, young Muhammad VI as financial engineering, state-owned "prince charming," highlighted several mining companies,… fishing, the points. Muhammad VI had to obliterate chemical industry, printing, illiteracy (53 percent of all Moroccans transport and textiles.(31) were illiterate), chronic unemployment, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 7 Michael M. Laskier
Corruption had indeed reached the Faithful"? The American dimensions that no Moroccan could press, namely The Washington ignore. One of the greatest corruption Post, has disclosed how the CIA scandals in modern Moroccan history and the Mossad ensured the safety was the social security embezzlement of the late King and how, in scheme that came to light in 1999. return for that, he bestowed his According to a report submitted to the favors on his Zionist Jewish Moroccan parliament, the National Social friends. As a sign of gratitude, Security Fund had lost $4.3 billion over a the Jewish nation named seventy period of thirty years due to avenues and streets in Israel after mismanagement and embezzlement. This the "dearly departed." (The) has been the fourth major financial Zionist government and scandal in recent years, which have cost organizations led by Jews of the nation $15 billion, an amount equal to Moroccan origin took part in the Morocco's foreign debt.(32) Israeli ceremonies dedicated to Equally important on Yasin's agenda the "unforgettable friend." when addressing demands to the new Declared friends of the Zionist King was the growth of drug addicts. Jews, Hasan spared no effort to This dilemma, he believed, would not be please the "chosen people." solved as long as the avariciousness of drug magnates and the economic Muhammad VI should therefore dependence of the peasants in the disassociate himself totally from his northern provinces on cannabis prompted father's policies of conniving against the production and marketing of hashish Islam, the Moroccan people, and their and other drugs.(33) Palestinian brethren by turning his back Finally, Muhammad VI had to right a on Jewish-American media tycoons.(34) major wrong committed by his father: Yasin issued an implicit warning. The Morocco's prolonged secret complicity young king had to make a choice between with Israel and "Zionist Jewry." In his father's policies, a "depraved and leveling this accusation, Yasin revealed pompous tradition," or break with that (with some degree of accuracy) the disgraceful past and "atone for the crimes contribution of Moroccan Jews living in he witnessed with obvious Israel to the special links between Rabat embarrassment." The removal by and Jerusalem. Yasin distorted this to Muhammad VI in 1999 of Interior claim that Hasan's dependence on Jewish Minister Driss Basri, a Hasan appointee support locally and internationally who put many Islamists in prison, could transformed the nation's system of only be the beginning. The palace had to government into a "Judaeocracy." This make changes based on the solid harsh portrayal of both the Jews and the foundations of Islam.(35) monarchy resembled the contents of the Yasin dismissed all accusations that "Protocols of the Elders of Zion," as al-Adl intended to seize power through evidenced in the following statement by violent means. Although he did not rule Yasin: out long-range ambitions, Yasin pledged that for several years al-Adl would Who does not know (King continue to define itself as an educational Hasan's) affection and respect for and missionary association rather than a cosmopolitan Zionist Jewry? political party. If and when al-Adl chose Have (the) Moroccan people not to seek political office, the process would been astonished by the television be devoid of violence: "We do not wish show of rabbis blessing and to eliminate anyone. We are the ones who praying for the "Commander of are being punished by the authorities."
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Yasin also asserted that his organization practices. We do not accept that a had no links with Islamists beyond woman goes out almost naked on Morocco's borders.(36) the streets, it is immoral. Unlike al-Adl, al-Adala is a political (Amputation) should be "a last party whose leaders are prepared to resort" for otherwise incorrigible participate in the political system and are thieves. We are not going to cut a allowed to do so. One of the party's main small person who cannot find leaders, Abd al-Illah Benkiran, stressed enough to eat.(39) this point in the September 2002 legislative election campaign: "We seek a Perhaps the major beneficiary of the gradual role for us in parliament…not a legislative elections of September 2002, landslide that would cause fears among the most democratic Morocco had ever the pro-Western elite and opposition witnessed, was al-Adala. In the Islamists."(37) November 1997 elections, al-Adala took Some regard al-Adala's leaders as 14 seats in the 325-seat lower chamber of moderates, but François Soudan, who has parliament. In September 2002, when it studied al-Adala's activities, believes that became clear that the popular al-Adl was it is a wolf in sheep's clothing. He has unable (and unwilling) to take part in the shown that al-Adala is really two political process, al-Adala tripled its movements: the original moderate al- strength and reached third place after the Adala, led by veteran Moroccan USFP and Istiqlal, with 42 seats.(40) politician, Dr. Abd al-Karim al-Khatib, However, al-Adala's election gains and the Islamist-oriented al-Tawhid wal- were not translated into political Islah, or, in French, Mouvement Pour representation in the new cabinet. On l'Unification et le Réforme (MUR). Both October 9, 2002, Muhammad VI groups merged in 1993 under the banner appointed as prime minister the of al-Adala after MUR's Bekiran failed to politically independent Driss Jettou, a merge with the Istiqlal party. After the prosperous 58-year old entrepreneur merger, the MUR leadership rose to known for his adroit commercial become the real force behind the unified negotiating skills.(41) Despite the al-Adala and contributed markedly to its democratic elections, by virtue of the Islamization.(38) 1996 Constitution, the palace could still An al-Adala spokesman associated choose the prime minister and fill such with the MUR faction, Mustafa Ramid, key cabinet posts as Defense, Foreign disclosed that his party would like Affairs, Justice and Islamic Affairs. The Morocco to apply the punishments for new government consisting of thirty-one criminals as decreed in the Qur'an, such ministers was largely dominated by the as the cutting off of thieves' hands. Al- USFP (with 50 seats in Parliament) and Adala also plans to enforce the Shari'a in Istiqlal (48 seats). Six other political all aspects of social and political life. parties were part of the coalition Similarly, Abd al-Aziz Rabbah, a senior government: mostly leftist in outlook but party activist, confessed that al-Adala also some conservatives loyal to the intended to phase out the liquor industry Palace. altogether and shut down the nightclubs That democratic elections in Morocco and bars that serve Moroccan-brewed still suffer from significant shortcomings beer. The party also evinced repugnance is best illustrated in the Jettou toward young women wearing the latest government's decision on April 22, 2003 Western fashions. Rabbah stated in no to postpone elections scheduled for June uncertain terms that: 2003, including those for new chambers of commerce. This decision, adopted What we will impose are good jointly with the USFP and Istiqlal morals, good traditions, good ministers and deputies in Parliament, was Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 9 Michael M. Laskier politically motivated and bore direct attacks on Hizballah terrorist acts against relevance to al-Adala’s political Israel. He sent Jospin a letter of protest prospects. It appears that the latter made accusing him of "lacking diplomatic tact" major inroads early on in preparing for and of damaging France's otherwise these elections while the more secular positive image among Muslims, insisting parties failed to campaign sufficiently that Hizballah's struggle is not terrorism: among Moroccan voters. To enable the major political parties that formed the (I)t is a form of resistance--the government to gain more time for an right of people to struggle against effective campaign, Muhammad VI colonialism. (Your statements) agreed to delay the elections until are proof of your affection for and September 2003. links to international Zionism as Assessing this decision, L'Economiste well as of your designs against the du Maroc observed that: people of the Middle East…. We believe that the Islamic and The fear of seeing al-Adala gain national struggle in Palestine and support by leaps and bounds and southern Lebanon is part of a win over several major cities in Jihad, a legitimate war, and we the upcoming elections has its offer it our full support. If there is merits. In the opinion of many, any form of terrorism (in the this party would reap (political region) it is to be attributed to benefits) by exploiting the Israel, which occupies Arab and resentment in the Moroccan street Islamic territories and engages in against (America's) war against violence against civilians, killing Iraq.(42) children, women, and old people…. The non-Islamist parties recalled the first Gulf War against Iraq in 1991, when Such attacks on Hizballah, he added, al-Adl gained strength by promoting would not only endanger French interests solidarity with Iraq against the American in the Arab world but might increase invasion, or the support garnered by FIS hostility toward the many Muslims living that same year in Algeria for much the in France. He asked Jospin to retract his same reason. statement.(44) Ideologically, al-Adl and al-Adala are A second example is intermixed with hardly distinguishable from each other anti-American sentiments. Al-Tajdid when raising social and cultural issues or (Renewal), al-Adala's daily newspaper, pressing the authorities to emphasize published an article in May 2002 that Islamic education. Both advocate a read: "They Use Our Money to Kill Our Shari'a-oriented social agenda, a total ban Children in Palestine." The aim of the on alcohol, segregated beaches for men article and of other types of attacks and women, and the establishment of throughout 2002 was to initiate a Islamic banking.(43) campaign to boycott American products The same applies to the Arab-Israeli in Morocco, from Marlboro to conflict. In fact, al-Adala often outbids McDonald's.(45) al-Adl in its anti-Israel militancy, Al-Adala made known its disapproval including unequivocal support for the of Moroccan-based U.S. companies for Lebanese Hizballah. Two examples "contributing to Jewish funds," and, in verify this point. First, in 2000, the the words of Muhammad Yatim (one of party's Secretary-General Abd al-Karim the party's members of parliament), "We al-Khatib reacted vigorously to then have information that McDonald's French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin's (headquarters) in… Illinois, pays
10 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) A Difficult Inheritance: Moroccan Society under King Muhammad VI substantial assistance to a Chicago-based underground organizations chose a Jewish charity." Physical harassment in different path. Such was the case with the Casablanca and Rabat against Salafiya Jihadiya (Salafist Jihad) group. McDonald's customers led the Like al-Adl, it longed for the revival of government to stop the boycott, fearing it the caliphate, but this, it said, could not to could harm the economy. The boycott be accomplished peacefully. The Salafiya coincided with Morocco's efforts to Jihadiya was influenced by external enhance its trade relations with the Islamist ideologies which called for the United States at a time when it sought to violent overthrow of the so-called "Jahili" establish a bilateral commercial pact with regimes (referring to the pre-Islamic the United States.(46) “unenlightened” period). Its spiritual On the social status of women in heroes included the Egyptians Sayyid Moroccan society, al-Adl and al-Adala Qutb and Shaykh Umar Abd al-Rahman; also share common ground. When Umar Mahmud Umar, the London questioned in May 2000 about his preacher; and Usama bin Ladin.(50) position on women, Yasin offered a Founded in the early 1990s by vague response: "I wish for the woman to Moroccan volunteer fighters who be granted her rights and I oppose a returned home from the anti-Soviet situation (whereby) women are struggle in Afghanistan, Salafiya Jihadiya dominated by men." Similarly, he was led by twelve men including refused to make clear his position on the Muhammad Fezzazi in Tangier, Umar March 1999 government "Plan of Action" Haduchi in Tetouan, and Zakariyya over the mudawwana. Yet, practically Miludi in Casablanca. On the eve of the speaking, al-Adl has opposed any such September 2002 elections, when Salafiya reforms.(47) Jihadiya had been weakened by large- Al-Adala also opposed changes but it scale arrests, it comprised as many as 400 did encourage the participation of women zealous militants intent on in the party, including the charismatic, martyrdom.(51) well-educated Bassina Haqqawi. After Until his arrest in August 2002, the September 2002 elections, four of its Miludi, Salafiya Jihadiya's supreme forty-two elected deputies were women. commander, encouraged acts of violence In a position paper just before the against the police, drug dealers, and elections, al-Adala stated that during the consumers of alcohol. Soudan notes that early years of Islam, the ulama (religious between 1992 and 2002, the group was clerics) and lay leadership had not strengthened and consolidated through contested women's involvement in careful recruitment in the large politics.(48) Al-Adala concluded: shantytowns, organizing into cells of "Women should play an important role in three to four activists each, and receiving developing the (political community) and military training in apparently through al- this does not necessarily signify Qa'ida. In Summer 2002, many of its negligence on their part of the vital role activists and three Saudis were arrested in they play within the household. The Casablanca, allegedly for plotting Islamist party calls on its institutions to terrorist acts.(52) recruit women voters and activists.”(49) Moroccan authorities reported in June But the document does not make any 2002 that an airport security officer in mention of social and judicial reforms on Casablanca and two other Moroccans had their behalf. also been arrested as part of an Whereas al-Adl and al-Adala insisted investigation into a suspected al-Qa'ida that their struggle against Western plot to attack U.S. and British ships in the secularism would be non-violent and Straits of Gibraltar and set off bombs aimed at educating the public about inside Morocco. At least several of the Islamic virtues, several Islamist Moroccans had been affiliated with Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 11 Michael M. Laskier
Salafiya Jihadiya and were apparently STATUS OF WOMEN trained in al-Qa'ida's camps in The Moroccan 1996 Constitution Afghanistan.(53) Upon being stipulates that women are equal citizens apprehended, they provided information to men in all aspects of life. In practice, to the authorities about the logistical help however, women face discrimination given to them by Salafiya Jihadiya and on even within the law. A good example of the role of Moroccan Islamists abroad in this pertains to family estate laws that are forging Salafiya's relations with al- based on the previously mentioned Qa'ida.(54) mudawwana. Based on this Code of The Moroccan government's claim Personal Status, women inherit as a rule that these Islamists were determined to only half as much as male heirs. become martyrs is an interesting Moreover, even when the law provides phenomenon. Hitherto this practice was for equal status, cultural norms often virtually non-existent in the Maghreb, not prevent them from exercising their rights. even among the extremist fringes of the When a woman inherits property, male Algerian GIA. The arrests, however, did relatives tend to pressure her to relinquish not put a stop to the violence. In fact, the her interests.(57) violence escalated. On May 16, 2003, a Discrimination against women is more series of terrorist suicide bombings clearly reflected in matters relating to occurred in Casablanca. Twenty-nine marriage and divorce. In order to marry, a Moroccans and European nationals were woman is usually required to obtain the killed, not including a dozen Islamist consent of her legal guardian, which in martyrs. Jewish institutions, the Farah most cases is her father. This issue has Hotel (where foreign tourists and been hotly debated by human rights, businessmen stayed), and, among other women's and other Moroccan advocacy places, a popular restaurant frequented by groups since the 1990s and has led to Europeans, were badly damaged by the demand for reforms in this domain.(58) bombings. At least 5,000 Moroccans An equally pressing problem for were detained and interrogated by the reform is the divorce issue. Under Islamic authorities, assisted in the process by law, a man can repudiate his wife outside European and FBI terror specialists.(55) the court and deprive her of their joint According to information income and property. Alternatively, if a communicated by the Moroccan woman is determined to seek a divorce, government, the terrorists belonged to an she has few practical options. She may offshoot faction of Salafiya Jihadiya, offer her husband money, yet the latter called al-Sira al-Mustaqim ("The Right must agree to the divorce and can specify Path"). The suicide bombers ranged in the amount to be paid, which is almost age from 20 to 24, were unemployed, and always quite high. She may also file for a dwelled in the Sidi Moumen, one of judicial divorce if her husband marries a Casablanca’s worst slums. After second wife, or if he abandons her. searching this neighborhood and the However, divorce procedures in these houses of the suicide bombers, the cases are protracted and legally authorities uncovered written propaganda complicated.(59) sermons of Abu Qatada, a religious By far, the most serious problem leader living in London. The police also encountered by many women is spousal found instruction manuals on making violence. The local press, country reports explosives, which may have been by international human rights groups, and provided by al-Qa'ida, and ingredients to data furnished by representatives of other manufacture them.(56) non-governmental agencies, concur that acts of violence against women in Morocco is widespread. In the fall of
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2000, a survey among young urban percent in 1960), with 89 percent women across the country found that 75 illiteracy among women in the rural percent expressed fear that their husbands areas.(65) According to a May 2000 would resort to violence against them. Of survey of women across the country those interviewed, 35.8 percent claimed conducted by the League Démocratique to have already been victimized.(60) pour les Droits de la Femme (LDDF), a These findings are grimmer when leading local women's rights applied to individual villages, cities or organizations, only 41.4 percent of shantytowns. They clearly substantiate women completed their primary that complaining about violence remains education, whereas 50.7 percent never a taboo in Moroccan society. Thus, in enrolled in school at all. As for the March 2003, a survey in Fez revealed that number of years women frequented while 7 women out of 10 were school, 39.7 percent never went beyond victimized, 5 of 10 did not report it.(61) the primary school certificate, that is, five Conducted by the association Initiatives to six years, and only 15 percent for Women's Rights and Protection, the completed all secondary school education study confirms that women sustained leading to the baccalauréat.(66) several different kinds of violence Politically, until the legislative ranging from physical (49.5 percent), elections of September 2002, women psychological (66.4 percent), sexual (26.7 were largely excluded in the decision- percent), and material (16.7 percent). The making process. In Parliament, women's study shows, moreover, that women aged representation at the time was only 0.6 20 to 40 represented 63.9 percent of percent out of 325 in the House of violence victims and, the younger the age Representatives (Lower House). The at the first marriage, the worse the same applied to government, where only violence. The women’s level of education one woman served as minister-delegate (a was irrelevant since 40.3 percent of the junior-level, not full-fledged portfolio). victims received secondary and higher To this day, only two out of 275 seats in education.(62) the Senate are occupied by women, and at Though a battered wife has the right to the municipal level, only 0.34 percent of complain to the police, in reality she counselors are women. In fall 2002, would do so only if prepared to bring Morocco was at the bottom of the list of criminal charges.(63) While physical women active in government affairs, just abuse is legal grounds for divorce, a below Djibouti, the Comoro Islands, the Moroccan court would grant it provided United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait the woman is able to present two and Saudi Arabia.(67) witnesses to her abuse. This anachronism In the final years of Hasan II's reign, a and the fact that spousal violence is host of NGOs had lobbied before the treated at worst with utmost leniency, Ministries of Education, Justice, Islamic discourages most women from reporting Affairs and Waqf, Human Rights, Arts acts of violence to the authorities.(64) and Crafts, and Agricultural and Rural It is true that in the past twenty years Development to uphold women's rights more educated women have entered and bring about revisions in the careers in law, medicine, education, and mudawwana. Among the NGOs active in government service than previously-- this domain were the aforementioned there are even women pilots. However, LDDF and the Union de l'Action they still constitute a relatively small Féminine (UAF). These organizations elite. Government reports indicate that, also provided shelters for battered women whereas male illiteracy was estimated at and taught basic hygiene, family 41 percent in 1998, the illiteracy rate planning, and child care.(68) Gradually, among women stood at 67 percent there are signs that the efforts of the throughout Morocco (compared to 90 LDDF and UAF were not completely in Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) 13 Michael M. Laskier vain, although pressures originating from political parties and government and Islamist and other conservative circles accept a quota policy of 10 percent for thus far have blocked reforms by the representation in Parliament.(72) government. However, an increasing However, compared to women's number of Moroccan women have felt representation within the Parliament of confident enough to voice their opinions. November 1997, when only two women Data published in 2003 by the MPs were elected, both from the USFP, Association Démocratique des Femmes the results of the 2002 elections were du Maroc (ADFM) reports that more than nothing short of revolutionary. The new 60 percent of women wanted the legal Jettou government, formed in October age of marriage for a young woman to be 2002, included one women minister and raised to 18, and an equal percentage of two deputy ministers (ministres women favored the abolition of déléguées). polygamy.(69) This was also the first time a full- It is noteworthy that the issue of fledged female minister began to serve in women's inheritance rights within her the government cabinet. She is Yasima family was never part of the Baddu, an attorney from Casablanca and government's abortive “Plan of Action”. a member of the Istiqlal who was It was much too sensitive an issue for appointed Minister of Family Affairs, a Moroccan society. Women's new cabinet post created largely to deal organizations also seemed to stir with women's and children's issues.(73) cautiously around it, preferring to engage The other two female cabinet appointees in the somewhat less controversial were Nezha Chekrouni of the USFP, a struggle toward equality in property native of Meknès and a professor of rights during divorce. Even Nouzha linguistics, entrusted with problems Skalli Benis, a feminist leader affiliated encountered by Moroccans living abroad, with the Parti du Progrès et du Socialisme and Nejma Thay Rhozali, Secretary of (PPS), formerly the Communist party, State at the Ministry of National upon addressing this point, stated: "We Education in charge of battling illiteracy. do not pose the issue of inheritance She, too, is a university professor, because there are many, many other specializing in Ethno-Semiotics.(74) things that need to be done for women L'Opinion, the Istiqlal's French- without raising an issue like that."(70) language newspaper, has attributed part The legislative elections of September of this success to women's associations, 2002 markedly improved the political which have sprung up throughout stature of women in Moroccan society, Morocco since the late 1980s, and to with 35 women MPs elected to the diverse Moroccan NGOs that preached Parliament's lower chamber of 325 on behalf of equality in civil society.(75) members, or 10.8 percent. During the The table below gives data only for first half of 2002, women's organizations women represented in the ten leading had pressed for greater representation in parties. the upcoming elections. The UAF had demanded that all state and political institutions include at least 20 percent women. The UAF also reminded the political parties that their democratization policies ought not to be confined to state- society relations and should contend with gender relations.(71) The UAF, LDDF and other women's associations had to compromise with the
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Women's Representation in the Moroccan century. In light of the Berber cultural Parliament: October 2002 awakening, some of its chief proponents insist that 60 percent of the Moroccan Political Number of % population claim Berber heritage. In Party Seats Women Women addition to the "literary" written Berber, there are three Berber dialects--Tarrifit in USFP 50 5 10 the northern Rif Mountains, Tamazight in Istiqlal 48 4 8.3 the Middle Atlas, and Tachelhit in the Al-Adala 42 4 8.3 High Atlas. Whereas it is almost National impossible to verify the veracity of the Indepen- argument, leading experts on Berber dent Rally 41 4 8.3 culture contend that Morocco's Berber Popular speakers, who are a predominantly rural Movement 27 2 7.4 inhabitants, constitute between 30 and 40 National percent of the total population.(79) Popular The oft-repeated requests directed by Movement 18 2 11.1 Berbers toward King Hasan II to Constitutional institutionalize the teaching of Berber Union 16 2 12.5 languages in the schools led to a 1994 National royal speech authorizing the necessary Democratic curricular changes. However, even before Party 12 2 16.6 King Hasan's death the promises Front of remained a dead letter, prompting Berber Democratic leaders to issue a warning that ignoring Forces 12 2 16.6 them may well divide Morocco in much Party for the same way the "language war" Socialist between French and English speakers Progress 11 2 18.2 divides Canada.(80) One privilege accorded by Hasan II (Source:
Berber towns, villages, and historic Manifesto." It called on the state to landmarks.(81) recognize Tamazight as a national Likewise, the Berber associations language, teach Tamazight in schools, resented that their youths were exposed, license a Berber television station, allot generation after generation, to the idea government funds to expedite that Morocco is part of the Arab nation development in historically neglected (umma al-arabiyya). Although Berbers areas, and end restrictions on registering were converted to Islam, their ethnic and Berber names for their children.(86) linguistic purity has remained intact. The turning point of translating Thus it would be naive to portray promises into genuine concessions and Morocco as Arab only and erase all the reforms came in the wake of a speech by historic evidence that even after the Arab Muhammad VI on July 30, 2001, when invasion in the seventh century, the he gave concrete expression for the first Almoravid, Almohad, and Merinid time to a "Royal Institute of Amazigh Berber dynasties ruled the country for Culture." By a royal decree (zahir), dated centuries.(82) Morocco, they claim, is October 17, 2001, the King gave birth to Berber, Arab and African, whether the the institute and provided it with legal regime likes it or not. In reality, it is authority and adequate financial more of a Berber society "with a resources. Its mission was to promote, by deceptive Arab veneer." The Berber every means possible, the conservation, heritage is what has made Morocco and distribution, and education of the Berber the other Maghrebi states unique and language and culture of Morocco. different from the Arabs of the Middle Besides collecting and preserving the East. Furthermore, "the Arab nationalism numerous expressions of the Amazigh that the national media advocates is the culture, the Institute's responsibilities real threat to our national unity, because would include the preparation of of the anger and resistance that it creates standardized curricular materials for the (stirs) among millions of introduction of Berber into the Moroccans."(83) schools.(87) Of the three dominant Berber linguistic groups, the Amazigh CONCLUSION movement--or the Tamazight speakers-- In an article in 2001 for Jane's emerged as the most vocal in seeking the Intelligence Digest, Stephen Ulph issued government's acknowledgement of their a perceptive pessimistic warning. For all cultural identity. In recent years, this the liberalization noises made by movement has become well organized Muhammad VI, he wrote, “the trenches within its local communities in order to dug deep in Moroccan society through denounce the marginalization of Amazigh decades-long influence of corruption on culture and language. Moroccan the one hand, and the lack of progress on newsstands and bookstores in all the the other, will require the king's major cities are now filled with new application in promoting reform to be magazines and other publications that nothing short of dynamic. Any faltering provide articles about Amazigh now, which may well be forced upon him culture.(84) by the regime's structural incapacities, The controls on political expression risks exposing Morocco to Algeria's have loosened since Muhammad VI choice--a slide into autocracy or a ascended to the throne and Berber activist military dictatorship.”(88) organizations have become better It may be that Ulph's concerns that financed.(85) In March 2000, Moroccan society is following in representatives of the Amazigh group Algeria's footsteps are premature. Yet his submitted to the government a "Berber suggestion that Muhammad VI dispense
16 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 2003) A Difficult Inheritance: Moroccan Society under King Muhammad VI with the anachronistic makhzan, which declined an invitation by the United still functions as a decision-making States and Egypt to attend the June 2003 entity, is sound advice for future Sharm al-Sheikh summit that reformist plans to completely overhaul immediately preceded the U.S.-Israeli- the political system. Palestinian meeting in Aqaba. Some Hasan II has bequeathed to claim that he begrudgingly accepted his Muhammad VI, as well as to the Yussufi father's role of chairman of the al-Quds and Jettou governments, a most Committee: a body that formulates Arab problematic inheritance. The new King is policies on Jerusalem and its holy Islamic surely walking a tightrope, with the sites. Islamists and a good portion of the Like Tunisian President Zayn al- militant Berber leadership emerging as Abidine Ben Ali and Algeria's Abd al- the most dangerous elements threatening Aziz Bouteflika, Muhammad VI tends to national coexistence and the political shun wider Arab regional politics. This order. In all fairness, despite Hasan's orientation of the current Maghrebi cruelty toward his political opponents and leaders is diametrically opposed to their the corruption that reined in Morocco predecessors, from the 1960s through the since at least 1961, the road to reforms 1980s. They are turning inward, attending was laid in the final decade of his rule. to their Maghrebi and domestic Many of the NGOs and women's rights challenges, preferring that the Arab states groups had their inception during Hasan's that are closer to the conflict bear the tenure. It is also erroneous to attribute brunt of the responsibility toward Morocco's difficult transition toward bridging Arab-Israeli differences. democracy, a global economy, and greater social equality solely to * Professor Michael M. Laskier teaches Muhammad VI. The former King realized in the Department of Middle East that the prolonged suffering of his people History, Bar-Ilan University. He has could pose a serious threat to his position written 8 books, including North African and end in chaos. The reforms, including Jewry in the 20th Century (New York those proposed but yet to be enforced, University Press, 1994), for which he and the signing of free trade agreements received the U.S. National Jewish Book with the EU (in 1996), were geared more Award; The Jews of the Middle East and toward preserving the 400-year old North Africa in Modern Times Sharifian monarchy than in affecting (Columbia University Press, 2003), with visionary changes. Reeva S. Simon and Sara Reguer; Israel It is too soon to judge if Muhammad and the Maghrebi Aliyah (Ben-Gurion VI is more of a visionary than his father. University, in press); and Israel and the Presently, at least, this seems to be the Maghreb: From Statehood to Oslo case. Muhammad VI's education is (University Press of Florida, marked by a strong orientation toward forthcoming). He is currently writing Moroccan and Maghrebi economic Political and Social Change in the interests. In 1993 he received his Maghreb: 1972-2002, and Egypt and the doctorate in law from the Université Maghreb. Nice-Sophia Antipolis in France, where he delivered a dissertation on the NOTES European Common Market and its 1. "Morocco: USAID 2000," relations with the Maghreb. But his
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38. Soudan, "Islamist Movements in 57. Democracy and Human Rights: U.S. Morocco: The Saber and the Quran." Embassy in Morocco-Themes in the 39. Al-Adala wal-Tanmiyya, Moroccan U.S.-Moroccan Relationship and Country Society and its Conduct. Report for 1998, p.15.
a Pilgrimage Center, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976). 80. Peter Prengaman, "Morocco's Berbers Battle to Keep From Losing their Culture," San Francisco Chronicle, March 16, 2001. 81. Democracy and Human Rights: U.S. Embassy in Morocco-Themes in the U.S.-Moroccan Relationship and Country Report for 1998, p.16. 82. Driss Benmhend, "The Amazigh Revival in Morocco," Wafin: Morocco in North Africa, June 1997,
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