Hiv/Aids and Science Education in Namibian Secondary
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1 HIV/AIDS AND SCIENCE EDUCATION IN NAMIBIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (SCIENCE EDUCATION) OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY KAZHILA CROFFAT CHINSEMBU November 2010 Main supervisor: Prof. C.D. Kasanda Co-supervisors: Dr. D. Zealand; Dr. C.N. Shimwooshili-Shaimemanya 2 ABSTRACT Previous studies alluded to the impacts of HIV/AIDS on education in Namibia. While such studies implied that secondary school science education was under the threat of Human Immuno-deficiency Virus/Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS), there was a paucity of disaggregated and empirical data that spoke to the specific linkages between HIV/AIDS and secondary school science education. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to elucidate the HIV/AIDS impacts, risk factors, and knowledge gaps among secondary school science teachers and learners in Namibia. The study also analysed the pedagogical and ecological factors related to HIV/AIDS education in Namibian secondary schools. A quantitative research approach was mainly utilised in this cross-sectional survey of science teachers and learners. Using a three-stage cluster sample design, eighteen secondary schools from six education regions were randomly selected. Life Science/Biology learners and teachers formed the tertiary sampling units. Separate questionnaires were completed by 829 learners and 61 teachers, respectively. Data were analysed using non-parametric and parametric statistics. The results revealed low putative HIV/AIDS-related losses of science teachers and learners. Coping with HIV/AIDS was significantly associated with absenteeism, stress, lack of concentration, and poor performance in class. Learners’ high risks to HIV infection were evidenced by their early age of coital debut, high sexual activity, multiple sexual partners, transactional and intergenerational sex, low condom use, and pregnancies. Demographic characteristics also placed science teachers at high risk of HIV infection. Both sets of respondents demonstrated remarkable gaps in 2 3 their knowledge of basic facts and new insights of HIV/AIDS. Similarly, the pedagogy of HIV/AIDS was fraught with constraints of inadequate resources, teacher training, and lack of examination of the HIV/AIDS content. Statistical analysis showed learners from all the six regions were unanimous that HIV/AIDS education should be a separate subject taught by a specially trained teacher. This evidence persuaded a pedagogical paradigm shift from the current integrative approach whereby Life Science and Biology subjects were the vectors of HIV/AIDS education in secondary schools. Ecological factors that affected the delivery of HIV/AIDS education and prevention included the lack of teaching resources, extra-curricular activities, condoms, Voluntary Counselling and Testing services, and school-community interactions. In the wake of these findings, the study argued for the reform of secondary school curricula and educational policies pertinent to HIV/AIDS education and prevention. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS You see, God puts the genetic potential to obtain all we desire within us. It’s finding the drive to express that potential that proves arduous for most. It requires hard work, sacrifice, modesty, and the ability to improve on one’s strengths, and most of all, our failings. It takes a lot of humility to ask God and our fellow human beings for help. You’d be amazed how difficult it is to ask. Therefore, God, I thank you for all the people that agreed to assist me. I thank you for Prof. Choshi D. Kasanda, my main supervisor, for his encouragement and guidance during the study; Dr. D. Zealand and Dr. C.N. Shimwooshili-Shaimemanya for co-supervising the study. Thank you God for giving me a wonderful family- they are the special gift with no price. God I thank you for all the respondents, contact teachers, school principals, regional directors, and the Permanent Secretary, for allowing me to collect the data without which there would have been no study. God, I thank you for the many friends and colleagues that helped me in one way or another: Prof. Osmund Mwandemele, Dr. Percy Chimwamurombe, Jean-Damascenes Uzabakiriho, Indongo Indongo, Ben Mwale, Reimo Kalenga, Brian Mhango, and Marius Hedimbi. May the Lord reward you for your kindness (Ruth 1:8). God you’re amazing: you forgo me strong legs, but endow me with strong brains. I cannot fault you Lord, no. God I thank you for a painful childhood; it makes me appreciate the true meaning of pleasure. God I thank you for my weaknesses, they help me become stronger. I thank you for ignorance, it helped me to learn. Finally, thank you God Almighty for this doctorate, so laborious, it is so sweet. 4 5 DEDICATION Tumusakililenu Nzambi diyi muwahi Luwi lwindi lwaswezha Luwi lwahayanyaka (Praise be to God) Nzambi wenka wemazhala (God gives to those that seek) This, my doctoral dissertation, is dedicated to my mother. Thank you for bringing me into this world, and for raising me up, under difficult times. 6 DECLARATIONS I, Kazhila Croffat Chinsembu, declare hereby that this study is a true reflection of my own research, and that this work, or part thereof has not been submitted for a degree in any other institution of higher education. No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by means (e.g. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior permission of the author, or The University of Namibia in that behalf. I, Kazhila Croffat Chinsembu, grant The University of Namibia the right to reproduce this dissertation in whole or in part, in any manner or format, which The University of Namibia may deem fit, for any person or institution requiring it for study and research; providing that The University of Namibia shall waive this right if the whole dissertation has been or is being published in a manner satisfactory to the University. …………………………… Kazhila Croffat Chinsembu 16th November, 2010. 6 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 14 1.3 Goals of the study 16 1.4 Research questions 18 1.5 Significance of the study 18 1.6 Limitations of the study 20 1.7 Delimitations of the study 21 1.8 Clarification of terms 21 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 22 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Conceptual and theoretical frameworks 23 2.2.1 Importance of theory and conceptual/theoretical frameworks 23 2.2.2 Definitions of health and health-related behaviour 24 2.2.3 Compliant health-related behaviour 27 2.2.4 The Health Belief Model 29 2.2.5 The Theory of Planned Behaviour 35 2.2.6 Critical analysis of school HIV/AIDS curriculum and policies 40 2.2.7 Postmodernism versus HIV/AIDS curriculum and policies 45 2.3 Education in Namibia 48 2.4 HIV/AIDS and education 51 2.4.1 Impacts of HIV/AIDS on general education 51 8 2.4.1.1 HIV/AIDS and supply of education 52 2.4.1.2 HIV/AIDS and demand for education 54 2.4.1.3 HIV/AIDS and quality of education 56 2.4.2 Risk factors for HIV/AIDS 57 2.4.3 Knowledge and behaviours to HIV/AIDS 61 2.4.4 Incorporation of HIV/AIDS education into the curriculum 66 2.4.5 Organizational and professional environments for HIV/AIDS Education 71 2.5 Summary 74 8 9 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Research design 75 3.3 Population 75 3.4 Sample 76 3.4.1 Demographic characteristics of learners 79 3.4.2 Demographic characteristics of Life Science and Biology teachers 81 3.5 Sampling procedure 82 3.6 Instruments 83 3.6.1 Learner and teacher questionnaires 83 3.6.2 Construction of the questionnaires 84 3.7 Pilot study 86 3.8 Data collection procedures 88 3.9 Data analysis 89 3.10 Summary 91 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 92 4.1 Introduction 92 4.2 Findings from Life Science and Biology learners 92 4.2.1 Learners’ perceptions of the impacts of HIV/AIDS on science education 92 4.2.2 Learners’ perceptions of the risk factors to HIV/AIDS 106 4.2.3 Learners’ gaps in knowledge, norms, attitudes, practices and skills to HIV/AIDS 138 4.2.4 Learners’ perceptions of the constraints of incorporating HIV/AIDS education into the syllabi for Life Science and Biology 166 4.2.5 Learners’ perceptions of the organizational and professional 10 dimensions that affected the delivery of HIV/AIDS education 173 4.2.6 Learners’ suggestions on policy interventions 193 4.3 Findings from Life Science and Biology teachers 193 4.3.1 Teachers’ perceptions of impacts of HIV/AIDS on science education 193 4.3.2 Teachers’ perceptions of risk factors to HIV/AIDS 197 4.3.3 Teachers’ knowledge, norms, attitudes, practices, and skills to HIV/AIDS 200 4.3.4 Constraints of integrating HIV/AIDS education into Life Science and Biology subjects 221 10 11 4.3.5 Teachers’ perceptions of the organizational and professional dimensions that affect the delivery of HIV/AIDS education 223 4.3.6 Teachers’ suggestions on policy interventions 235 4.4 Summary 236 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 238 5.1 Introduction 238 5.2 Impacts of HIV/AIDS on science education 238 5.2.1 Impacts of HIV/AIDS on science teachers 239 5.2.2 Impacts of HIV/AIDS on science learners 242 5.2.3 Impacts of HIV/AIDS on the quality of science education 247 5.3 Risk factors to HIV/AIDS 248 5.3.1 Learners’ ages of coital debut 248 5.3.2 Heterosexual intercourse and associated factors among learners 254 5.3.3 Multiple sexual partners among learners 263 5.3.4 Condom use among learners 267 5.3.5 Failure to buy condoms by learners 271 5.3.6 Learner pregnancies