BIO-PROSPECTING IN THE REGION Summary of eight Caribbean countries

BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the IUCN, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) or the UN Environment concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the IUCN, the GEF or the UNEnvironment.

This product has been produced with the support of United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment), and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the framework of the project Advancing the Nagoya Protocol in Countries in the Caribbean Region.

Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland in collaboration with Regional Office for , Central America and the Caribbean

Copyright: © 2018 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Authors: Sylvia Mitchell Kevel C. Lindsay Anthony Richards

Cover photo: https://pixabay.com/es/ • http://es.freeimages.com/ • http://www.freepik.es/

Available from: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Regional Office for Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean San José, Tel ++ 506 2283 8449 [email protected]

This publication is developed under the project “Advancing the Nagoya Protocol in countries of the Caribbean Region to assist the countries to create an enabling environment for the accessing of and benefiting from the use of genetic resources in the Caribbean

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Contents Page

I List of Figures 3 Ii List of Maps 3 Iii List of Photos 3 iv List of Tables 4 1.0 Executive summary 5 2.0 Introduction 6 3.0 Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda 8 4.0 13 5.0 17 6.0 , Carriacou and Petit Martinique 23 7.0 Jamaica 28 8.0 St. Kitts and Nevis 33 9.0 St. Lucia 44 10.0 and 50 11.0 Summary 56

12.0 References 57

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES List of Figures

Figure 1 The Global Campaign to save the rare Lesser Antillean endemic Protium 49 attenuatum

List of Maps

Map 1 Biogeographic map of the West Indies 6 Map 2 1700 map showing both St Kitts and Nevis, and the extent of farms and property 40 ownership on both islands

List of Photos

Photo 1 The endemic Antigua Broad-winged Hawk 9 Photo 2 Fossil specimen of the endemic snail, Bulimulus hummelincki, 11 from Barbuda Photo 3 The ( barbadensis) 14 Photo 4 Turner’s Hall Woods, northern Barbados 16 Photo 5 The Golden Rocket (Anomaloglossus beebei), an endemic restricted to the 19 Kaieteur Falls area of Guyana Photo 6 Kaieteur Falls, November 2016 22 Photo 7 Typical upland landscape of Petit Martinique, dominated by the introduced highly 24 invasive shrub, Purple Allamanda (Cryptostegia madagascariensis) Photo 8 Southern end of Grand Etang crater lake and surrounding forested peaks 27 Photo 9 An unknown of Siparuna sp., a tree observed by Island Resources Foundation 28 team, including Kevel Lindsay, in 2011 Photo 10 Nevis Peak, hidden below the clouds, as seen from the western shores. 41 Photo 11 Specimen of the St. Lucia Giant Rice Rat (Megalomys luciae), London Natural History 48 Museum.

List of Tables

Table 1 Summary of the flora and of Antigua 8 Table 2 Terrestrial fauna endemic to Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda 10 Table 3 Summary of the flora and 13 Table 4 Barbados endemic terrestrial fauna 15 Table 5 Summary of the flora and fauna of Guyana 18 Table 6 Terrestrial fauna endemic to Guyana 20 Table 7 Summary of the flora and fauna of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique 25 Table 8 Terrestrial fauna endemic to Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique 26 Table 9 Species richness and endemism in plants of Jamaica 30 Table 10 Forestry Inventory assessment of Jamaica 31 Table 11 Marine biodiversity summary of Jamaica 33 Table 12 St Kitts and Nevis Land Use 35 Table 13 Summary of the flora and fauna of St. Kitts and Nevis 35 Table 14 Terrestrial fauna endemic to St. Kitts and Nevis 36 Table 15 Regional and local endemic plants of St Kitts and Nevis 43 Table 16 Summary of the benthic community of St. Kitts and Nevis 44 Table 17 Summary of the flora and fauna of St. Lucia 45 Table 18 Terrestrial endemic flora of St. Lucia 46 Table 19 Summary of the flora and fauna of 52 Table 20 Terrestrial endemic flora and fauna of Trinidad and Tobago 53 Table 21 Endemic plant species of Trinidad and Tobago 56

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1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In June 2016, the consultancy team of Anthony Richards, Sylvia Mitchell and Kevel Lindsay were contracted by IUCN to Advancing the Nagoya Protocol in Countries of the Caribbean Region – Access and Benefits Sharing – Bioprospecting in the Caribbean Region. This report is part of the key outputs from this initiative, and forms part of the IUCN’s efforts to support countries of the Caribbean to facilitate access to their genetic resources and benefit sharing in a fair and equitable way, in line with the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Nagoya Protocol (NP). More specifically, the effort seeks the uptake of the Nagoya Protocol and implementation of key measures to make the protocol operational in Caribbean countries. The project aims to overcome barriers linked to limited understanding of the NP and access and benefits sharing (ABS), and of the implications of protocol ratification and requirements for implementation, so that countries can make progress in ABS and take an informed decision regarding its ratification.

The Caribbean islands are of critical importance for global biodiversity conservation as large percentages of each species group are endemic to the region and often to particular islands and levels of endemism are very high in the region: thus, 50 per cent of the plant life of the Caribbean is unique to the region (UNEP, 2010). These high valued genetic resources in the Caribbean are under threat due to land degradation, climate change, pollution from nutrients, unsustainable uses, and invasive alien species. The NP offers the opportunity to make the best possible use of these genetic resources, generate and share benefits derived from their utilization, and return some of the revenue generated from these activities to the protection of the resources and the development of the countries where they were sourced.

This IUCN project consists of five components aimed at building knowledge between countries of shared assets, generating technical information that can later be used to build cohesive policies at the national level and collaboratively at the regional level, assisting countries to take steps and decisions conducive to ratification of the NP assisting countries in developing the tools and guidelines required to implement the basic measures of the NP and bringing together the participating countries to allow for the maximum level of exchange and networking.

This report is part of the team’s effort to bring focus on the extent of research and knowledge on the biodiversity of the Caribbean region, and for regional governments, institutions and people to understand where gaps are in our understanding and knowledge of our own biodiversity, and how this is being researched, gathered, archived, published, shared, commercialized, used, and accessed. This project team decided that this report was needed, and should add value to other outputs as contracted under this consultancy.

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2.0 INTRODUCTION

The biodiversity of the eight Caribbean countries outlined in this report, is varied, geographically disparate, biogeographically divergent and very different from location to location. But the one commonality, overall, is that many of the species and their are threatened in one way or another.

Map 1. Biogeographic or faunal Region of the West Indies. Source: Raffaele et al, 2003.

Biogeographically, islands of the Bahamian Archipelago (including the Turks and Caicos), Greater Antilles, and the south to Grenada, form the West Indies biogeographic region, as distinct from the wider Caribbean Basin, which includes the Caribbean watershed areas of Central America to . The West Indies Biogeographic Region is broadly defined as oceanic islands from the Bahamas in the north, to Grenada and Barbados in the south, all of which share geological and ecological commonalities, and whose origins are wholly oceanic. Map 1 shows the West Indies Biogeographic/Faunal Region, as defined by ornithologist James Bond, who wrote the original ‘ of the West Indies’, first editions published in the 1930s, and here excerpted from Birds of the West Indies by Raffaele et al, 2003.

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Countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, and Guyana, included in this report, are South American in geological origin, with Trinidad and Tobago being islands on their own. However, their geologies and biological frameworks are largely South American.

The report does not provide a detailed overview of the total number or all of the species of each of these eight countries, but provides a summary of what is known, and highlights some of the many gaps in our understanding and knowledge. Larger islands, with larger populations, such as Jamaica and Guyana, have greater biodiversity, are further along in their research and documentation of their biodiversity, natural resources and solutions to the many challenges, while smaller islands such as Antigua, are further behind, even though many of the species have much smaller total areas of distributions, and are therefore, far more threatened. However, even on the larger islands, the number of scientists working on distribution and number of specific local biodiversity, especially the endemic and threatened species, is too low to make the impact that is needed.

The summary overviews provided for each country in this report are by no means complete, but reflect information that was readily available and accessible. Some groups or categories are not well defined for the region, for example, marine hydrothermal or seeps communities, including methane and other forms of gaseous seeps, or hydrocarbon seeps such as those on Barbados. This then makes it difficult to describe and delineate the characteristics, species, biological factors and other critical parameters. Some other groups such as invertebrates are understudied, while cultural and social constructs, and therefore, information, around many of these systems and species are not well documented and understood. Nevertheless, this consultancy team attempted to pull together as much information on the countries’ biodiversity as time and resources allowed, and future work should be able to expand and build on this effort.

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3.0 ANTIGUA, BARBUDA AND REDONDA

Geography and Location

Antigua forms part of the independent tripartite state of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, and located in the northeastern part of the Lesser Antilles, which is the Leeward Islands, in the Caribbean, some 525 km (326 miles) southeast of the American territory of Puerto Rico. Antigua covers about 280 km2 (108 miles2), Barbuda about 161 km2 (62 miles2), and Redonda about 2.6 km2 (1 mile2). The highest point of Antigua is Mount Obama (formerly Boggy Peak), in the south of the island at 402 m (1,319 ft.), and for Barbuda, 38 m (125 ft.), while Redonda reaches 296 m (971 ft.). According to the 2011 census figures, Antigua has a population of 80,161 persons, Barbuda 1,638, and Redonda is unoccupied.

Biodiversity Summary

Table 1 provides a summary of the marine and terrestrial biodiversity of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.

Table 1. Summary of the flora and fauna of Antigua. Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~1,000 Fungi Unknown Lichens Unknown Algae Unknown Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown and ~24 Birds ~200 Freshwater Fish ~30 (Lindsay pers. Comm., 2017) Marine Fish* ~498 ~14 (excluding cattle, domestic pigs, Terrestrial donkeys, goats, horses, and sheep) Marine Mammals Unreported Terrestrial Invertebrates Unknown Marine invertebrates Unknown/unreported Corals Unreported *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

Terrestrial biodiversity of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda

The landscapes and land-use of the three main islands of the nation of , are markedly different from each other. Antigua is a mix of volcanic,

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES sedimentary and ash deposits, and limestone uplifts. The island is moderately hilly, with heavily eroded and long extinct volcanic peaks dominating its southwestern third.

Barbuda is a relatively flat limestone island, with numerous caves, caverns, solution holes and dominating. Redonda is a steep volcanic cone; few trees present on its stark grey surface. Up until the 1970s, the cultivation of dominated Antigua.

By the late 1970s, tourism had taken over as the most dominant economic activity, and this remains today.

Photo 1. The endemic Antigua Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus insulicola).

Barbuda’s landscape is dominated by thick woodlands, , mangroves, marshes and wetlands, with little crop agriculture. Residents persist on fishing, limited tourism, subsistence farming and the hunting of wild game, including Fallow Deer (Dama dama), imported to the island in the 1600s, wild boar (Sus scrofa), and (Numida meleagris). Free-roaming sheep, goats and cattle are also hunted. The island has never been a center of large-scale crop production, unlike many of the islands of the Caribbean, though it did produce cotton and peanuts, which it exported to Antigua, and cattle, sheep and goats, sold on Antigua and other islands in the region..

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Table 2 Terrestrial fauna endemic to Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.

Species/Taxonomic Common Status Group Name/Type

BIRDS

Setophaga subita Barbuda Warbler IUCN: Near Threatened Buteo platypterus insulicola Antigua Broad-winged endemic to Antigua. [photo 1] Hawk Stable?

INVERTEBRATES

Bulimulus hummelincki [photo 2] Snail Believed recently extinct Atteva intermedia Ermine moth Unknown Belonuchus antiguae Rove Unknown Catonia antiguana Planthopper Unknown Oonops aristelus Goblin spider Unknown Scaphioides halatus Goblin spider Unknown Stygnoplus antiguanus Harvestman Unknown Neoallochernes minor Pseudoscorpion Unknown

MAMMALS

Megalomys audreyae Barbuda Musk Rat Extinct circa 1600 Not yet formally named. Extinct "Ekbletomys hypenemus" Antigua Rice Rat circa 1500

REPTILES

Antiguan Racer Alsophis antiguae Some authors consider this a Anolis forresti Barbuda Anole subspecies of A. wattsi Anolis leachii Antiguan Anole Stable Anolis nubilus Redonda Anole Anolis wattsi Antigua Bush Anole Stable Copeoglossum redondae Redonda Extinct? Redonda Ground Pholidoscelis atratus IUCN: Critically Endangered Pholidoscelis griswoldi Antiguan Ground Lizard IUCN: Near Threatened elegantulus Antiguan Dwarf Stable Sphaerodactylus sp. Redonda Dwarf Gecko Yet to be named

Sources include: http://lntreasures.com/index.html; http://www.caribherp.org/; http://www.iucnredlist.org/

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Photo 2. Fossil specimen of the endemic snail, Bulimulus hummelincki, from Barbuda. Source: http://www.femorale.com/

Nevertheless, the unique combination of landscape and subsistence has created a very unique culture and world view, and includes the production of smoked wild meats for local consumption, and the maintenance of the island for the hunting of wild game. Despite the fact that Barbuda retains much of its original forests, it, as well as Antigua and Redonda, have lost considerable numbers of native species, including rodents, birds, reptiles and birds.

Table 2 provides a summary of the endemic species of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda. It does not include all species that have been lost.

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Plant biodiversity of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda

The island was never cleared, so much of the original vegetation remains relatively intact, though this has been highly degraded due the presence of free-roaming and feral livestock Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda have at least 1,000 species of native, introduced and naturalised plants.

Endemic

There are two species believed to be endemic to Antigua and Barbuda. These are the low scrambling herb, Pectis ericifolia from Barbuda, and the tree, Coccoloba boxii from Antigua (this species may be present on St. Barts). The status of these two plants are not yet known.

Indigenous

The total number of native plants is yet to be determine, but preliminary calculations suggest that this number is at least 800.

Introduced

The number of introduced plant species is unknown, but preliminary work suggests the number to be at least 200.

Marine biodiversity of Antigua and Barbuda

The total number of marine flora remains unknown, though Taylor (1962) reports 28 species of algae for all three islands.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES 4.0 BARBADOS

Geography and Location

Barbados is the most easterly of the islands of the Eastern Caribbean, located at 13.1939° N and 59.5432° W, or about 168 km (104 miles) east of The Grenadines. The island covers about 439 km2 (169 miles2). Its highest elevation is at about 343 m (1,115 ft.), located in the parish of St. Andrew, in the northern part of the country. The population of Barbados is about 292,336 according to the World Fact Book.

Biodiversity Summary

Table 3 provides a summary of the marine and terrestrial biodiversity of Barbados.

Table 3 Summary of the flora and fauna of Barbados

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~732 Fungi† ~545 (macro) Lichens‡ ~60 Algae+ ~308 (benthic) Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown Amphibians and Reptiles ~17 Birds ~262 Freshwater Fish* ~11 Marine Fish* ~530 Terrestrial Mammals** ~10 Marine Mammals ~28 Terrestrial Invertebrates Not available (N/A) Marine invertebrates Not available (N/A) Corals Not available (N/A) † http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/bio_courses/fungi/index.htm ‡ http://www.lichens.uni-hamburg.de/lichens/portalpages/index_index.htm Wynne et al, 2014 *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

Terrestrial biodiversity of Barbados

The landscape of Barbados, is today dominated by extensive areas of sugar cane cultivation and urban environments. Very few native habitats remain. However, there are small patches of secondary forests and woodlands scattered throughout the island, and there are also numerous formal gardens, arboreta and botanic gardens, many of which are open to the public and charge an entrance fee.

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Photo 3 The Barbados Bullfinch (Loxigilla barbadensis)

Despite its loss of native forests and woodlands, Barbados still has extant populations of native plants and . There at least two endemic plants, one endemic , the Barbados Bullfinch (Loxigilla barbadensis), (photo 3); at least 11 terrestrial invertebrates, one , a rodent, which is now likely extinct, and four reptiles. Table 4 provides a list of the fauna endemic to Barbados.

Turner’s Hall Woods and Mount Hillaby

There are a number of small areas of secondary forests and woodlands, mainly on the northern end of the island, and along the eastern coast, which are important for the maintenance and conservation of the island’s native biodiversity. Two such areas include Turner Hall Woods, and the on Mount Hillaby, which is the only known location for the Caribbean Tree Fern (Cyathea arborea). Photo 4 shows a trail through Tuner’s Hall Woods in February 2017. These woods harbour some the island’s most important native plants, including several West Indian endemic species.

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Table 4. Barbados endemic terrestrial fauna.

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status BIRDS

Loxigilla barbadensis Barbados Bullfinch Stable INVERTEBRATES

Plectromerus louisantoini Long-horned beetle Unknown Lagocheirus unicolor Long-horned beetle Unknown Chrysobothris antillarum Jewel beetle Unknown Phyllophaga (or Phytalus) smithi Brown Hard-back Beetle Unknown Cyrtopholis annectans Tarantula Unknown Epiperipatus barbadensis Velvet worm Unknown Epulotheres angelae Pinnotherid crab Unknown Synalpheus microneptunus Eusocial snapping shrimp Unknown Atya brachyrhinus Freshwater shrimp Unknown Pleurodonte isabella Land snail Unknown Brachypodella costata Land snail Unknown MAMMALS

Megalomys georginae Giant musk rat Extinct? REPTILES

Tetracheilostoma carlae Barbados Threadsnake Critically Endangered (IUCN) Anolis extremus Barbados Anole Stable Erythrolamprus perfuscus Barbados Racer Extinct? Alinea lanceolata Barbados Skink Critically Endangered (IUCN) Phyllodactylus pulcher Barbados Leaf-toed Gecko Critically Endangered (IUCN)

Plant biodiversity of Barbados

Endemic

There are two species of plants believed to be endemic to Barbados, including the vine Metastelma barbadense, and the small shrub, Phyllanthus andersonii.

Indigenous

Barbados has about 430 native plants.

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Introduced

About 300 of the plants, or about or 41%, are introduced, including many cultivated species.

Marine biodiversity of Barbados

Comprehensive information on marine biodiversity of Barbados was not readily accessible at the time of writing this report.

Photo 4. Turner’s Hall Woods, northern Barbados.

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5.0 GUYANA

Geography and Location

The Republic of Guyana is located in northeastern , wedged between the countries of Venezuela to the west and Surinam to the east. To its south is . It covers about 214,969 km² (83,000 miles2). Its highest elevation is 2,835 m (9,301 ft.), Mount Roraima, located in the southeastern part of the country on the border with Brazil. The population of Guyana is about 735,909 according to the World Fact Book.

Biodiversity Summary

Guyana is part of the Amazon region and is endowed with a rich biodiversity. The national territory of approximately 216,000 sq. km consists of four major ecosystems: forest ecosystems, marine/coastal ecosystems, inland aquatic ecosystems, and agro- ecosystems. Each of these macro-ecosystems can be further sub-divided into a diverse range of sub-ecosystems. High levels of biodiversity in Guyana are due to the following factors: being on the edge of the Amazon, overlying the geologically old Guiana Shield, position on the Atlantic Coast, and its low population pressure with low conversion of natural habitats. Guyana’s biodiversity has a high level of endemism which also contributes to the uniqueness of its genetic resources.

Terrestrial biodiversity of Guyana

Table 5 provides a summary of the biodiversity of the country of Guyana. Biogeographically, Guyana is part of the continental landmass of South America, and the flora, fauna, ecology and landscapes are similar to those of nearby countries in the region, including Brazil, , Surinam and Venezuela.

Despite its contiguous connection across South America, there are several species of animals and plants endemic to the country. Table 6 provides a summary of these species.

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Table 5. Summary of the flora and fauna of Guyana.

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~8,000 Fungi† >1,200 Lichens >103 Algae 44 Bacteria 33 Viruses 30 Amphibians and Reptiles ~324 Birds ~814 Freshwater Fish* ~507 Marine Fish* ~524 (there are an additional 72 pelagics) Terrestrial Mammals** ~225 Marine Mammals ~11 Terrestrial Invertebrates >1,703 Marine invertebrates Unknown Corals Unknown †https://news.mongabay.com/2008/07/600-species-of-mushrooms-discovered-in-guyana/ *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org **Checklist of Mammals of Guyana: http://botany.si.edu/bdg/guymammals.html

The Guyana Highlands, Tepuis, Kaieteur Falls and Iwokrama

Tepuis, or “home of the gods”, are tabletop mountains found in the northern border of the Amazon Basin and the Orinoco River. These ancient, eroded sandstone plateaus are some of the oldest rocks on earth―they are estimated to be about 180 million years old and number some 115 separate mountains scattered across the regions of southwestern Guyana, eastern Venezuela and northern Brazil in a geologic region referred to as the Guyana Shield, biogeographically part of the Guyana Highlands. About 50% of the plants of the Shield are believed to be endemic.

The world-famous Kaieteur Falls, the highest free-falling waterfall by volume, originates in the western part of Guyana, in the region of the Pacaraima Mountains, the region of the Tepuis. This vast area of forest is rich in biodiversity, minerals, and forests. The tepuis also possess some of the most unique biodiversity in the world, many species confined to a single mountain top. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and other international conservation agencies have identified western and southern Guyana as the regions of biological significance, with the Guyana Highlands as some of the richest natural areas of the country. However, despite the grandeur of Kaieteur and the Pacaraima Mountains, much of the biodiversity and landscapes remain unknown and unexplored. Efforts continue to document and protect the biodiversity of this region. Note that this region is contested by both Venezuela and Brazil.

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Photo 5. The Golden Rocket Frog (Anomaloglossus beebei), an endemic restricted to the Kaieteur Falls area of Guyana. Photo courtesy Paul Matthew Diamond, November 2016.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 6. Terrestrial fauna endemic to Guyana.

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status

AMPHIBIANS

Groete Creek Carrying Frog Stable Stefania evansi Osteocephalus phasmatus Treefrog Unknown Tepuihyla talbergae Treefrog Unknown Dendropsophus warreni Warren's Treefrog Unknown Adenomera lutzi Lutz's Tropical Bullfrog Unknown Anomaloglossus beebei Golden Rocket Frog Vulnerable [photo 5] Anomaloglossus kaiei Rocket Frog Stable Pristimantis jester Frog Stable Allobates amissibilis Frog Unknown Kamana Falls Emerald- Kamana is in the same Ceuthomantis smaragdinus barred Frog region as Kaieteur Oreophrynella seegobini Seegobin's Tepui Toad Unknown Adelophryne patamona Frog Unknown Caecilita iwokramae Caecilian Unknown

FRESHWATER FISH Species New to Science Mazarunia sp. Cichlid

Derhamia sp. Pencilfish Species New to Science Acanthocharax sp. Characin Species New to Science Skiotocharax sp. South American Darter Species New to Science Akawaio sp. Bluntnose Knifefish Species New to Science Corymbophanes sp. Armored Catfish Species New to Science Paulasquama sp. Armored Catfish Species New to Science Hemigrammus erythrozonus Glowlight Tetra Unknown Nannacara bimaculata Potaro River Dwarf Cichlid Unknown Nannostomus minimus Least Pencilfish Unknown Laimosemion torrenticola Killifish Unknown Trachelyichthys decaradiatus Catfish Unknown Corydoras potaroensis Catfish Unknown Bunocephalus chamaizelus Catfish Unknown Denticetopsis iwokrama Catfish Unknown Sturisoma monopelte Catfish Unknown Centromochlus reticulatus Catfish Stable

INVERTEBRATES

Acantheremus tenuis Grasshopper Unknown Cnemidophyllum granti Katydid Unknown Hydrodessus phyllisae Predacious Water Beetle Unknown

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Table 6 Continued

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status INVERTEBRATES cont’d

Lachnomyrmex platynodus Ant Unknown Ephebopus foliatus Tarantula Unknown Scopocira carinata Jumping Spider Unknown Sparianthina rufescens Huntsman Spider Unknown Theraphosa stirmi Tarantula Unknown Scaphiella kartabo Goblin Spider Unknown Microthelphusa meansi Freshwater Crab Unknown REPTILES

Amphisbaena stejnegeri Stejneger's Worm Lizard Unknown Arthrosaura guianensis Lizard Stable Arthrosaura hoogmoedi Lizard Stable Dipsas pakaraima Snail-Eating Stable Echinosaura sulcarostrum Spectacled Lizard IUCN: Endangered Gonatodes timidus Gecko Stable Kaieteurosaurus hindsi Gecko Unknown Pantepuisaurus rodriguesi Gecko Stable Plica kathleenae Kathleen's Treerunner Lizard Unknown

Plant biodiversity of Guyana

Endemic

The vascular plant species so far identified as being unique to Guyana include the following: • Aechmea brassicoides A bromeliad • Carapa akuri A tree • Dicymbe altsonii A tree • Dicymbe jenmanii A tree • Vouacapoua macropetala A tree • Marlierea buxifolia A tree • Eschweilera fanshawei A tree • Pouteria kaieteurensis A tree • Licania microphylla A tree • Anetanthus disjuncta A tree

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Photo 6 Kaieteur Falls, November 2016. Photo courtesy, Paul Matthew Diamond

Of the 10 species of plants, Eschweilera fanshawei and Pouteria kaieteurensis are considered Vulnerable under the IUCN Red List. The remainder are data deficient. The endemic plant genera include Lampadaria, Thysanostemon, Maguireanthus, Ochthephilus, Tryssophyton, Whittonia, Potarophytum, Windsorina, Pteridocalyx, and Maburea.

Indigenous

Of the estimated 8,000 species of plants found in Guyana, about 7,760 are considered native.

Introduced

There are about 240 species of plants introduced and naturalised to Guyana.

Marine biodiversity of Guyana

The marine flora of Guyana is not yet completely known, and a list of species is not available.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES 8.0 GRENADA, CARRIACOU AND PETIT MARTINIQUE

Geography and Location

Grenada is southernmost of the Lesser Antillean chain of islands in the Eastern Caribbean. It is approximately 166 km (103 miles) northwest of Trinidad and Tobago. It covers an area of about 348.5 km2 (134.6 miles2). The highest elevation is Mount St. Catherine in the central northern mountain range, at 840 m (2,760 ft). The population is about 109,100 (2012).

A number of smaller islands fall within Grenada’s jurisdiction, and the two largest are Carriacou and Petit Martinique. Carriacou is about 34 km2, and lies about 47.3 km off the northern coast. It has a population of 7,200. The highest point on the island is Point North Peak at 291 m (956 ft). Petit Martinique is about 2.4 km2 (0.9 miles2) in area, and sits about 8.4 km northeast of Carriacou. Its highest point is the Piton at about 183.5 m (602 ft.), and has a population of 950 persons.

Photo 7 Typical upland landscape of Petit Martinique, dominated by the introduced highly invasive shrub, Purple Allamanda (Cryptostegia madagascariensis), immediate right. Most of the shrubs in this photo consist of this species

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Biodiversity Summary

Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique are part of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. They are members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). The OECS came into being on June 18th, 1981. It is an International Organization dedicated to economic harmonization and integration as outlined in the Treaty of Basseterre and has 10 Eastern Caribbean Countries members: , Grenada, , St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, British Virgin Islands, Anguilla and Martinique (https://www.oecs.org). There are significant gaps in the knowledge of Grenada’s terrestrial and marine biodiversity, including the fungi, bacteria, viruses and its marine invertebrates and coral.

Terrestrial biodiversity of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique

Table 7 provides a summary of the biodiversity of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique. Table 8 provides a summary the species of terrestrial fauna endemic to Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique.

Table 7 Summary of the flora and fauna of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique.

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~815 Fungi Unknown Lichens ~86 Algae Unknown Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown Amphibians and Reptiles ~28 Birds ~180 Freshwater Fish* ~16 Marine Fish* ~497 Terrestrial Mammals ~24 Marine Mammals ~18 Marine invertebrates Unknown Corals Unknown *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

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Table 8. Terrestrial fauna endemic to Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique.

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status

AMPHIBIANS

Pristimantis euphronides Grenada Frog IUCN: Endangered

BIRDS

Chondrohierax uncinatus Endemic subspecies; Grenada Hooked-Bill Kite mirus Endangered wellsi Grenada Dove IUCN: Critically Endangered

INVERTEBRATES

Antaeotricha suffumigata Stenomid moth Unknown Argia telesfordi Damselfly Unknown Bulimulus wiebesi Land snail Unknown Canthon perseverans Tumblebug Unknown Epiperipatus barbouri Velvet worm Unknown Farrodes grenadae Caddisfly Unknown Gonethina grenadensis Centipede Unknown Habralictus insularis Sweat bee Unknown Helicina keatei Land snail Unknown Miotropis histrionica Chalcidoid wasp Unknown Monotalla obrienorum Flea beetle Unknown Passalus antillarum Bess beetle Unknown Simonoonops etang Goblin spider Unknown Strategus tarquinius Ox beetle Unknown

Grand Etang to Mount St. Catherine

The central ridge of mountains that harbour the natural volcanic lake of Grand Etang (photo 8), is estimated to be about 7 m (21 ft.) deep, covering 14.6 hectares (36 acres), and the high peak of Mount St. Catherine, the highest point on Grenada at 840 m (2,760 ft.). The habitats along this ridge range from seasonal forests and woodlands, to cloud forests and alpine glades. This area has the highest species diversity in Grenada and its sister islands, as well as the most diverse vegetation communities, including orchids and ferns, as well as native fauna. Many of the island’s birds, mammals, and freshwater fauna are found within this region.

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Plant biodiversity of Grenada, Carriacou and Petit Martinique

Endemic

There are four species of vascular plants endemic to Grenada, and these include the trees Maytenus grenadensis, Charianthus grenadensis, Rhytidophyllum caribaeum, and a tree fern Cyathea elliottii.

Photo 8. Southern end of Grand Etang crater lake and surrounding forested peaks.

Indigenous

There are at least 665 species of plants native to Grenada. However, a brief survey in 2011 by an Island Resources Foundation (IRF) team found evidence that there are a number of plants that have not yet been described nor formally recorded from the island, including a Siparuna sp. (photo 9), and a Vismia sp. While on Petit Martinique, an unknown shrub, which if native, is extremely rare, being restricted to a few square metres of the highest point of that island.

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Introduced

At least 150 species of plants are introduced and naturalised on Grenada and its sister islands.

Marine biodiversity of Grenada

The species of marine flora of Grenada or around any of its offshore islands are not yet well known, though Taylor (1962) listed 35 marine algae for the island.

Photo 9. An unknown species of Siparuna sp., a tree observed by Island Resources Foundation team, including Kevel Lindsay, in 2011.

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7.0 JAMAICA

Geography and Location

Jamaica, at 10,911 km2, is the third largest by area and the largest English speaking island in the Caribbean Sea. Jamaica is 145 km south of , 160 km west of Haiti and 710 km north of Cartagena, . Kingston, the capital of Jamaica, is located at latitude of 18o N and longitude 78o W. The island measures 230 km from east to west and varies in width between 35 and 82 km from north to south. A mountain range runs through the interior from east to west, with the highest point reaching 2,256 m at Blue Mountain Peak. Over half the country is above 305 m with narrow coastal plains surrounding the mountain range comprising 20% of the land area. Jamaica experiences a maritime tropical climate with a hurricane season from June through November and two rainy seasons in May and October/November. Average temperatures are 28o C at sea level and 15oC at 2000 m.

The current population of Jamaica is 2,810,691 (2016 estimate), with approximately 54% living in urban areas; half of these urban dwellers are concentrated in the capital, Kingston. The Kingston Metropolitan Area overlaps three parishes (Kingston, Saint Andrew and Saint Catherine), with a population of 700,000 and a population density of approximately 1,528 persons per km2. The population density of the country is 256 persons per km2.

Biodiversity Summary

Terrestrial biodiversity of Jamaica

Jamaica has a high plant biodiversity (2,888 plant species of which 784 are endemic) (Adams 1972). This biodiversity is a rich mixture of endemics [found only in Jamaica], indigenous [originally from Jamaica but can now be found elsewhere], native [imported by Tainos] and introduced [imported by Europeans, Africans, Asians and Chinese]. Jamaica's varied topography, geology and hydrology supports a diverse range of ecosystems. Jamaica has a wealth of flora and fauna with a high proportion of endemic species of flora, ranking it fifth among the world's islands. Such a high level of endemism represents an important gene pool, with significant potential medicinal, horticultural and genetic value, much of which has yet to be explored.

However, the Flora of Jamaica (Adams 1972) has no pictures and there is not comprehensive knowledge of its flora or fauna. Urbanization and agriculture are constant threats to this yet to be fully explored asset.

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Table 9. Species richness and endemism in plants of Jamaica.

Terrestrial flora Total number of Total number of % endemic species indigenous species endemic species Bromeliads 60 22 36.7 Orchids 200 60 26.0 Ferns 579 67 11.5 Cacti 20 10 50.0 Palms 10 7 70.0 Grasses ~200 1 0.5 Source: Institute of Jamaica , 2000

A Government of Jamaica report in 2004 estimated that the island had 30% forest coverage, but most of this is secondary disturbed forest. Two centres of endemic genetic diversity (hot spots) have been identified in Jamaica.

Cockpit Country

A significant proportion of the island's tropical limestone forests are to be found in the Cockpit Country, a range of karst terrain (-box shaped hills and valleys with many caves, formed as limestone was dissolved by rain and ground water),located on the western part of the island. In the north is found secondary forest-cover in the Dry Harbour Mountains.

The Cockpit Country covers 430 km2 of evergreen seasonal forest, and is particularly noted for its high level of endemism with over one hundred species of endemic plants identified to date. The Cockpit Country is a rugged, inaccessible area of inland Jamaica and is home to the Leeward Maroons of Jamaica. The wet limestone forest of the Cockpit Country is Jamaica’s largest remaining primary forest.

Blue and John Crow Mountains

The second centre of endemic biodiversity is the Blue and John Crow Mountain, 20% of Jamaica’s land mass, was established as a National Park in 1991 and declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1356). It is home to the Windward Maroons of Jamaica. The flora in this National Park consists of more than 600 species of flowering plants of which 87 are endemic to the Park. Nearly 275 endemic Jamaican species are found in the area (Bifani 2001).

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The Blue and John Crow Mountains encompasses a rugged and extensively forested mountainous region in the south-east of Jamaica, which provided refuge first for the indigenous Tainos fleeing slavery and then the Maroons (escaped enslaved Africans). The Tainos and especially the Maroons resisted the European colonial system in this isolated region by establishing a network of trails, hiding places and settlements, which form the Nanny Town Heritage Route. The forests offered the Maroons everything they needed for their survival. They developed strong spiritual connections with the mountains, still manifest through the intangible cultural legacy of, for example, religious rites, traditional medicine and dances. The site is also a biodiversity hotspot for the Caribbean Islands with a high proportion of endemic plant species, especially lichens, mosses and certain flowering plants (http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1311/).

Table 10 Forestry Inventory assessment of Jamaica

Land use Hectares % of total ‘000s land areas Natural forest (Primary Forest) 88.2 8.0% Other Forest 247.7 22.6% Total Forest 335.9 30.6% Mixture of forest and other cultivation 332.9 30.4% Source: National Forest Management and Conservation Plan, March 2001

Plant biodiversity of Jamaica

Endemic

An estimated 28% of the flowering plants of Jamaica (800 of 3,000), 36% of the bromeliads, 12% of the ferns, 50% of the cacti, and 70% of the palms are endemic to Jamaica. An estimated 13% of known medicinal plants of Jamaica are also endemic (Mitchell and Ahmad 2006). Except for a listing in Adams (1972), not much more is known about these endemics. It is uncertain whether these plant species are still endemic or can now be found in different countries, or if they have been destroyed forever. Since Adams (1972), there has been no update on the endemism of these 800- odd flowering plants. Unfortunately, The most compreghensive Flora of Jamaica (Adams 1972) has no pictures and there is still no comprehensive picture book of Jamaica’s flora or fauna. A botanical reference of root tonic plants identifies several plant not yet known to science (Mitchell 2011). Endemic plants with potential for food and agriculture include the endemic mountain guava (Psidium montanum) and the endemic root tonic plant, chainy root (Smilax balbisiana) (McGlashan et al 2008).

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Indigenous

Plants cultivated or used by the Tainos (who arrived ~600 AD) include cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), corn (Zea mays), dasheen (Calocasia esculenta), coco (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), bean (Phaselous vulgaris), pumpkin (Curcubita moschata), squashes (Cuurbita maxima), peanut (Arachis hypogaea), arrowroot (Maranta arundinaceae), hot pepper (Capsicum chinense), tobacco (Nicotiana tobacum) and fruits including pineapple (Ananas comosus) while they fished and hunted small animals such as the iguana, coney and agouti according to historical records (https://www.my-island-jamaica.com/what-did-the-tainos-contribute- to-jamaica.html; https://tainosmuseum.org/taino/daily.life). There are many indigenous fruit trees, non-food biodiversity and medicinal plants such as sarsaparilla that may also have come with the Tainos. These “indigenous” species may have either been introduced well before Columbus’ arrival or are native or endemic group. Listing of these plants is given in McGlashan et al (2008).

Introduced

The Spaniard settlers who followed Columbus arrival in 1494 introduced a variety of crops, establishing plantations of exotic crops such as citrus (Citrus spp.), banana (Musa acuminata), sugar cane (Saccharum cvs), cocoa (Theobroma cacoa), and ginger (Zingiber officinale). The British, who arrived in 1655, introduced other plants bringing a large array of plants from Kew Gardens into Hope Botanical Gardens, Bath Gardens and Cincona Gardens. Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) was brought in by the British for river training. For a listing of these plants, see McGlashan et al (2008). Ackee (Blighia sapida) and yam (Dioscorea spp.) were most likely introduced by Africans, and neem (Azadirachta indica) was probably introduced by the East Indians. More recently, introduced biodiversity include sweet potato varieties, fruit trees such as cocona (Solanum sessiliflorum) and a range of ornamentals (McGlashan et al 2008).

Marine biodiversity of Jamaica

The marine ecosystem of Jamaica is highly diverse and covers over 150,000 square kilometres of shallow, shelf and shore waters. Estimates of marine species identified in Jamaican waters as determined by Warner and Goodbody (2005) are given in Table 11. These species are spread across a variety of habitats which include coral reefs, beds, sandy habitats and mangrove lagoons.

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Table 11. Marine biodiversity summary of Jamaica.

Taxon Number of Species Taxon Number of Species Phytoplankton 374 Mollusca 825 Macroalgae 386 Bryozoa 64 Porifera 194 Chaetognatha 10 Cnidaria 204 Echinodermata 88 Ctenophora 6 Hermichordata 2 Nematoda 81 Chordata 75 Annelida 100 Cephalochordata 1 Crustacea 455 Vertebrata 637 Source: George R. Warner and Ivan Goodbody, “Jamaica” In Caribbean Marine Diversity: The known and the Unknown (Lancaster: DEStech Publications, 2005), 57-70.

In Jamaican waters, there are 65 known species of corals and 38 species of gorgonians (Cnidarias). The average coral cover was approximately between 18.1 % and 32.2 % for macro-algae. Sea grasses are found in shallow coastal waters around Jamaica. They provide important feeding areas for endangered marine turtles and mantees; as well as nursery areas for important commercial fish. Macroalgae, commonly called “sea weeds” are also important to many Jamaicans as traditional/folk medicine. Examples include Caulerpa racemsa, Dictyophaeria cavernosa, Microdictylon sp, Polycavermosa debilis and Udotea sp.

The Invasive Lionfish has proven to be a threat to Jamaica’s marine biodiversity and fishing industry. This problem has however been controlled by the “Eat It To Beat it” Campaign which has been very successful. Jamaica’s waters are also home to very important large aquatic and marine related animals which are under threat. These are the West Indian Manatee, dolphins, whales, sea turtles and crocodiles.

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8.0 ST. KITTS AND NEVIS

Geography and Location

The Federation of St. Christopher and Nevis, or St. Kitts and Nevis as it is more commonly called, is located in the northern Lesser Antilles, about 417 km (259 miles) southeast of the Territory of Puerto Rico, and about 104 km (65 miles) northwest of the island of Antigua. St. Kitts is 180 km2 in area, with its highest point being Mount Liamuiga at 1,156 m (3,792 ft.). Nevis has an area of 93 km2. The highest elevation on Nevis is Nevis Peak at 985 metres (3,232 ft.).

The capital of the country is Basse-Terre, though Nevis is run semi-autonomously with its own Island Assembly and Administration, a Premiere and a Deputy Governor General. The Federation has a single federal parliament and Prime Minister. The population of St. Kitts is 34,983, and the population of Nevis is 11,415, based on 2101 census data (https://www.citypopulation.de/StKittsNevis.html).

Biodiversity Summary

The following summary of the land use of St. Kitts and Nevis provides a useful backdrop of the resource basis for the potential for bioprospecting in both islands and the country. The land-use of St. Kitts by area is given in Table 12.

Table 13 provides a summary of the species animals and plants of St. Kitts and Nevis while Table 14 provides more details. While documentation of St. Kitts and Nevis biodiversity goes back as far as the early years of European arrival in the region in the 1400s, there are still major gaps in our knowledge, study and understanding of the islands terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Compared to countries such as Trinidad and Jamaica, these islands remain relatively little studied. A recent effort by the Government of St. Kitts and Nevis, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), to document the flora and fauna of the Central Forest Reserve on St. Kitts and the Nevis Peak-Camps River corridor has yielded some insightful data, but this effort was limited to a few weeks of total investigation. One area that will get some improvement is in the identification of the invertebrates of both islands, mainly the . Dr. Michael Ivie and Montana State University has collected thousands of specimens, and are currently studying and identifying them. This data will not be available until the end of 2017 or early 2018. Still, there is considerably more work to be done.

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Table 12 St Kitts and Nevis land use

1990 2000 2010 2014 1. Agricultural land (sq. km) 120.0 90.0 2. Agricultural land (% of land area) 46.2 34.6 3. Arable land (hectares) 8000.0 7000.0 4. Arable land (hectares per person) 0.2 0.2 5. Arable land (% of land area) 30.8 26.9 6. Permanent cropland (% of land area) 7.7 0.0 7. Forest area (sq. km) 53.0 110.0 110.0 8. Forest area (% of land area) 20.4 42.3 42.3 9. Average precipitation in depth (mm per year) 10. Land area (sq. km) 260.0 260.0 260.0 260.0 11. Surface area (sq. km) 260.0 260.0 260.0 260.0 Source: World Bank, 2011. See: http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/3.1 & http://www.tradingeconomics.com/st-kitts-and-nevis/forest-area-sq-km-wb-data.html

Table 13 Summary of the flora and fauna of St. Kitts and Nevis

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~815 Fungi Unknown Lichens Unknown Algae Incomplete Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown Amphibians and Reptiles ~22 Birds ~203 Freshwater Fish* ~16 Marine Fish* ~497 Terrestrial Mammals ~16 Marine Mammals ~30 Terrestrial Invertebrates Unknown Marine invertebrates Unknown Corals Unreported *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

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Terrestrial biodiversity of St Kitts and Nevis

Tables 13 and 14 summarizes the species of animals and plants endemic to Nevis. Note that given Dr. Ivie’s work, the endemic species numbers are likely to change dramatically. For plants, the Federation has about 815 terrestrial species of native and naturalised species. However, there are no published lists for the lichens, fungi or algae of the country.

Table 14 Terrestrial fauna and flora endemic to St. Kitts and Nevis

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status BIRDS Loxigilla portoricencis grandis Saint Kitts Bullfinch Extinct? INVERTEBRATES Bulimulus gittenbergeri Land snail Unknown Bulimulus ouallensis Land snail Unknown Cesonia maculate Ground spider Unknown Cyrtopholis media Tarantula Unknown Metasinella radkei Springtail Unknown Microsphecodes kittensis Bee Unknown Nesipelma insulare Tarantula Unknown Ormiscus sp. Undescribed fungus weevil Unknown Tangia (Neurotmeta) bipatriata Planthopper Unknown PLANTS (VASCULAR) Asplenium malcolm-smithii Fern Unknown Thelypteris muscicola Fern Unknown

Central Forest Reserve, Nevis Peak and Dry Woodlands

There are two main areas of natural forests critical to biodiversity in both islands. These are the Central Forest Reserve on St. Kitts, which covers the central ridge of mountains that forms the backbone of that island. During the height of sugar cane cultivation from the 1700s to the early 1900s, fields of this crop well above the 300 metre (900 ft) contour (map 2). It is in this “natural retreat” that the now extinct St. Kitts Bullfinch, (Loxigilla portoricencis grandis) found refuge, but by the mid-1900, the bird was gone. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the forests of the Reserve. This protected area occurs from the 305 metre (1,000 ft) contour.

The Central Forest Reserve covers the most volcanically active and highest peaks on the island. Mount Liamuiga is an active volcano, rising to 1,156 m (3,792 ft). Most nearby peaks rise to over 600 metres (1,800 ft).

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Map 2. 1700 map showing both St. Kitts and Nevis, and the extent of farms and property ownership on both islands. Nevis is in the upper right corner. By Anthony Ravell and engraved by Thomas Jefferys, published by Sayer & Bennett in 1775 in London, as part of The West-India Atlas.

Outside of the Central Forest Reserve, St. Kitts has few areas of forests and natural woodland. This makes any remaining system important for biodiversity. These areas include Monkey Hill, the Canada Hills, areas of the South East Peninsula (SEP), and the deep gullies that channel runoff from the mountains of the Reserve. Currently, none of these areas are protected or managed, and most are private property. These areas are also little studied.

For Nevis, the central Peak, the highest point of the island at 985 metres (3,232 ft.). Like St. Kitts, most of Nevis was deforested, with only a relatively small patch of native forest remaining. But by the mid to late 1800s, cane cultivation began to sharply decline, and the forest slowly recovered. Today, the forests and woodlands of the central peak, including Nevis Peak (photo 10), are maintain the highest species and diversity on the island. The Peak is also a protected area (above 305 metres), and includes the Camps River watershed and corridor.

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Photo 10. Nevis Peak, hidden below the clouds, as seen from the western shores.

Outside of the Nevis Peak protected area, there are few natural habitats remaining. The reasons for this are complex, but primary among these are past wholesale land clearing, agriculture, and the thousands of free-roaming and feral donkeys, goats, sheep, cattle and pigs. However, some key areas are sites are Round Hill, on the northwestern side of the island, and the coastal bogs and wetlands, which are key for aquatic flora and fauna.

One major adversity faced by natural areas, farmers and residents is the predation and physical damage caused by the African Green Monkey, which was introduced to both islands in the 1600s. This invasive is omnivorous and quite aggressive, and may be the cause of the disappearance of the St. Kitts Bullfinch, but may also be responsible for the decline and scarcity of many native plants, including orchids, pteridophytes, and succulent plants such as cacti. Dr. Ivie and colleagues, who have been working with the Government of the Federation, and UNDP to study the biodiversity of these protected areas, have observed that many species of plant and animals seem absent or populations are either relatively low, or absent from habitat areas across the islands (pers. comm. Kevel Lindsay, 2017).

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Plant biodiversity of St. Kitts and Nevis

Endemic

Only two species of plants, both ferns, are believed to be endemic to St. Kitts and Nevis. The taxonomic and conservation status of these need further study and documentation (Table 15).

Indigenous

There are over 700 plants that are native to St. Kitts and Nevis. However, many of the records are not based on officially archived specimens, but are from observations reported by researchers such as Kevel Lindsay, and documented by Island Resources Foundation in 1997. Formal records show fewer than 400 species for the country.

Introduced

At least 106 species of plants have been introduced to St. Kitts and Nevis, and some of these have become naturalised.

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Table 15 Regional and local endemic plants of St. Kitts and Nevis

St. Family Species Habit Origin Status Region of Endemism Nevis Kitts Asplenium malcolm- Aspleniaceae Herb Native Rare St. Kitts Endemic. * ? smithii Proctor Alsophila muricata Lesser Antillean Tree Native Common * * (Willdenow) Desvaux Endemic Cyathaceae Cyathea grandifolia Lesser Antillean Herb Native Common * Willdenow Endemic Elaphoglossum impres- Un- Lesser Antillean Herb Native * Dennstaed- sum (Fée) T. Moore common Endemic tiaceae Elaphoglossum plumieri Un- Herb Native West Indian Endemic * T. Moore common Hymenophyllum Un- Herb Native West Indian Endemic * * hirtellum Swartz common Hymenophyllum cf. Lesser Antillean Hymenophyl- Herb Native Rare * * latifrons Bosch Endemic laceae Palhinhaea torta (Sieber Lesser Antillean ex Underw. & Herb Native Rare * Endemic F.E. Lloyd) Christenh. Anetium citrifolium Pteridaceae Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * (Linnaeus) Splitgerber Selaginella rotundifolia Un- Lesser Antillean Selaginelaceae Herb Native * Spring common Endemic Cyclosorus clypeolutatus Lesser Antillean Herb Native Common * (Desv.) Christenh. Endemic Thelypteris antillana Lesser Antillean Herb Native Rare * Thelypteri- Proctor Endemic daceae Thelypteris limbata (Sw.) Lesser Antillean Herb Native Rare * Proctor Endemic Thelypteris muscicola Herb Native Rare Nevis Endemic * Proctor Anthurium cordatum (L.) Herb Native Common West Indian Endemic * * Schott Anthurium dominicense Un- Lesser Antillean Araceae Herb Native * Schott common Endemic Philodendron lingulatum Vine Native Common West Indian Endemic * (L.) K. Koch Coccothrinax barbadensis Tree Native Rare West Indian & Trinidad * * Lood ex Mart Prestoea acuminata Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * (Willd.) H.E. Moore Furcraea tuberosa (Mill.) Asparagaceae Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Aiton Lesser Antillean Guzmania dussii Mez Herb Native Rare * Endemic Bromeliaceae Pitcairnia angustifolia Herb Native Common West Indian Endemic * Aiton var. angustifolia

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 14. Continued

St. Family Species Habit Origin Status Region of Endemism Nevis Kitts Pitcairnia bifrons (Lindl.) Lesser Antillean Bromeliaceae Herb Native Rare * R.W. Read Endemic Asplundia insignis Lesser Antillean (Duchass. ex. Griseb.) Herb Native Common * Endemic Harling Cyclanthaceae Asplundia rigida (Aublet) Vine Native Common West Indian Endemic * Harling Machaerina restioides Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * (Sw.) Vahl Epidendrum pallidiflorum Lesser Antillean Herb Native Rare * Hook Endemic Lesser Antillean Epidendrum patens Sw. Herb Native Rare * Endemic Malaxis umbelliflora Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic ? * Swartz Microchilus familiaris Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Orchidaceae Ormerod Ornithidium coccineum Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * (Jacq.) Salisb. Orinthidium inflexum Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * Rchb. f. Ponthieva petiolata Lindl. Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * Lesser Antillean Stelis dussii Cogn Herb Native Rare * Endemic Podocarpus coriaceus Podocarpaceae Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * Rich. & A. Rich. Odontonema nitidum Acanthaceae\ Shrub Native Common West Indian Endemic * * (Jacquin) Kuntze Comocladia dodonaea Anacardiaceae Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * * (L.) Urban Un- Annonaceae Guatteria caribaea Urban Tree Native West Indian Endemic * common Apocynaceae Plumeria alba Linnaeus Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * Ilex macfadyenii (Walp.) Lesser Antillean Rehder ssp. ovata Tree Native Rare * Endemic (Griseb.) Nicolson Aquifoliaceae Ilex sideroxyloides (Sw.) Griseb. ssp. Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * sideroxyloides Schefflera attenuata Lesser Antillean Araliaceae Tree Native Rare * (Sw.) Frodin Endemic Tabebuia heterophylla Bignoniaceae Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * * (DC.) Kunth

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 14. Continued

St. Family Species Habit Origin Status Region of Endemism Nevis Kitts Cordia sulcata Linnaeus Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Boraginaceae Varronia nesophila (I.M. Lesser Antillean Shrub Native Rare * Johnston) Borhidi Endemic Burseraceae Dacryodes excelsa Vahl Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * * Melocactus intortus Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * (Miller) Urban Cactaceae Opuntia triacanthos Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * (Willdenow) Sweet Lesser Antillean Calophyllaceae Marila racemosa Griseb. Tree Native Rare * Endemic Lobelia cirsiifolia Lesser Antillean Herb Native Rare * Linnaeus Endemic Campanulaceae Lesser Antillean Lobelia stricta Sw. Herb Native Rare * Endemic Hedyosmum arborescens Chloranthaceae Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * Swartz Lesser Antillean Clusiaceae Clusia major Linnaeus Tree Native Common * Endemic Connarus grandifolius Uncomm Lesser Antillean Connaraceae Vine Native * Planchon on Endemic Cayaponia americana Cucurbitaceae Vine Native Common West Indian Endemic * * Lamarck Ebenaceae Diospyros revoluta Poir. Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * ? Sloanea berteroana Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * Choisy ex DC. Sloanea dentata Lesser Antillean Elaeocarpaceae Tree Native Common * Linnaeus Endemic Lesser Antillean Sloanea truncata Urb. Tree Native Common * Endemic Crantzia cristata (L.) Lesser Antillean Gesneriaceae Herb Native Rare * Scop. ex Fritsch Endemic Aniba bracteata (Nees) Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * Mez Lauraceae Beilschmiedia pendula Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * (Sw.) Hemsley Marcgravia umbellata Lesser Antillean Marcgraviaceae Vine Native Common * Linnaeus Endemic Blakea pulverulenta M. Lesser Antilles & Shrub Native Rare * Vahl Tobago Clidemia umbrosa Shrub Native Rare West Indian Endemic * (Swartz) Cogniaux in DC. Melastoma- Miconia globuliflora var. taceae Lesser Antillean dominicae R. Howard & Shrub Native Rare * Endemic E. Kellogg Miconia tetrandra (Sw.) Lesser Antillean Shrub Native Rare * D. Don ex G. Don Endemic

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 14. Continued

St. Family Species Habit Origin Status Region of Endemism Nevis Kitts Tetrazygia angustifolia Shrub Native Common West Indian Endemic * Melastoma- (Swartz) DC. taceae Lesser Antillean Tetrazygia discolor (L) DC. Shrub Native Common * Endemic Freziera undulata (Sw.) Uncomm Lesser Antillean Tree Native * * Pentaphyla- Willd. on Endemic caceae Ternstroemia elliptica Lesser Antillean Shrub Native Common * * Swartz Endemic Coccoloba pubescens Polygonaceae Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * Linnaeus Primulaceae Ardisia obovata Hamilton Shrub Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Ziziphus reticulata Rhamnaceae Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * Lamarck Rubus ferrugineus Lesser Antillean Rosaceae Herb Native Rare * Wikstrom Endemic Schradera exotica (J. F. Vine Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Gmelin) Standley Rubiaceae Ixora ferrea (Jacq.) Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Bentham Pouteria multiflora (A. Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * * DC.) Eyma Sapotaceae Sideroxylon obovatum Tree Native Rare West Indian Endemic * * Linnaeus Solanum bahamense Solanaceae Shrub Native Common West Indian Endemic * * Linnaeus Cecropia schreberiana Tree Native Common West Indian Endemic * * Miquel Pilea inequalis (Jessieu ex Herb Native Rare West Indian Endemic * Urticaceae Poiret) Weddell Pilea semidentata (Jussieu ex Poiret) Herb Native Common West Indian Endemic * Weddell

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Marine biodiversity of St Kitts and Nevis

The marine flora of St. Kitts and Nevis are not well known (Table 16). However, Taylor (1962), reported at least 40 species of algae for St. Kitts and Nevis. According to Miloslavich et al (2010), there are 53 species in nine families of corals found in St. Kitts and Nevis waters. There are about 453 species of marine fish found within the St. Kitts and Nevis waters (Rusk, 2014). There are four species of marine turtles found around St. Kitts and Nevis. A comprehensive list of marine invertebrates (outside of corals) is not yet available, and similarly, there are incomplete details for marine algae.

For terrestrial herps (non-avian reptiles and amphibians), the islands have one tortoise, three : one locally extinct, one introduced and one extant, about 11 , and four recorded amphibians, one, the Giant Ditch Frog (Leptodactylus fallax), extirpated. The islands, combined, have at least 207 species of birds recorded. For terrestrial mammals, there are two introduced mammals, and at least nine native species remaining today, which are all bats. For terrestrial invertebrates, there are not yet complete numbers, though Lindsay and Horwith (1997) do provide a summary.

There are no known lists of the bacteria and viruses of the country.

Table 16 Summary of the benthic community of St. Kitts and Nevis

Benthic Hectares Sand 16,351 Dense seagrass 3098 Flat gorgonian hardground 2854 Dense macro-algae on hardground 2774 Semi-consolidated rubble 2595 Unconsolidated sand with algae 1929 Hard coral framework 1578 Acropora palmata stumps 574 Sparse seagrass 370 Rugose gorgonian slope 258 Lagoonal muds 165 Algal reef flat 61 Total 32,607 Source: Rusk (2014).

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9.0 ST. LUCIA

Geography and Location

The island of St. Lucia makes up part of the Lesser Antillean chain of islands in the Eastern Caribbean. St Lucia is a member of the OECS. It is situated 81.5 km (50.6 miles) south of Martinique, and 108 km (67 miles) south of St. Vincent St. Vincent and The Grenadines. St. Lucia covers about 616 km2 (238 mile2), and rises to at its highest point, Mount Gimie, at 950 m (3,120 ft.). Geologically, it is primarily of volcanic origin.

St. Lucia is a parliamentary democracy, modeled on the Westminster System. Its parliament consists of 17 members. It has a population of about 178.015 (2015, World Population Prospects). The economy is largely based on tourism, offshore banking, manufacturing and agriculture.

Biodiversity Summary

St. Lucia’s mountainous terrain and relatively high elevation attracts an annual rainfall of about 1,300 mm (51.2 in) along the drier coast, to about 3,810 mm (150 in) in the interior. This amount of water creates a high humidity environment where many plants flourish, and creates a relatively high diversity of habitats and microclimates where many unique animals evolve. Table 17 provides a summary of the flora and fauna of St. Lucia.

Table 17 Summary of the flora and fauna of St. Lucia

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~1,196 Fungi Unknown Lichens ~240 Algae Unknown Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown Amphibians and Reptiles ~24 Birds ~186 Freshwater Fish* ~11 Marine Fish* ~491 Terrestrial Mammals ~19 Marine Mammals ~28 Terrestrial Invertebrates >1,037 Marine invertebrates Comprehensive lists not yet put together Corals Comprehensive lists not yet put together *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

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Terrestrial biodiversity of St Lucia

Table 18 summarizes the known terrestrial endemic plants and animals of St. Lucia.

Table 18. Terrestrial endemic fauna and flora of St. Lucia.

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status

BIRDS

Amazona versicolor St. Lucia Parrot IUCN: Vulnerable Caprimulgus rufus otiosus St. Lucia Nightjar Endangered Cinclocerthia gutturalis St. Lucia Grey Stable macrorhyncha Contopus latirostris St. Lucia Pewee Stable Icterus laudabilis St. Lucia Oriole IUCN: Near Threatened Leucopeza semperi Semper's Warbler extinct? Melanospiza richardsoni St. Lucia Black Finch IUCN: Endangered Myadestes genibarbis St. Lucia Solitaire Unknown sanctaeluciae St. Lucia Lesser Antillean Myiarchus oberi sanctaeluciae Stable Flycatcher Ramphocinclus brachyurus White-Breasted Thrasher IUCN: Endangered sanctaeluciae delicata St. Lucia Warbler Stable Endangered. Rarest of the Troglodytes aedon mesoleucus St. Lucia Wren remaining Lesser Antillean wrens. Turdus lherminieri santaeluciae St. Lucia Forest IUCN: Vulnerable

INVERTEBRATES

Beetles: Ateuchus luciae Dung beetle Unknown Clonistria santaluciae Stick Unknown Fortuneleptura romei Longhorn beetle Unknown Lyanola romei longhorned Beetle Unknown Megastylulus pivai Ground beetle Unknown Monotalla viridis Flea beetle Unknown Oosternum luciae Water scavenger beetle Unknown Paraclytemnestra lineata Ground beetle Unknown Pseudocanthon iuanalaoi Dung beetle Unknown Scopaeus arena Unknown Solenoptera luciae longhorned Beetle Unknown Solenoptera touroulti longhorned Beetle Unknown Stevewoodia minutum Bark beetle Unknown Stylulus isabelae Ground beetle Unknown Ctenus falcatus Wandering spider Unknown

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Table 18. Cont’d

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status

INVERTEBRATES CONT’D

Glyptotermes amplus Termite Unknown Tityus insignis Scorpion Unknown Brachypodella tatei Land snail Unknown Naesiotus luciae Land snail Unknown

MAMMALS Giant Rice Rat Megalomys luciae Extinct? [photo 11] Little Yellow-shouldered Sturnira lilium luciae Unknown Bat

REPTILES

Alinea luciae St. Lucia Skink Extinct? Anolis luciae St. Lucia Anole Stable Boa orophias St. Lucia Boa Unassessed Bothrops caribbaeus St. Lucia Lancehead Unassessed Clelia errabunda St. Lucia Cribo/Clelia Extinct? Cnemidophorus vanzoi St. Lucia Whiptail IUCN: Critically Endangered Erythrolamprus ornatus St. Lucia Racer IUCN: Critically Endangered It may be a full and separate Iguana sp. Saint Lucia Iguana species from I. iguana Sphaerodactylus microlepis St. Lucia Dwarf Gecko Unknown Tetracheilostoma breuili St. Lucia Threadsnake IUCN: Endangered

PLANTS (VASCULAR)

Acalypha elizabethae Shrub Unknown Bernardia laurentii Shrub Unknown Chrysochlamys caribaea Tree Unknown Cuphea crudyana Herb Unknown Daphnopsis macrocarpa Tree Unknown Gonolobus iyanolensis Vine Unknown Lobelia sancta-luciae Shrub Unknown Miconia luciana Shrub Unknown Miconia secunda Tree Unknown http://www.iucnredlist.org/

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Photo 11. Specimen of the St. Lucia Giant Rice Rat (Megalomys luciae), London Natural History Museum. Source: http://www.arkive.org/

Interior Mountains, The Pitons and Maria Island

St. Lucia’s highest levels of biodiversity are to be found in the mountainous interior where seasonal, moist, montane, alpine and cloud forests and woodlands are found. Most of its endemic birds and plants are restricted to these areas. Many of the island’s bats, are found in the interior, including the now extinct Giant Rice Rat (photo 11).

The Pitons―Gros Piton and Petit Piton―two ancient volcanic cores rising starkly from the sea on the southwestern coast near the town of Soufrière, are also centers of biodiversity, with some species restricted (endemic) to the summit of one or the other. One example is the native conifer, the Pencil Cedar (Juniperus barbadensis var. barbadensis), a species restricted (endemic) to St. Lucia and Barbados (now extirpated there), is found high on the steep slopes of Petit Piton.

Another example of the value of St. Lucia’s interior forests and woodlands, is the decline of the Lansan Tree (Protium attenuatum), a species in the family Burseraceae, whose trunk is tapped for its fragrant and oily sap, used in traditional medicine by local residents for hundreds of years. This species is a Lesser Antillean endemic, but it has disappeared from most of former range on the islands, and indeed across its entire range. St. Lucia has the largest remaining population. The Lansan is now the focus of international conservation efforts being spearheaded by Flora and Fauna International, and the Global Tree Campaign, to save the species through education and awareness and the promotion of sustainable harvesting of its sap.

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Figure 1 excerpts part of an article on the efforts to save this species. The entire article can be viewed here: http://globaltrees.org/projects/sustainable-use-lansan-tree-saint- lucia/

Figure 1 The Global Trees Campaign to save the rare Lesser Antillean endemic tree Protium attenuatum

On the small Maria Island, just off the southeast coast, harbours five of the country’s endemic reptiles, including two globally significant species, the St. Lucia Whiptail, and the St. Lucia Racer snake. These two reptiles were not always restricted to this island. In the past, they were found in the dry coastal and seasonal woodlands of the mainland, but the introduction of the small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), rats and mice ( spp., and Mus musculus), as well as dogs and cats, decimated populations, and by the early 1900s, they were virtually gone from most of St. Lucia.

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Similarly, the St. Lucia Iguana, found in dry coastal habitats of the northeast coast, has been reduced to a handful of individuals, due to hunting for the pot, predation by the Mongoose, cats and dogs, , and now the arrival of the introduced Green Iguana (I. iguana), an aggressive species that outcompetes and hybridises with its St. Lucian cousin, driving it to extinction.

Both Maria and the coastal dry woodlands would have once formed part of a larger biodiverse coastal system before Europeans arrived, bringing with them, many invasive animals and plants. Now, these small relict areas have become critical for the survival of the island’s native biodiversity.

Plant biodiversity of St. Lucia

Endemic

There are nine species of plants endemic to St. Lucia. These include four shrubs, three trees, one herb and one vine. Most of these are found in the mountainous interior, in areas of high biodiversity.

Indigenous

Of the more than 1,000 species of plants on St. Lucia, about 958 are considered native to the island.

Introduced

There are at least 238 species of introduced plants found on St. Lucia.

Marine biodiversity of St Lucia

The marine flora of St. Lucia has not yet been fully explored and documented.

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9.0 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Geography and Location

Trinidad lies just 11 km (6.8 miles) off the northeast coast of Venezuela, and 166 km (103.1 miles) south east of the Lesser Antillean island of Grenada. Tobago, northeast of Trinidad, lies about 30 km (19 miles) away. Trinidad covers 4,768 km2 (1,841 mi2), and Tobago is 298 km2 (115 mi2) in area. The highest point of Trinidad is El Cerro del Aripo, at 940 m (3,084 ft.), situated in the middle of the Northern Range mountains in the extreme north of the island. The highest point of Tobago is 640 metres (2,100 ft.), found in the central spine of the island. The capital of Trinidad is Port of Spain, located on the western shore in the northern third of the island. The capital of Tobago is Scarborough, located on the southwestern end of the island.

Trinidad and Tobago, once a British colony, became a republic within the Commonwealth in 1976, with the head of state being a President, and is officially called the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It has a parliamentary democracy based on the Westminster System, and has 41 members in its House of Assembly.

Tobago is semi-autonomous, and is administered by the Tobago House of Assembly, which has a unicameral legislature is a legislature, which means that the Assembly consists of one chamber instead of the Upper and Lower Houses more typical in the Westminster System. The Tobago Assembly consists of a Presiding Officer, 12 elected, and four appointed council members.

The national economy of the Republic is largely industrial, this dominated by petroleum, with strong input from manufacturing and tourism. Tobago’s local economy is largely dependent on tourism.

Biodiversity Summary

Biogeographically, Trinidad and Tobago are continental islands, as opposed to those of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, which are oceanic islands. Continental islands like Trinidad were once connected to mainland landmasses, and in this case, these two islands were once a part of nearby South America. The islands’ biodiversity is reflective of its origins as most of the species are shared with nearby countries of Venezuela, Guyana, Colombia and the wider region to the south (Table 19). Its rich native flora, fauna, habitats and landscapes are therefore because of its former connection and proximity to the mainland. The further away an island is from a continental landmass, the fewer species it may have, and as one moves north to the Lesser Antilles, starting at Grenada, the species numbers and diversity begin to sharply diminish.

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Table 19. Summary of the flora and fauna of Trinidad and Tobago.

Group Totals Wild Gymnosperm and Angiosperm Plants ~3,639 Fungi ~1,935 Lichens ~131 Algae ~200 (benthic) Bacteria Unknown Viruses Unknown Amphibians and Reptiles ~130 Birds ~500 Freshwater Fish* ~16 Marine Fish* ~497 Terrestrial Mammals ~100 Marine Mammals ~28 Terrestrial Invertebrates Comprehensive lists not yet put together Marine invertebrates Comprehensive lists not yet put together Corals ~41 *Fishbase.org: http://www.fishbase.org

Terrestrial biodiversity of Trinidad and Tobago

Table 20 is a summary of the terrestrial species of plants and animals endemic to Trinidad.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 20. Terrestrial endemic fauna of Trinidad and Tobago.

Species/Taxonomic Group Common Name/Type Status AMPHIBIANS

Trinidad Thin-toed Frog Unknown Leptodactylus nesiotus Bloody Bay Fragrant olmonae IUCN: Vulnerable Frog Mannophryne trinitatis Yellow-throated Frog IUCN: Vulnerable Pristimantis charlottevillensis Charlotteville Litter Frog Stable Pristimantis turpinorum Bloody Bay Litter Frog IUCN: Vulnerable Pristimantis urichi Urich's Litter Frog IUCN: Endangered BIRDS

Momotus bahamensis Trinidad Stable Trinidad Piping- Pipile pipile IUCN: Critically Endangered /Pawi FISH (Freshwater)

Ancistrus maracasae Catfish Unknown Mountain Stream Hemibrycon taeniurus Unknown Sardine Hypostomus robinii Catfish Unknown Poecilia boesemani Guppy Unknown Poecilia obscura Oropuche Guppy Unknown INVERTEBRATES Anacroneuria isleta Stonefly Unknown Calospila urichi Butterfly Unknown Cephaloleia brunnea Butterfly Unknown Cephaloleia rubra rolled-leaf beetles Unknown Choanopoma aripensis land snail Unknown Cocconotus unicolor Katydid Unknown Drymaeus mossi land snail Unknown Lasiodora trinitatis Tarantula Unknown Liturgusa trinidadensis bark mantis Unknown Macroperipatus torquatus velvet worm Unknown Microthelphusa odaelkae freshwater crab Unknown Microtityus rickyi Scorpion Unknown Nymphidium trinidadi Metalmark Unknown Ocnophiloidea regularis Trinidad Stick Insect Unknown Pandirodesmus rutherfordi Millipede Unknown Pheidole aripoensis ant Unknown Piruapsis antennatus longhorn beetle Unknown Psalmopoeus cambridgei tarantula Unknown Scaphiella simla goblin spider Unknown

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Table 20. Cont’d

Common Species/Taxonomic Group Status Name/Type INVERTEBRATES Cont’d

wall crab spider Unknown Selenops willinki Tityus trinitatis Scorpion Unknown MAMMALS Critically Endangered. In 2008, Trinidad white-fronted Cebus albifrons trinitatis population in Trinidad estimated capuchin to be about 61. Unknown; Hunted. Sometimes Trinidad Red Brocket recognized as a full species Mazama trinitatis Deer distinct from the more widespread Mazama americana Myotis attenboroughi Bat Bat known only from Tobago REPTILES

Trinidad Blind Snake IUCN: Endangered Amerotyphlops trinitatus sometimes considered distinct Dipsas trinitatis Trinidad Snail-eating from the more widespread Snake Variegated Snail-eater Dipsas variegate Tobago False Coral Erythrolamprus ocellatus Stable Snake Gonatodes ocellatus Ocellated Gecko Stable Leptophis haileyi Snake From Tobago; Unknown Leptophis stimsoni Gray Lora Unknown Ninia franciscoi coffee snake Unknown Riama shrevei Luminous Lizard Unknown

Nariva, Caroni Swamp, Aripo Savannas, the Northern Range, and the Tobago Central Ridge

Trinidad and Tobago’s varied landscapes, geology, soils and climactic factors, have allowed nature to weave myriad habitats and species. Among its most diverse centers of diversity are the Aripo Savannas, just east of the town of Arima in northern Trinidad. This natural grassland is home to native palms, sundew plants, ground orchids and many species of wild animals.

Like Aripo, Nariva swamp is another center of biodiversity. The natural freshwater swamp is a mixture of mangroves, flooded woods, marshes, flood plains and shallow pools. It is home to numerous plants, rare macaws and the Trinidad Manatee.

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While Nariva Swamp is situated on the eastern coast of the northern half of Trinidad, Caroni Swamp is its opposite, located on the western coast, just south of the capital of Port of Spain. Caroni is a mix of marshes, flood plains, mangroves, channels (some artificial), pools and flooded woods. It is home to many species of native animals, including the National Bird, the Scarlet Ibis (Eudocimus ruber).

The Northern Range in Trinidad has the highest peak in the Republic. It is a disjointed part of the coastal Andes Mountains of Venezuela. The Range covers about 25% of the island, and runs from Chaguaramas in the west, to Toco in the east. Within the Northern Range are myriad vegetation types, including deciduous woodlands, montane forests, alpine savannas and woodlands and cloud forests and woodlands. This diversity of habitats creates a rich environment for myriad plants, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates. The range also supplies much of the northern half of the island with essential water.

The Tobago Central Ridge runs the length of the central spine of the island. Like the Northern Range in Trinidad, it is rich in habitats, and forms one of the most important centers for biodiversity and refuge for rare and endangered species, including the White-tailed Sabrewing hummingbird (Campylopterus ensipennis), a species restricted to Tobago and the northeastern peninsula of Venezuela. It is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN, and the Tobago population is critically important since loss of habitat has resulted in a sharp decline of the species on the mainland. This hummingbird is confined to montane forests, woodlands and edge habitats along the Central Ridge of the island.

Plant biodiversity of Trinidad and Tobago

Endemic

Between 59 and 108 plant species are reported to be endemic (the numbers are in dispute and varies dependent on the authority). The species recognized as endemic to Trinidad and Tobago are listed in Table 21.

Indigenous

About 2,407 of the plants are considered to be native to the islands.

Introduced

An estimated 1,222 plant species are thought to be introduced.

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Table 21 Endemic plants species of Trinidad and Tobago

Cochleanthes trinitatis Orchid Epidendrum hombersleyi Orchid Begonia mariannensis Herb

Philodendron simmondsii Vine Podocarpus trinitensis Tree Metastelma freeman Vine Macrolobium trinitense Tree Vriesea broadwayi Bromeliad Odontonema brevipes Shrub Maytenus monticola Tree Rhynchospora aripoensis Herb Besleria strigillosa Shrub Pilea tobagensis Herb Roupala tobagensis Tree

Dicranopygium insulare Herb Mikania broadwayi Vine Clusia tocuchensis Tree Coccoloba nigrescens Tree Eriocaulon caesium Herb Acalypha grisebachiana Shrub Marthella trinitatis Herb

Marine biodiversity of Trinidad and Tobago

There is no comprehensive list of the marine flora of Trinidad and Tobago.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES 11. Summary

In summary, the following points can be realized through this concise snapshot overview of the terrestrial and marine biodiversity of eight Caribbean countries.

• These countries individually and together have a rich biodiversity resource.

• These rich biodiversity resources have many endemics plants known to science, and probably several more unknown to science. The microbes are virtually unstudied in most if not all the countries reviewed.

• Although a lot of work has already been done, and is available to all, there is a lot left to be done. o There are still plant and animal species not known to science. o Marine areas are less well-known than terrestrial areas. o The flora and fauna of the countries are incomplete.

• Countries with marine biology expertise such as Jamaica via the University of the West Indies, have a better idea of their marine biodiversity although there are still plenty gaps.

• Plant biodiversity is under threat from urbanization and agriculture and invasive alien species such as dogs, pigs and goats.

• Each country has areas within it that are distinct biodiversity-rich areas that need to be guarded, protected and need management plans to allow them to be sustainably used so they will last the generations.

• Comprehensive biodiversity updates are not being carried out so it is hard to say if the endemic, native and indigenous plants and animals are still around.

• Comprehensive biodiversity updates need to be carried out at least once every 10 years.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES 12. REFERENCES

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Comeau, Paul L., Yasmin S. Comeau & Winston Johnson. 2003. The palm book of Trinidad and Tobago: including the Lesser Antilles. The International Palm Society.

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES Government References Sustainable Institute of Jamaica: http://statinja.gov.jm/maps.aspx An Overview of Jamaica's Science Sector: http://mset.gov.jm/overview- jamaicas-science-sector

Newspaper articles UWI principal hails CARIGEN lab: http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/UWI- principal-hails-CARIGEN-lab Sustainable use of the lansan tree in Saint Lucia: http://globaltrees.org/projects/sustainable-use-lansan-tree-saint-lucia/

Online Resources Caribherp, Amphibians and Reptiles of Caribbean Islands: http://www.caribherp.org/index.php?is=West_Indies&so=class,%20ord,%20subor d,%20family,%20species&vw=y&dd=y&mob=y Evaluated publications containing records of lichens and lichenicolous fungi of Guyana: http://www.lichens.uni-hamburg.de/lichens/south- america/guyana_p.htm Fungi of Trinidad & Tobago: http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/trinfung/eng/index.htm Lichens of the Caribbean Islands: http://www.herbarium.msu.edu/CARIBBEAN/ Living Treasures: http://lntreasures.com/index.html Plants of the Eastern Caribbean: http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: http://www.iucnredlist.org/ The Database: http://www.reptile-database.org/

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BIODIVESITY OF EIGHT CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES PROJECT TEAM

Anthony Richards: Antiguan by birth, MD. Richards has a PhD in enzyme & microbial biotechnology and a Postgraduate Certificate in Territorial Heritage Management. He has extensive experience in agricultural & environmental heritage management, tools for cognitive mapping of traditional knowledge including soundscape mapping; digital storytelling, grassroots comics, individual project on mapping of medicinal plants in traditional healing yards of Arima, Trinidad, and practical community engagement of young people on interpretation of heritage trees and sacred spaces in the urban landscape of Barbados. Dr. Richards has served as ethnobotanical advisor to the Board of the Caribbean Lexicography Project, which produces the Caribbean dictionaries, as secretary to Society for Economic Botany-Caribbean Chapter and as local focal point and researcher for the TRAMIL survey. Anthony Richards currently resides in Barbados.

Sylvia Mitchell: A Jamaican national, Dr. Mitchell has a BSc in Botany and Geography and a PhD in Biotechnology. She is presently a Senior Lecturer at the Biotechnology Centre, UWI. She completed the first review of medicinal plant research carried out by the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies, produced a botanical references of plants used in Jamaican root tonics, undertook a prefeasibility study and business plan for the Charles Town Maroons, Portland, Jamaica, and is a member of the Jamaican team of TRAMIL, an ongoing programme of ethnobotanical surveys and laboratory-based validation of traditional medicine uses in the Caribbean basin, http://www.tramil.net/ and is a member of the Caribbean ABS steering committee.

Kevel Lindsay: Born and raised on Antigua, Mr. Lindsay has a degree in environmental biology from Columbia University, and an associate degree in forestry from the Eastern Caribbean Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Trinidad (now University of Trinidad and Tobago). He is a regional expert on Caribbean biodiversity, ecology, watershed management, environmental systems, organizational management and planning, community development and development planning. He headed the Island Resources Foundation’s (IRF) regional Biodiversity Conservation Program (initially based in Antigua) from 1995 to 2016, as its Caribbean coordinator. Kevel has over 27 years of experience natural resources conservation, environmental and ecological surveys, protected areas issues and management, field surveys and research, archival and document research, resource profiling, characterization and reporting, having worked on protected areas planning and writing management plans, in watershed, terrestrial and coastal issues on Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis, the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands and Grenada. Mr. Lindsay is recognised as one of the region’s leading experts on Caribbean plant ecology and faunal species, particularly birds. As Coordinator of the IRF’s biodiversity research and conservation programmes, Mr. Lindsay emerged as a regional leader in natural history, protected area planning, tropical forestry and Caribbean botany, vegetation classification systems, and wildlife species research.

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