Vol. 39, No. 1 January 2015

Witchcraft and Mission Studies was blamed for all these deaths in the village, wrapped cal settings live unconcerned about winter clothing, the polar “Iup in fishing nets, and beaten up severely.” So recounted vortex, or ice hockey. star Indian javelin thrower Debjani Bora, recent target of a witch As for specifically Christian examples, consider patristic hunt in the northeastern Indian state of Assam. The accusation and theologians. More intensely than had been required of their attack were spearheaded by a woman village elder later arrested Jewish and apostolic forefathers, Tertullian, Athanasius, Cyril for inciting the violence. According to BBC News India, police in Continued next page Assam report that over the last five years nearly ninety people, mostly women, have been “beheaded, burnt alive or stabbed to death” as a result of witch accusations.1 Such incidents occur incessantly and in various locations, as On Page articles here indicate. Indeed, challenges presented by witchcraft 3 Putting Witch Accusations on the Missiological and witch accusations have long been urgent concerns of countless Agenda: A Case from Northern Peru Robert J. Priest 8 Beyond the Fence: Confronting Witchcraft Accusations in the Papua New Guinea Highlands Philip Gibbs 12 Healing Communities: Contextualizing Responses to Witch Accusations Steven D. H. Rasmussen, with Hannah Rasmussen 14 Noteworthy 19 Toward a Christian Response to Witchcraft in Northern Ghana Jon P. Kirby 23 Witchcraft Accusations and Christianity in Africa J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu 28 Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact Todd M. Johnson, Gina A. Zurlo, Albert W. Hickman, and Peter F. Crossing 30 My Pilgrimage in Mission John P. Martin http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martha_Corey-Longfellow.jpg 34 The Legacy of Frank Arthur Keller Martha Corey and seven others were convicted of witchcraft Kevin Xiyi Yao and hanged, Salem, Massachusetts, September 22, 1692. 38 Assembly of the International Association for Mission Studies, 2016—Call for Papers Christian communities worldwide. Even so, the reality of witchcraft 39 Longing for Community: Church, Ummah, or has escaped the notice of most missiologists and mission studies. Somewhere in Between? A Review Essay This issue of the IBMR seeks to help rectify this discrepancy. Michael Nazir-Ali We human beings notice what is important to us, but we 40 The Roman Catholic Church Worldwide routinely miss other realities that have little impact on our values (Changes from 2007 to 2012) or the daily cares of our lives. Thus, for example, over the last 42 Book Reviews decade Internet connectivity has become a daily and conscious 54 Dissertation Notices need for millions of us worldwide. In contrast, people in tropi- 56 Book Notes of Alexandria, Nestorius, and others formulated answers to realities of witchcraft must be honest, active engagement—even questions arising from their Greco-Roman contexts, that is, to if my colleagues and I might not think that witches are cursing their contemporaries’ pointed philosophical questions about our own families or congregations. Missiologists as well as theo- God and Jesus the Lord. A few centuries later and further east, logians—contextually bound as both are—must finally become Patriarch Timothy of Baghdad defended Christian teaching to fully engaged with the issues of spiritual agents, sociological Islamic authorities, under whose rule he administered extensive dynamics, and people’s assumed universes. ecclesiastical and missionary structures. Multidisciplinary analyses are needed, including Evans- For modern Western missionaries, Jesuits in China and Prot- Pritchardesque anthropological examinations of relational estants in Africa alike have had to deal with beliefs and practices dynamics involved in perceived witchcraft activities. We also involving active and influential ancestors. The European heritage need Paul Hiebert–type critical realist approaches that are self- of Western missionaries has typically come to terms with ances- aware of Western “excluded middle” assumptions (that rule out tors either through sainthood or by “scientifically” explaining spiritual realities within a middle tier between God and this- them away. The unexpected encounter with both benevolent and worldly, scientifically observable phenomena). Related biblical malevolent powers regularly consulted by powerful chiefs and studies must wrestle with the medium, sometimes translated priests has presented an ongoing and vexing reality to expatriate witch, of Endor (1 Sam. 28) and related topics. The articles about missionaries unprepared for such interactions. witchcraft in this IBMR issue, which consider biblical, theological, The same has been true with witchcraft. Contemporary anthropological, sociological, historical, and pastoral aspects of Europeans and North Americans may blush at the early modern the subject, beckon us to accept the challenge and stride ahead. witch trials in Europe and in Europe’s North American colonies. Thankfully, we can rest assured that God graciously deals Accordingly, modern Western theologians and missiologists with us in our particular settings. That is, God does not dismiss have for generations conveniently turned a blind eye to such but takes seriously Christians who experience witchcraft realities, phenomena, which have been rumored to take place elsewhere. even while some expatriate critics might haughtily act otherwise. In actuality, however, witchcraft-related activities—including God’s gracious particular dealings also take seriously Christians violent witch hunts directed toward women and children— who honestly do not sense or believe in witchcraft matters—but stubbornly plague Christian communities all around the world. are genuinely open to being instructed otherwise. May we all Missiologists must catch up with these acute, long-neglected heed this urgent missiological call that for most of us has gone spiritual and pastoral issues. largely unnoticed far too long. Today, we as Christians and as human beings are more glob- —J. Nelson Jennings ally interconnected than ever before. This statement becomes Note more than platitude as we note recent worldwide reactions to the 1. Subir Bhaumik, “Indian Athlete Debjani Bora Beaten in ‘Witch West African Ebola epidemic or to the religio-military conflicts Hunt,’” BBC News India, October 17, 2014, www.bbc.com/news in Syria and Iraq. Today’s requisite missiological response to the /world-asia-india-29655662.

InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1977. Renamed International Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by the Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511. (203) 624-6672 • Fax (203) 865-2857 • [email protected] • www.internationalbulletin.org • Join IBMR on Facebook Editor Contributing Editors J. Nelson Jennings Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be addressed to the Catalino G. Arévalo, S.J. Senior Associate Editor editors. Manuscripts should be submitted to the editor as e-mail attachments. Opinions expressed J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu Dwight P. Baker in the IBMR are those of the authors and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. Daniel H. Bays The articles in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Bibliografia Missionaria, Book Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Assistant Editors Review Index, Christian Periodical Index, Guide to People in Periodical Literature, Guide to William R. Burrows Craig A. Noll Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature, IBR (International Bibliography of Book Angelyn Dries, O.S.F. Rona Johnston Gordon Reviews), IBZ (International Bibliography of Periodical Literature), Missionalia, Religious Samuel Escobar Managing Editor and Theological Abstracts, and Religion Index One: Periodicals. John F. Gorski, M.M. Daniel J. Nicholas ONLINE E-JOURNAL: The IBMR is available in e-journal and print editions. To Darrell L. Guder Senior Contributing Editors subscribe—at no charge—to the full text IBMR e-journal (PDF and HTML), go to www Philip Jenkins Gerald H. Anderson .internationalbulletin.org/register. Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are also available Daniel Jeyaraj Jonathan J. Bonk on databases provided by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and Graham Kings Robert T. Coote University Microfilms. Back issues may be purchased or read online. Consult InfoTrac database Anne-Marie Kool at academic and public libraries. Steve Sang-Cheol Moon Circulation PRINT SUBSCRIPTIONS: Subscribe, renew, or change an address at www Mary Motte, F.M.M. Becka Sisti, [email protected] .internationalbulletin.org or write InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research, P.O. C. René Padilla (203) 285-1559 Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning print subscriptions Dana L. Robert Advertising and missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator, [email protected]. Single copy price: $8. Lamin Sanneh See www.internationalbulletin Subscription rate worldwide: one year (4 issues) $32. Foreign subscribers must pay with Wilbert R. Shenk .org/advertise. Advertising U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order. Airmail Brian Stanley manager: Patrick Shanley delivery $16 per year extra. Tite Tiénou Shanley + Associates, LLC POSTMASTER: Send address changes to InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary Ruth A. Tucker (312) 919-1306 research, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT. Desmond Tutu [email protected] Andrew F. Walls 405 N. Wabash Avenue, #3009 Copyright © 2015 OMSC. All rights reserved. (ISSN 0272-6122) Anastasios Yannoulatos Chicago, IL 60611

2 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Putting Witch Accusations on the Missiological Agenda: A Case from Northern Peru Robert J. Priest

s I write this article, I am in Kinshasa at a conference my sick daughter behind, so I took her and my wife with me. Aon child witchcraft (August 21–23, 2014) with fifty In Lima the gringos [with the Summer Institute of Linguistics] Congolese pastors and three other speakers (Andy Alo, Opoku helped me much and put her in the children’s hospital. They Onyinah, and Timothy Stabell) who are part of an emerging diagnosed her as having meningitis. All the gringos prayed for network of theologians and missiologists focused on witch my daughter—as did many pastors. 1 I used to be very faithful with “religion.” My wife was not so accusations today. Thousands of Kinshasa’s orphans have been faithful. She always had doubts. But I said, “If I have faith, she’ll accused of causing the death of their own parents through witch- get better.” So I believed God for healing. The meningitis did get craft, the accusations frequently endorsed by pastors, and the better, but stomach problems developed that the doctor could accused children often abandoned to the streets. But the pastors not explain. My wife wished to take her back to the rain forest at this conference, as part of the organization Equipe Pastorale to be treated by an iwishin [shaman]. I refused. She predicted auprès des Enfants en Détresse, led by Pastor Abel Ngolo, focus our daughter would die and I would be to blame. That night on the well-being of accused children as they struggle to make I dreamed my clothes were floating away down river.2 In the sense of theological and pastoral issues involved, and as they morning I told my wife about the dream, and she said, “Yes, it’s strategize and work to turn the tide on the mistreatment of our daughter. She’s going to die.” We arrived at the hospital only accused children. to learn she had died in the night. When I returned to my community, my uncle did not come to From the street children in Kinshasa to the killing of male greet me. I didn’t say anything to anyone about my suspicions. witches in Peru or of elderly female widows in Tanzania, to the Later my uncle got drunk and fought with his own son. Then he witch villages of Ghana or the witch burnings of New Guinea, took the poison barbasco and died alone. He was a womanizer it would be difficult to come up with a missiological topic that is and dedicated himself to the use of tsumaik and pusanga [love more timely, or a topic that missionaries, pastors, and theologians magic]. The old men said it was doubtless his use of such strong in general are less prepared to engage. Much is at stake in wise pusanga and constant thoughts of women that caused him to be contextual engagement. In this article I introduce the topic, not so disoriented as to commit suicide. in the abstract, but through ethnographic case material from After this I said, “I prayed much to God, and he didn’t hear northern Peru. As should become evident, however, similar pat- me.” So I distanced myself from God. terns and issues are present around the world wherever witch ideologies and accusatory practices exist. Assessing the theological and pastoral issues posed by this account requires us to consider pre-Christian cultural pat- A Brief Case terns, new dynamics introduced by Christianity, and broader patterns present in both older and more recent Aguaruna Shajian (a pseudonym), a brilliant leader of bilingual education in witch narratives. Peru, was known among Aguaruna Christians for his opposition to the church. Yet as he told me his life story, Shajian momentarily Pre-Christian Cultural Patterns grew wistful and nostalgic as he described early experiences as a young Christian with answered prayers and Gospel witness. I Anthropologists find that people within any given society asked him what the turning point for him had been, and he told tend to share with each other cultural assumptions about what me the following story about prayer and witchcraft. causes prosperity or misfortune. Depending on what those assumptions are in a given society, there will also tend to be My daughter, at four months, was sitting up and crawling. She characteristic response patterns—something that is certainly would smile in recognition of me and hold out her arms to be true for the Aguaruna. picked up. She was healthy and intelligent. I was proud of her. One day an uncle of mine, suspected of being a tunchi [witch], Cultural assumptions. In every society bad things happen to came to my house for a visit. I glanced up from [reading] a paper people—material setbacks, infertility, illness, and death. For the and caught him looking at my daughter with a contorted face, Aguaruna bad things also include high rates of snakebite, drown- with malevolence. It shocked me. Then he asked, “How come you have such an intelligent, good-looking, healthy daughter ings in dangerous rivers, and injuries while felling trees, as well while my children are sickly and not intelligent?” That night my as illnesses such as dysentery, influenza, hepatitis, infections, daughter came down with a fever. At the time I was studying intestinal parasites, leishmaniasis, malaria, measles, meningitis, in Lima and had only a fifteen-day break. I didn’t want to leave tuberculosis, and whooping cough. In most societies, practices exist that treat afflictions as material events calling for medicinal Robert J. Priest is G. W. Aldeen Professor of Interna- remedies. The Aguaruna are no exception; they possess complex tional Studies and professor of mission and anthropol- understandings of and numerous biomedical remedies for all 3 ogy at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, sorts of medical conditions. But when material interventions Illinois. A past president of the American Society of fail to achieve success, people in many societies often appeal to Missiology, he currently serves as president of the other causal ontologies to account for and address misfortune. Evangelical Missiological Society. —[email protected] In the culture of Job’s comforters, unresolved misfortunes were attributed to the sin of the sufferer. One reaps what one sows. A variety of cultures around the world operate with such karmic

January 2015 3 moral causal ontologies. But if Job had been Aguaruna, wise Identifying the witch. Historically, when an Aguaruna is sick local counselors would never have attributed his misfortunes and approaching death, widespread whispered speculations to his own sin, but rather to the agency of a third party, an envi- about the identity of the witch emerge and intensify. In one ous, malign neighbor or relative thought to have caused harm respect the Aguaruna diverge from many cultures in that only through occult powers. Worldwide, such a witch causal ontology men are accused. In other respects suspicions are similar to is much more common than the moral causal ontology evident worldwide patterns where witch accusations are present. in the Book of Job.4 Anybody known to have exemplified envy or ill will toward The actual explanation of how witch power operates or the afflicted is a suspect. Any prior conflict with the afflicted is acquired varies from culture to culture. In some cultures is grounds for suspicion. Anyone who directly benefits from this power is understood as inborn, perhaps located in the the death is suspect. But also suspected is anyone perceived liver, the eye, or another organ of the body. For other cultures in general as being envious, antisocial, angry, resentful, or unhappy. Quite naturally, the individuals most likely to exhibit envy, resentment, and unhappiness are often those who are The stakes are high and themselves poor, blind, crippled, socially marginal, chroni- cally ill, or mentally disturbed, and who are thus a continually people contribute stories resented imposition on others. designed to deflect It is worth keeping in mind that usually many individuals are potential candidates for suspicion. Aguaruna village life suspicion from themselves is full of remembered slights and insults, adulterous affairs, and fix it onto another. conflicts over marriageable women, failures of reciprocity, and envy at the unfair advantages of others. Most of this is publi- cally known and much discussed. Thus with every death there this power is socially acquired. The power may be thought are many people who might naturally be suspected of having of as psychic, magical (involving manipulation of substances desired the death. Since prior gossip triggered by prior deaths or words), or tied to spirits of the dead. For example, the has already generated in each village a significant pool of “sus- Aguaruna believe that witches (tunchi) have invisible magic pected” witches, their names quickly get recycled as suspects darts (tsentsak) in their throat. Like the poison-tipped darts when the next death occurs. of Aguaruna blowguns, these darts can be shot into someone Consider Shajian’s situation. When powerful foreigners else in a way that is unfelt but eventually brings death. A selected him as a young lad to receive an education and arranged tunchi, angry at his mother, might reply to her with sharp for him to enter a government salaried position, he was catapulted irritation—completely unaware that he has “shot” her with by his early twenties into comparative wealth and prominent his tsentsak, thereby causing her death. That is, the power of leadership far beyond that of his “fathers” and “uncles” and the tunchi may or may not be consciously acquired and exer- “brothers.” When he and his “brothers” sought wives from cised. Cultures with witch ontologies differ in many beliefs, the same small pool of eligible young women, he married the including which age or gender is likely to be a witch, where desirable one that others had hoped to marry. In a context where the power is located in the body, how the power is acquired, deficiencies in childhood nutrition and debilitating parasites and how conscious or unconscious one is in exercising the power, diseases are common, his daughter was unusually healthy and and the exact nature of the power being exercised. They are intelligent. Like Joseph with his coat of many colors, Shajian was united, however, in the belief that, when misfortune strikes an surrounded by numerous deeply envious individuals, not just individual, another person—a third party—has maliciously the one later named as a witch. caused the misfortune through a mysterious power. Traditionally, the stakes are high in terms of who is identi- fied as the witch, since this person will likely be killed. There- Triggering event. While the Aguaruna do not associate every pass- fore when someone is sick and approaching death, anxiety ing illness with witchcraft, if the affliction is particularly intractable builds, and gossip attempts to fix blame. The very people who or mysterious, and especially if it results in death, then it triggers naturally might be suspected because of their own prior griev- sustained talk about who is the guilty witch. Deaths by suicide ances or sinful sentiments toward the afflicted will deny any or homicide (with shotgun, spear, or poison) are not attributed witchlike sentiments in themselves and often dramaturgically to witchcraft. But almost every other death—from snakebite or proclaim their own righteous indignation, moral solidarity with drowning to malaria or hepatitis—is blamed on a third party said the afflicted, and willingness to help avenge the death. They to be a witch. Eventually, virtually every nonviolent death will contribute stories designed to deflect suspicion from them- be framed with a compelling narrative about a supposed witch, selves and fix it onto another. People kill witches for the very just as with Shajian’s narrative. traits exemplified in their own lives. In such a climate few are prepared to defend another from suspicion, lest suspicion be Retaliatory impulse. Among the most primordial of human impulses redirected onto them. But many are prepared to immediately is the feeling that murderers should be punished. Often, as with endorse and provide testimony against another party upon the Aguaruna, this demand for justice is articulated in the lan- whom suspicion is coalescing, and to announce themselves guage of debt (diwi). Among the Aguaruna every killing should willing to join in killing the witch. Dying adults, as a last act at be remembered and avenged, with masculine values of honor the point of death, will often whisper to a close male relative and family loyalty mobilized against those who kill relatives. the name of someone they suspect of killing them and will ask And since all nonviolent deaths are understood as caused by for a promise that their death will be avenged. witches—who in Aguaruna culture are male—each such death When an illness does not yield to medical remedies, a sha- imposes the requirement of an additional death; someone else man may be called to diagnose the problem, to counteract it, and must die in retaliation. sometimes to identify the witch. Aguaruna shamans have a single

4 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 diagnosis: “Somebody did this to you.” They work to remove relatives or other neighbors who they continue to believe have the tsentsak and cure the afflicted. Especially if there have been committed murder by means of witchcraft, but against whom several deaths, a shaman is asked to name the witch. Usually their only recourse is to trust God and endure. When repeated he names a person that the community already suspects, thus deaths occur, pressure often builds to avenge the deaths (and professionally endorsing community suspicions. get rid of the person thought to be waging destruction in the community). Male relatives of the deceased who are reluctant Killing the witch. Aguaruna males are socialized to participate in to lead the witch killing are condemned for not having loved homicides.5 As long as the ambush of a witch is organized by a the deceased, for not being real men, and for not defending relative of the deceased victim who himself initiates the violence, family honor. The result is that even church leaders sometimes the accompanying group can with moral solidarity righteously cave in to social pressure and participate in a homicide. More join in the killing, with each person shooting into, or spearing, frequently, the retaliatory violence is perpetrated by those not the body. Historically, only by participating in such a homicide in good standing at church. Thus retaliatory violence against could an Aguaruna male achieve the full adult status necessary supposed tunchi continues, although at reduced rates. for marriage, and only through such homicides could one acquire the coveted status of kakajam, “powerful one.” Every death then Prohibition on recourse to shamans. Aguaruna evangelical churches triggered great pressure toward identifying and killing the witch, have insisted that Christians not consult iwishin when sick. with the relative of the deceased responsible to mobilize a group Herbal remedies, Western medicine, and prayer are employed. (ipaamamu) that was usually disposed to respond with alacrity Since the single diagnosis of Aguaruna shamans is the socially (asum) to the invitation to kill the accused. Since Aguaruna destructive message that some neighbor or family member is to culture constructed fully respected masculine identity around blame for each illness or death,7 the ban on consulting shamans participation in revenge homicides, making such participation has worked against shamanic influence, which converted every essential to male status, homicide rates were high. According death into the need for a revenge killing. That is, the churches’ to Michael Brown’s study, undertaken after Christianity was ban has mitigated the frequency of confident assertions that already beginning to have an impact, 37 percent of Aguaruna witches are at work. adult male deaths were due to homicide, a figure he believes Some Christians do, however, in moments of life-crisis, would have been higher in the past.6 Men like Shajian are less when prayer and medicine appear not to work, consult a sha- likely to kill a suspected witch these days, although they may man—and are disciplined by their church for doing so. When a still suspect that every death constitutes a murder. village has several deaths sequentially, pressure builds to consult a shaman to determine the identity of the witch. If a majority in a New Dynamics under Christianity village are Christians, a shaman will not be called. If a minority of villagers are Christians, a shaman may be called. Since every Evangelism brought with it a message against retaliatory vio- lence and with a promise of peace and goodwill. Widespread conversions to evangelical Christianity from the 1950s to the 1970s sometimes involved almost utopian expectations of peace Widespread conversions and harmony, with a belief that sickness and death would be to evangelical Christianity removed. The earlier ritual complex associated with spirit visions and retaliatory violence as the route to prestige and influence from the 1950s to the 1970s was displaced by bilingual education, with pastors and salaried sometimes involved almost schoolteachers the new influential leaders in the community. Shamans, with their single professional diagnosis (“somebody utopian expectations of did this to you”), were less frequently consulted, and Western peace and harmony. medicine became increasingly relied upon. But witch ideologies continued to present many pastoral challenges. villager is expected to pay part of the cost, this step creates a Prohibition against violent retribution. Today even non-Christian crisis for Christians on whether to pay, with some thrown into Aguaruna identify evangelical Christianity as having created village jails for not paying. When the shaman arrives, everyone is a profound shift in moral consensus, to the effect that it is expected to line up and allow the shaman to determine if they wrong to kill other people in “revenge.” Older men sometimes are the witch. Christians typically refuse, retreating to their complain that “pastors control our community”—meaning that own church for prayer and singing, with the shaman (whose the moral suasion of pastors works against their own desires influence is being challenged) declaring, not surprisingly, that to mobilize retaliatory violence. A new folk belief has emerged the witch is among the Christians. Non-Christians thus repeat that, if one’s death is avenged, one will not go to heaven—a the refrain that pastors and churches are protectors of witches, reflection of the assumption that revenge killings are ultimately which they bitterly resent. at the express wish of dying persons. Just as some Christians Many shamans have converted to Christianity, but they are have wondered whether suicides go to heaven, Aguaruna continually pressured to carry out shamanic healing. Since they Christians wonder whether a person whose dying act is to ask are thought to have the same power as the witch, while no longer for retaliation will go to heaven. Christians take care as they employing it to combat witchcraft, they are often the first to be die to forbid anyone to avenge their deaths, although they still suspected of killing through witchcraft. A high proportion of sometimes name the person they think responsible. Both Chris- such converts are subsequently killed as witches, as happened tians and non-Christians continue to attribute many deaths to with Sanchum, a locally famous former shaman, shortly after I the agency of human neighbors and relatives acting through collected his life story—despite his faithful church attendance witch powers. Christians then find themselves living next to and the fact that his son was a pastor.

January 2015 5 Crises of faith and new metanarratives. While Aguaruna Christians (and witchlike) sentiments that must be acknowledged and sometimes robustly claim the power of God against their fear repented of. This new element, I would argue, also undercuts of witches and the illness and deaths they cause, Christians and the scapegoating tendencies present in witch accusations. non-Christians alike still get sick and die. On old assumptions, each such illness or death is credited to witches. While converts Summary often tell striking stories of divine healing understood as God’s power over witchcraft, the same individuals later inevitably The overall effect of Christianity among the Aguaruna has been encounter illness and death that do not yield to medicine a reduced reliance on the socially divisive professional diagnosis or prayer. These subsequent experiences regularly provoke of Aguaruna shamans, a reduced tendency to attribute every profound crises of faith, as they did with Shajian. As long as death to witchcraft, an increased willingness to confess sinful one assumes that witches are the cause of all intractable afflic- sentiments in one’s self and not just in others, and a reduced tion—with witches now being understood as doing the work tendency to take violent action toward individuals thought to of Satan, with the presence or removal of affliction being what have caused misfortune. is at stake in the battle between good and evil—then every ill- But whenever deaths occur under conditions that para- ness and death that does not yield to prayers of faith creates a digmatically suggest witchcraft (a sudden or mysterious death crisis. The witch has won. occurring after a social conflict or expression of envy or anger, for The biblical message itself, as expounded by Aguaruna pas- example), Aguaruna Christians often do suspect that witches are tors, involves new metanarratives of evil. In place of the notion to blame. While few Christians support the killing of suspected of shamans and witches as having a kind of psychic or magical witches, most do avoid them as dangerous. Since the accused are power, Christians vacillate between two poles, either stalwartly often the individuals with the greatest social needs, this social denying their supposed powers or admitting that their powers avoidance has adverse consequences for the accused. In a world are real but reframing them as satanic. In contrast to the iwishin, where illnesses and deaths are both frequent and associated with whose narrative of sickness and death features the diagnosis neighbors thought to be acting through evil occult means, every that “somebody did this to you,” pastors stress a metanarrative affliction triggers deep anxieties about the dangers represented of death and suffering as a result of general human sinfulness. by secretly evil neighbors, relatives, or church members. Further- They teach that, just as Jesus underwent suffering and death, so more, each affliction understood as caused by a witch triggers a we too must undergo suffering, and that a complete reversal of spiritual crisis that is structured in rather different terms than the illness and death will occur only in heaven. They preach that crisis experienced when affliction is understood in a different God, who is muun (big or great), “holds our lives in his hand” frame of reference. and that nothing can touch us apart from his control.8 People in Europe and North America no longer commonly While traditional Aguaruna culture directed moral judgment attribute misfortunes to the agency of neighbors, relatives, or away from self and onto others as the presumed repository of evil, colleagues thought to be acting through evil witch power. It is conversion to Christianity profoundly shifted moral discourse not surprising, then, that theological education in the West fails so as to require a recognition of self as sinner on the part of all to substantively consider the theological and pastoral issues converts.9 Instead of a community self-righteously projecting involved with witch ideologies. But since such patterns are com- all evil onto a single person to be killed, the new Christian mon across major swaths of the globe, it is high time for this topic message requires an endorsement that each of us has sinful to move to the center of theological and missiological attention.10

Notes 1. In this article “witch” refers to anyone, male or female, accused of 7. For an analysis of the negative social consequences of this diagnostic maliciously having harmed another through evil occult power. system, see Michael Brown’s “Dark Side of the Shaman,” Natural 2. For an analysis of Aguaruna dream interpretation, see Robert J. History 11 (November 1989): 8–10. Priest, “Defilement, Moral Purity, and Transgressive Power: The 8. To date, Aguaruna pastors do not claim the power to name and deal Symbolism of Filth in Aguaruna Jívaro Culture” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. with witches, as sometimes happens elsewhere and which raises of California, Berkeley, 1993), 107–33. another whole set of issues. See my article “The Value of Anthro- 3. Ibid., 54–101. pology for Missiological Engagements with Context: The Case of 4. Richard A. Shweder, Why Do Men Barbecue? Recipes for Cultural Witch Accusations,” Missiology (forthcoming). Psychology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2003), 74–133. 9. Robert J. Priest, “‘I Discovered My Sin!’: Aguaruna Evangelical 5. Priest, “Defilement, Moral Purity, and Transgressive Power,” 244–353. Conversion Narratives,” in The Anthropology of Religious Conversion, 6. Michael Brown, Una paz incierta: Historia y Cultura de las Comunidades ed. Andrew Buckser and Stephen Glazier (Lanham, Md.: Rowman Aguarunas Frente al Impacto de la Carretera Marginal (Lima, Peru: & Littlefield, 2003), 95–108. CAAAP, 1984), 197. Brown reports that in Jane Ross’s study of the 10. Within selected immigrant communities such patterns are increas- less acculturated but closely related Achuar, fully 59 percent of male ingly present in Europe and North America as well. deaths were due to homicide.

Guidelines for Contributors Guidelines for contributors to the International Bul- lishes original articles and reviews of analysis and reflec- letin of Missionary Research can be found online at tion upon the Christian world mission. Articles previ- www.internationalbulletin.org/node/377. The IBMR pub- ously published in print or online will not be accepted.

6 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 FACULTY APPOINTMENT Chair and Professor of the Graduate Department of Evangelism and Leadership & Director of The Billy Graham Center For Evangelism

Wheaton College seeks a unique individual with academic and leadership gifts including strong teaching, a scholarly track record, field experience, and outstanding administrative gifts to lead the newly merging academic Department of Evangelism and Leadership and the Billy Graham Center For Evangelism.

Responsibilities include teaching core courses in the MA program in Evangelism and Leadership and the program in Missional Church Movements, as well as administrative leadership of the team of professionals forming the reorganizing Billy Graham Center For Evangelism, which serves Wheaton College and the broader Church to advance the cause of biblical evangelism across multiple constituencies. Candidates are expected to hold a Ph.D. in Evangelism or a related field.

For more information, visit bit.ly/wcevangelismchair.

Read more about Wheaton College and its programs at wheaton.edu. Beyond the Fence: Confronting Witchcraft Accusations in the Papua New Guinea Highlands Philip Gibbs

orcery and witchcraft beliefs and practices are common By killing the witch-host, it is presumed that the spirit- Sin Papua New Guinea (PNG), yet differ considerably creature will die, which is a fundamental belief that leads to the throughout the country.1 This article addresses witchcraft- killing of people accused of sanguma. Those cruelly killing the related accusations and violence in the PNG Highlands. I take accused often think they are doing their duty, in the sense that up a case from the Enga Province, illustrating the complexi- they feel they have to defend the clan from a malicious power ties of issues raised by people in an Enga faith community. that has killed and could kill again. How can I as a missionary for over forty years in this region Such beliefs are common in the Simbu and Jiwaka Provinces, accompany the Christian community as they try to respond but in recent times they seem to be spreading to other provinces to an outbreak of witchcraft-related violence in their area? and to settlements in major towns. There has been a recent diffu- sion of this belief and associated violence westward, including the Highlands Sanguma Enga Province. Violence is not new in Enga, but previously there was no tradition there of torturing or killing people thought to Witchcraft in the PNG Highlands, called sanguma,2 involves a be possessed by a spirit-creature. With intermarriage and recent malevolent power that is said to take the form of a creature such frequent travel to and from the Simbu and Jiwaka Provinces, as a rat, bat, frog, or flying fox, with the power to kill or harm however, some people in Enga now refer to sanguma witchcraft that involves magically removing a person’s heart and eating the flesh of corpses.6 A Case in the Enga Province

There have been several cases in the Enga Province in recent years in which women have been killed (usually burned) or brutally tortured after being accused of practicing witchcraft. In this article I will follow one case in an area where I was formerly parish priest. The Christian community admitted confusion over the issue, and I found myself presented with several choices. Should I treat witchcraft with skepticism, or should I take people’s beliefs seriously? How much should I as an outsider intervene with a scientific viewpoint and ideals based on modern principles of human rights? How should I deal with issues of moral causal ontology in which misfortune is due to one’s own wrongdoing, or of interpersonal causal ontology, in which malicious persons are understood to cause the misfortune? To what degree should 3/16" = approximately 50 miles I entertain the reality of demonic powers and theologies of spiritual warfare? As an anthropologist, theologian, and former parish priest, I felt I should intervene, but I was uncertain how people.3 The spirit-creature lives within the body of its host, and to do so in a way that would benefit the Christian community even without the conscious approval of its host, the spirit-creature and the accused. can take another form and roam around, eating human waste In 2013 a young man died from unspecified causes in Wabag and searching for human flesh, particularly vital organs like the hospital (in Enga Province). Some people said that during his heart or liver.4 Witches are thought to hide vital organs removed funeral, while people were mourning and his body had not yet from a victim for later consumption.5 So when a person (usually been buried, word went around that the dead man had called by a woman) is accused of being a witch and of stealing a victim’s mobile phone and named a woman, saying that she had taken heart, her accusers may brutally interrogate and torture her, his heart and that this had caused his death. Male relatives of the demanding that she disclose where she has hidden the victim’s deceased seized two women and proceeded to torture them with heart and commanding her to return it so that the victim might heated iron rods and bush knives, demanding to know where be healed or restored to life. they had put his heart and telling them to put it back. The women were brutally assaulted but could not comply with the men’s Philip Gibbs, SVD, is a Divine Word missionary, born requests. One woman died from her injuries. The other, terribly in New Zealand and working in Papua New Guinea burned, managed to escape, walking the next day to where she since 1973. At present he is secretary for the Com- received assistance to get to a hospital in another province. She mission for Social Concerns for the Catholic Bishops’ was seven months pregnant and her baby died, suffering burns Conference for Papua New Guinea and Solomon while in the uterus. Islands. —[email protected] The survivor was Maria, whom I met in another province shortly after she had been discharged after five months in hos- pital. Despite the dangers of returning home, she was looking

8 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 forward to being reunited with her husband and children, and Africa, asks why people admit to doing things that they could she wanted to have her innocence declared publically through a not have done, even in their wildest imagination. He argues that court hearing. I decided to go and meet with the church leaders people interiorize the vision and values of their culture and are in her home community. They were alarmed and raised several unable to break out into alternative frameworks. He sounds a concerns. warning that “any campaign against witches always results in strengthening people’s fear of witches and consequently their Concerns of the Community acceptance of the theory.”8 Even before a confession, there is a tendency in PNG to Concerns raised by the community included the following: presume that the accused is guilty. If a diviner points to a person, that person is automatically presumed guilty. Such persons, • They feared further violence and being blamed for being a supporter of the accused. • They worried, too, that Maria had admitted (under torture) to being a witch, so why try to support such an evil person? • They were confused, saying that they were Christians, yet they admitted that they believed in witchcraft.

I consider these three points in turn.

Fear of further violence. What if Maria returned and something would go wrong—for example, if someone would get sick and die? In such an instance Maria might be accused again, and then those who had helped her return would also be blamed. Some said that we should get “permission” first from those who had tortured her. Then there would be less Maria (on left) being welcomed on a return visit to Yampu in 2013 likelihood of others being blamed. Not everyone had been against Maria. Some said that they once they have been accused, tortured, or expelled from the had tried to help her but were accosted by men armed with axes community, have little chance of successfully defending their and bush knives and that they abandoned attempts to help, lest innocence. When Catholic sisters came to intervene in the case they too be badly injured or even killed. Remembering such of a woman being tortured near Mendi in the Southern High- violence and the horror of a woman with third-degree burns lands Province in 2012, some people called out, “Sanguma i over 40 percent of her body, people did not want to risk a repeat kam” (witches are coming). Fortunately, even though they were episode. Why return and risk further violence? Could she not frightened, the sisters were not deterred by such accusations. remain elsewhere and let remembrance of the whole incident For most people, however, it is a terrifying thought that, if they gradually fade away? defend the accused, people might point to them—and then how would they prove their innocence? Why support a person who has admitted to being a witch? In many Even if a formerly accused person were to return, claim- cases I hear people saying that the accused person admitted ing innocence and appearing quite “normal,” this would still to being a witch. For example, in the case of Kepari Leniata, a be insufficient for some. A health worker gave the example of young woman burned alive in February 2013 in Mount Hagen sleepwalking. He said that persons sleepwalking are not con- (Western Highlands), most people I have spoken with tell me scious of what they are doing and might have no recall of what that they believe she truly was a witch because she had admitted they did while sleepwalking. Analogously, the sanguma spirit is it, and two women from Simbu had corroborated this evidence, believed to leave the body of its host when he or she is sleeping. saying that they had seen her cook and consume the heart she Later, when such persons awake, they will have no idea what had stolen from a young man. malicious acts the sanguma spirit might have performed while In response to such claims, I ask whether the confession outside of their body. was made while the accused was being tortured. In most cases it appears that confession was extracted under extreme tor- Confusion over belief in Christianity and in witchcraft. Many Chris- ture. People say that they have to torture the truth out of the tians admitted that they were confused. The group directly accused. How reliable is confession under torture? As Nick involved in the torture are unchurched, but the surrounding Schwartz notes in his book Thinking Critically about Sorcery and community is predominantly Catholic. They renew their baptis- Witchcraft, some people confess their guilt, hoping that their mal promises every year during the Easter ceremonies, agreeing assailants will simply kill them and thus relieve them of the to “reject Satan and all his works and empty promises.” In doing hell of prolonged torture.7 so, they reinforce their belief in good and evil and the way good David Bosch, writing on the experience of witchcraft in and evil can be personified—good personified in Jesus Christ,

January 2015 9 and evil personified in Satan. Like most Papua New Guineans, are two possibilities here. The fence could separate real from they believe in the spiritual, supernatural, or nonempirical realm. unreal, thus allowing a person to say that they do not believe in Outsiders might call it a magical worldview. the power of sorcery. The other possibility is to have the fence The church leaders requested a two-day workshop to separate real powers, keeping the power of witchcraft outside clarify issues. In November 2013 I facilitated the workshop the protective fence. Several participants witnessed that they for about fifty people from the parish. Several topics were were no longer afraid of sorcery or witchcraft, and this change shared during the workshop: points from history on witchcraft left them feeling confident and free—in other words, for them, in Europe, some linguistic clarifications, issues of cultural ideas of sorcery were disempowered. Those Christians who identity, and lessons from Scripture. continued to entertain such thoughts about witchcraft stories Participants were alarmed to hear that, before the Enlighten- were allowing them inside the fence and so experienced confu- ment in Europe, thousands of accused witches had been killed sion due to conflicting beliefs. Thus it was not so much a matter there. This historical information was new to them. The reality of believing or not believing in the reality of evil, but of having of witchcraft was not questioned, but the extent of the horror one’s faith commitment provide a sense of security in the face in Europe between 1450 and 1770 brought the response, “We of evil power.10 certainly don’t want that to happen here!” We clarified linguistic terms. Enga people have a traditional A Return Visit belief in yama, which amounts to the personification of the mali- cious effects of envy. For example, if someone carrying pork or After the workshop, one weekend in November 2013 Maria another valued food item meets a person on the way home and and her husband came with me to Enga. As she approached is not willing to share, then the resultant ill-feeling (conscious the area where she had been tortured, she said she was feeling or unconscious) can result in illness or another misfortune for comfortable, but her body language indicated otherwise, as she the person or the family of the one carrying the food. People pulled the hood of her jacket down over her face. Then, as we say that experienced elders or a ritual expert might see or hear drove up in the hills, upon seeing her house across the valley, signs of yama (such as a whistling noise), and as a consequence she pointed and spoke just one word, “Home.” There was a they might recite a spell telling the person with yama to come moving nostalgia about the expression, for she knew it was still too dangerous to go there. She spent the night elsewhere with her married daughter. The next day she and her husband attended Sunday mass Participants were alarmed at the local parish church. At the end of mass a leader addressed to hear that, before the the congregation of about 500 people, noting her presence. Afterward, the majority of adults came to her warmly with hugs Enlightenment in Europe, and many tears. Admittedly these churchgoers had had little thousands of accused to do directly with her accusation and torture. Notably, several witches had been killed people present who had been implicated in the accusations and torture did not come to greet her, but kept their distance. there. Later that afternoon we traveled several hundred kilometers to another province, where she is currently living. Maria reflected as we drove, saying that her accusers must have been jealous with a recognizable sign, such as clay rubbed around his or of her because she had a good house and garden and enjoyed a her eyes, so as to be given food or some other valuable that happy marriage. Judging from other cases I have encountered, had been put aside as an enticement.9 Some people in Enga jealousy seems to be a common motive leading to accusations today are reinterpreting yama in terms of sanguma sorcery. of a person being a witch. This is dangerous, since yama beliefs have traditionally not Some weeks later I spoke with several of those who had been associated with the violent torture and killing related to tortured Maria. They still were convinced that the charges against sanguma. It was important to clarify this point so that people Maria were correct and that she was responsible for the deaths could be clearer in their terminology. The debate on language of three persons. First, she had killed the young man through also led to discussion on cultural identity. Are there ways they sanguma witchcraft. Second, in her fear after being accused she can prevent customary beliefs of a neighboring culture group had named another woman, thereby accusing her (the one who from diffusing into their own? eventually died) of being a witch. She was therefore responsible We selected Bible passages, particularly from the Gospels, for the death of this other woman. Third, since Maria would not and noted how Jesus had dealt mercifully with persons pos- put back the heart of the deceased, she had to be tortured in an sessed by evil spirits, such as in the healing of what appears to effort to make her do so. In the process, her unborn baby was be a boy suffering from epilepsy (Matt. 17:14–21). Participants killed, so she was responsible for that death as well. Moreover, reported that such passages helped them realize how a Chris- the men claimed that Maria could possibly be responsible for tian response should seek healing and not destructive violence. a fourth serious problem and that there would be trouble and Also, from a Gospel perspective, could it be that evil lies with even violence if she returned intending to stay. As far as they the accusers rather than the accused? were concerned, the only prudent solution was for Maria to Study of healing stories in the Christian Gospels led to the forgive and forget—and to stay away. issue of belief and decision-making. Participants put it in terms The men explained their view of the torture. “The reason for of a fence. If a fence around a garden is strong and intact, then a torturing Maria was not to kill her. It was not done as a game or pig cannot get inside to destroy the garden. Similarly, they could for fun. She was tortured when other people who were living have a “thought fence” to regulate their minds, which could in Mount Hagen or Simbu said that she must have placed the keep them from being troubled by the stories circulating. There heart in a cool place under a waterfall and she would eat it after

10 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 the burial of the deceased.”11 They were hoping that, with the it is important to listen to people. Still, I challenged them to return of his heart, the deceased would be saved and return to life. think beyond the fence. Christians may shelter behind a fence of security, but does not the witness of the Gospels urge us to Christian Community and Witchcraft Accusations help people change their interpretive framework, to turn from returning evil for evil, and to take responsibility personally or This account of Maria’s return and the response of the men who communally for what is going wrong in society—outside the had accused her illustrate a number of issues relevant to a mis- fence? Misfortune need not come from Satan; it can arise from siological response to witchcraft. The men who tortured Maria are our own injustice. The Gospel teaches us to help the weakest and not just young men with a blood lust or high on marijuana. They most vulnerable members of society—the orphans and widows, are people caught up in conflicting beliefs about life and death. who are often the very target for witchcraft accusations. Leav- According to the logic of Melanesian cultural tradition, misfortune ing ontological questions about reality aside, we cannot ignore is caused by someone else who must be identified. Moreover, if the that there is a commandment, “Thou shalt not kill.” Is not the situation is one of life and death, then it is urgent that the person Christian community urged to find alternatives to the violence responsible be found out, in order to force her (or him) to reverse the effects of the alleged sorcery. It is so urgent, in fact, that people are prepared to torture “the truth” out of the accused. We must be wary of How is one to respond as a Christian in this scenario? Par- ticipants in the workshop suggested the image of the fence that interpreting suffering, keeps them safe in a world where unleashed pigs would cause illness, and death as God’s destruction to the garden inside. The image appeals to those for whom personal faith commitment provides a sense of security. curse, or in terms of the The image is helpful, but I find shortcomings with it because demonic. gaps in a personal “fence” (i.e., a personal weakness of faith) could easily promote a moral causal ontology in which misfor- tune is ascribed to one’s own wrongdoing. Prosperity theology associated with witchcraft accusations? People have terms in their promotes notions of the better off being blessed by God, and own language for envy and jealousy. Can we not name envy for the poor and marginalized suffering because of their sinfulness. what it is? Would this mean deliverance from selfishness rather There is similarity in the logic of such notions with the practice than spiritual warfare? of demonizing other human beings as evil. We must be wary of Most people prefer the security of the fence, but some have interpreting suffering, illness, and death as God’s curse, or in responded in ways that go beyond faith as security. Following terms of the demonic. the workshop and Maria’s visit, some people in the parish have In the PNG context an interpersonal or communal under- committed themselves to making sure that witchcraft accusa- standing of the causes of evil is more appropriate. Disciplines tions and torture will not recur in their area. Health workers are such as anthropology explain outbreaks of witchcraft accusa- expending extra effort to offer a biomedical explanation for ill- tions in terms of frustration following social disintegration ness. The local Legion of Mary group has invited several women and modernization.12 Social science treats witchcraft in terms suspected of being witches into their Legion group, where they of social processes. Christians refer to sin. Theologians call will be protected. Others promise to remind the community that it the problem of evil. One can view the fence from a com- violence has legal consequences and that they will support Maria munal perspective. But this can lead to abuse if the faithful if she takes her assailants to court. The context here is that of view themselves as a community virtuously united against a the community trying to find ways to protect potential victims, single evil scapegoat.13 while interacting with the invisible forces associated with the Conscious of always being a visitor in their presence, I think fundamental issue of insecurity and the uncertainties of life.

Notes 1. See Franco Zocca, ed., Sanguma in Paradise: Sorcery, Witchcraft, and 6. Talk of this new type of sorcery puts the blame on women, saying Christianity in Papua New Guinea (Goroka, PNG: Melanesian Institute, that Enga women who had gone to Simbu to buy magic for 2009). Also see Philip Gibbs, “Engendered Violence and Witch- restraining unfaithful husbands had mistakenly brought back Killing in Simbu,” in Engendering Violence in Papua New Guinea, ed. sanguma as well. Margaret Jolly, Christine Stewart, and Caroline Brewer (Canberra: 7. Nick Schwartz, Thinking Critically about Sorcery and Witchcraft Australian National Univ. E-Press, 2012), 107–36. (Goroka, PNG: Melanesian Institute, 2011), 51. 2. The term is similar to the term “sangoma” used in Africa for divin- 8. David Bosch, “The Problem of Evil in Africa: A Survey of African ers or traditional healers. See P. Maurice McCallum, “‘Sanguma’— Views on Witchcraft and of the Response of the Christian Church,” Tracking Down a Word,” Catalyst 36, no. 2 (2006): 183–207. in Like a Roaring Lion, ed. Pieter de Villiers (Pretoria: Univ. of South 3. In recent times people have come to view the spirit creature also in Africa, C. B. Powell Bible Centre, 1987), 48–49. other forms, even as a helicopter or a computer virus (Bishop Anton 9. There is an expression for this presentation in Enga: yama Bal in an address to a clergy conference in Mount Hagen, July 24, nenge yukingi (literally: pulling out the yama teeth). 2013). 10. The issue of security, including “spiritual security,” is an important 4. Casper Damien, “The Myth of Kumo: Knowing the Truth about point raised in Adam Ashforth, Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy Sanguma in Simbu Province,” Catalyst 35, no. 2 (2005): 128. Nowa- in South Africa (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2005). days in Simbu, bodies are buried in graves lined with concrete to 11. Interview with male relative at Tieliposa, March 22, 2014. prevent sangumas from accessing and eating the corpse. 12. Mary Douglas, “Sorcery Accusations Unleashed: The Lele Revisited,” 5. The term “victim” can be used in different senses. Most local people Africa 69, no. 2 (1999): 187. refer to the victim as the person made ill or killed by the sanguma. 13. Robert Priest, “Witches and the Problem of Evil,” Books and Culture Most outsiders refer to the victim as the person accused of being a 15, no. 6 (2009): 32. witch (sanguma).

January 2015 11 Healing Communities: Contextualizing Responses to Witch Accusations Steven D. H. Rasmussen, with Hannah Rasmussen

Yet let no one contend, and let none accuse. . . . My people a witch. I kill people.’”3 Yet African theologian Laurenti Magesa are destroyed for lack of knowledge. writes, “Witchcraft and polygamy . . . are the most prevalent —Hosea 4:4, 6 and intractable challenges to the Church today. Of the two, witchcraft is obviously the most widespread even in African hen I returned to the church I had attended for a Christian communities and at various levels of the Church’s Wdecade in Tanzania, I preached on witchcraft. I knew structure.”4 Samuel Kunhiyop, general secretary of a Nigerian that Deborah, the woman sitting next to me, had ministered church of six million, agrees that “there is an urgent need for as a pastor’s wife for forty-nine years. I did not know she was the culturally postulated reality of witchcraft to be addressed suspected of being a witch. pastorally with seriousness, sensitivity, and respect.”5 Witchcraft Just two months earlier outside Deborah’s home, a crowd accusations and uncertainty about a Christian response to them of young men with clubs, machetes, and stones surrounded her, are not solely African issues. Persecution and killing of people shouting, “We have come to finish you and your witchcraft!” suspected of being witches happens not only in Tanzania, Ghana, A young neighbor woman, Ellen, crawled in the dust toward South Africa, and Nigeria, but also in Amazonia, Papua New her, begging, “Stop strangling me!” Guinea, and London. Deborah raised her hand to God and said, “If I am a witch, may I die.”1 Discovering Relational Pathology A Fatal Epidemic During our first three years in Tanzania, my family was sick forty times—and then we stopped counting. Along with culture shock, Witchcraft accusations are a fatal epidemic in Tanzania, leading I had hepatitis A, malaria, and panic attacks. We buried a stillborn to an average of ten murders per week.2 Among the Sukuma daughter. I thought God had called me here to serve as principal people of northwest Tanzania, a witch (mchawi in Swahili) is of a Pentecostal Bible school—then why the pain? I taught on someone people accuse of using witchcraft (uchawi) to harm Job. I discovered that virtually all the ministers I taught had lost others through secret, evil means. Sick neighbors and family children. John Mwanzalima, a pastor and school administrator members readily voice suspicion that someone has harmed and my next-door neighbor, supported me through this time. At or bewitched them. Accusations turn to threats to “treat” the yet another funeral for a friend’s child, he said, “This is normal problem. If a suspected witch is fortunate, he or she is beaten, trouble. We have all experienced this.” is chased from the village, or pays a fine of money or a cow. But Whereas Western people tend to underemphasize the not every suspect is so lucky. More than once a day someone, relational facets of life, northwestern Tanzanians in general usually, like Deborah, a woman, is murdered for her or his see relationships as the key to everything. They therefore seek “crime.” It often happens before the evening meal, usually just relational explanations and cures also for their suffering. In May outside the person’s home. 1996, nine hundred people drowned when a ferry sank in Lake Pastors should be bringing healing to their communities, but Victoria. Tanzanians accused the president of having sacrificed their lack of context-specific understanding can be disastrous. people for political power. I did not understand this mentality. If someone is ill, misdiagnosis leads to the wrong treatment. In growing up, I thought of witches as just neighborhood kids A diagnosis that blames another person for someone’s illness in Halloween costumes. My Scandinavian American parents can be deadly for the accused—the supposed witch. When I preached in Pentecostal churches, but they did not blame witches researched witchcraft accusations in northwestern Tanzania, or cast out demons. As I learned a new culture and language, I discovered that local pastors had had no training on how to taught in Swahili, and developed friendships with Tanzanian address witchcraft accusations in their congregations. In the church leaders such as John Mwanzalima, I increasingly wanted “Search IBMR” database (www.omsc.org/searchibmr/index to know how these people explained sickness and death. When I .php), an important resource in missions and world Christian- was a student at Trinity International University in Illinois, Paul ity, I located no articles on sorcery or witchcraft in sixty years. Hiebert, Tite Tiénou, and Robert Priest taught me to analyze According to Andrew Walls, “Witchcraft is beyond the reach of worldviews. I read a study of 752 illness episodes in 68 cultures. Western theology. [Westerners said and say,] ‘It doesn’t exist. It In 15 percent of the cases, people believed that biomedical causes is an imaginary crime.’ . . . I have seen no pastoral theology book were involved. In another 15 percent they blamed the sick person that tells you what to do if someone comes to you and says, ‘I am for a moral failure. But 42 percent blamed someone else’s envy

Steven D. H. Rasmussen teaches intercultural stud- Hannah Rasmussen, daughter of Steven D. H. Ras- ies at the master’s and doctoral levels at Nairobi mussen, lives in Nairobi, Kenya, where she works Evangelical Graduate School of Theology, part of as an editorial assistant for the Africa Study Bible. Africa International University. From 1995 to 2008 She graduated from Macalester College, St. Paul, he lived in Mwanza, Tanzania, where he taught at Minnesota, with English and sociology majors. She and led Lake Victoria Christian College. Previously grew up in Tanzania and Kenya. he served as a pastor in the United States. —[email protected] —[email protected]

12 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 or anger. I learned that “for most peoples of the world, there are oracles identify a witch.”10 Usually the person named as a witch no faultless deaths.”6 is a relative of the patient, but it could be a neighbor, a lover, or What did Tanzanians believe? In the classes I taught at Lake anyone else in a significant relationship with the patient. The Victoria Christian College, I changed from a lecturer to a listener. healer minimizes the patient’s offense by emphasizing how evil For three years I interviewed people in Swahili about their expe- it is for the witch to inflict illness on another person. By transfer- rience of sickness and death. I participated in daily life, church ring the patient’s shame to someone else and trading uncertainty services, exorcisms, and funerals, recording over 100,000 words for a specific cause, healers are able to make the patient feel of field notes. The stories from my research consistently showed better. But in doing so they have seriously hurt someone else by that both life’s successes and its serious suffering depended on labeling her or him as a witch. As the patient tells others of the relationships. The people assumed that cases of malaria, for diagnosis and treatment, the accusation against the newfound instance, happened for a reason; they would ask, “Who sent the witch spreads throughout the community.11 mosquito?” While sometimes people blamed demons or ancestor spirits, usually they accused a relative or neighbor of bewitching Deborah’s Case them through invisible means. Mwanzalima told me that every time someone is seriously sick or dies, the relatives ask who Deborah’s relational problems began when her daughter-in-law, caused it, speculating about the identity of the witch. Neema, moved in with Deborah’s son, Marko, before they married. Deborah and her husband, a pastor, initially did not approve. Healers Who Harm It did not help that Neema was from a different country and tribe. The family eventually accepted Neema when she became While I was conducting my research, Mwanzalima’s own sister- pregnant and married Marko. The couple moved next door to in-law was hacked to death with a machete after her husband Deborah and her husband, and Deborah and Neema became died. People believed that she was a witch and had caused his close. Later, however, Neema began consulting neotraditional death, because she had argued with him before he died. In addi- healers, angering her religious in-laws, and their relationship tion, people knew that she had had three previous husbands, disintegrated. Marko was unable to reconcile his wife and his each of whom had died. To avenge her latest husband’s death, parents. Neema reacted with anger at his interference, and the his relatives hired machete assassins. two stopped sleeping together. Eventually she moved back to her Most likely, these relatives consulted a neotraditional own family in her native country, and Marko, taking a second healer (mganga wa kinyeji, literally local healer), who identified wife, moved away. Mwanzalima’s sister-in-law as the witch (mchawi) who had After some time, Neema came back to live with her in-laws. caused this death. The distinction between and the relationship Her eleven-year-old son was frequently sick. He sometimes lost tying together these two roles are key for understanding witch consciousness, and local pastors thought he was demon possessed. accusations. A healer is a public figure who claims to be able to Neema began to visit healers again, seeking a solution and an discover the causes of misfortunes through divination and to explanation for her suffering. Deborah told her not to bring these treat them. The divination often identifies some other person, a spiritual influences upon their household, recommending prayer witch, as the cause. Healers’ treatments include herbs, charms, or hospital treatment instead. and rituals understood to have social, spiritual, and physical The healer undoubtedly knew that the two women did not effects. Neotraditional healers are available and popular. In fact, get along and probably suggested that Deborah was the cause a Tanzanian scholar estimates that Tanzania has between 50 and of Neema’s suffering, because Neema soon began telling the 125 times more traditional healers than biomedical doctors (for the continent as a whole, he writes that “about 80 percent of the population . . . relies on traditional medicine as their primary A Tanzanian scholar has health care”).7 Koen Stroeken, a medical anthropologist, tries to explain estimated that Tanzania has the social and psychological process in neotraditional healing: between 50 and 125 times Sick people among the Sukuma of northwest Tanzania assume serious illness has a relational root. Perhaps the ancestors or more traditional healers the community are inflicting disease upon them as punishment than biomedical doctors. for an unknown offense. They worry that perhaps people think they are proud or have not shared—two of the worst possible offenses in Sukuma culture. For instance, if someone puts a tin neighbors that Deborah was a witch. At a wedding they both roof on his house when everyone else in the village has only a attended, Neema warned the bride not to open Deborah’s gift, thatch roof, he might fear that envious neighbors will bewitch saying, “It has a python inside.” Neema told neighbors that him. Sick people feel shame for their misdeeds, but are not sure Deborah kept a python in a cupboard but refused to let anyone what they did wrong or how to fix the problem.8 see it or kill it. Then Ellen, one of Neema’s friends, became sick, In order to understand the divination process—in effect, their and she began wailing, “Deborah, Deborah, why are you trying “medical examination”—Stroeken became a Sukuma healer. He to kill me?” Ellen’s husband, frantic for a cure, called his relatives says that during the patient-healer consultation it is the ances- and hired young men to kill the witch—Deborah. tors who speak through the mouth of the healer or communicate As the young men with machetes surrounded Deborah, a through the healer’s analysis of a sacrificed chicken. Healers village leader intervened, crying out, “Don’t touch that woman!” identify with the patient’s anxiety that the whole community The police grabbed her and put her in jail to protect her from is condemning them. Next, the healer tries to identify incidents vigilante “justice.” Early the next morning her other son arrived to that connect this sense of shame to one offended ancestor or an take her from the village to safety in the city. The village relaxed, individual, a witch.9 In half the cases, Stroeken found that “the having treated the problem, though with costly side effects.

January 2015 13 Treatment Options it also immediately breaks any relational credibility. For instance, after the 2007 election violence in Kenya, the International As I sat next to Deborah, I knew nothing of her story. But I did Criminal Court of the Hague called Uhuru Kenyatta to trial—and know that many Tanzanians feared and blamed witches. When unwittingly helped him win the 2013 election. According to the I began preaching about witchcraft, I wonder what Deborah New York Times, “Uhuru and Ruto were skillful at mobilizing expected me to say. their communities by capitalizing on Kenya’s painful colonial For my part, I had several options available. I could have history and the universal human tendency to dislike being approached witchcraft as a Western anthropologist, using my lectured.”12 Likewise, when an outsider labels East Africans as research just to describe the situation or to write an ethnography. criminals who violate a witch’s human rights, their efforts may Then I could have gotten a position teaching at an American uni- backfire or at least make locals hesitant to work with them. At versity rather than intervening locally. Or I could have argued for a seminar I facilitated in Tanzania, one of my students, now a an American worldview, that sickness is not caused by the envy radio announcer, quoted God’s law from Exodus 22:18: “The UN people see but by germs invisible to the naked eye. I could have has its constitution, and Tanzania has its constitution, which talk compared this incident to witch trials in Salem, Massachusetts, about human rights. But we have ours, which we must obey. It and throughout Europe. I could even have claimed that during says, ‘you shall not permit a female sorcerer to live.’” the Enlightenment Westerners progressed beyond believing in I could have ignored the issue, as do many missionary- “superstitions” and “magic.” founded churches in northwestern Tanzania. Catholic, mainline, But claiming superiority over Africans is not only self-serving, and standard evangelical churches such as the Africa Inland Noteworthy

Announcing sors of Mission (APM) will be held June 18–19, at Wheaton “Theological and Philosophical Responses to Syncretism” College, Wheaton, Illinois. The meeting will consider the will be the focus for the Lund Mission Studies Open Semi- titles that educational institutions worldwide use for their nar 2015, to be held March 23–24 at Lund University, Lund, mission studies programs as a window onto how educa- Sweden. The intent of the seminar is twofold: to elaborate tors understand their relationships to the missio Dei. Potential the consequences of syncretism (1) for the Christian faith and presenters are invited to submit a title for their paper along (2) for philosophical and empirical research into Christian- with a 150–200 word abstract and a 30-word biography to ity. Information can be found at www.teol.lu.se/forskning APM president Nelson Jennings at [email protected] by /konferenser-och-symposier/tprs-2015. February 13, 2015. “Colonial Christian Missions and Their Legacies” “Missio-logoi: The Many Languages of Mission” will is the theme of an international conference to be held April be the theme for the 2015 American Society of Missiology 27–29, 2015, at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark. The (ASM) annual meeting, set for June 19–21 at Wheaton Col- conference will explore the memorialization, articulation, and lege, Wheaton, Illinois. The conference will include a sympo- representation of histories of Christian missions within post- sium on publishing in the field of missiology. Confirmed key- colonial and not-yet-postcolonial contexts. For information, note speakers include Kirsteen Kim (Leeds Trinity University, go to http://australianstudies.ku.dk/staff/claire_mclisky U.K.), Terry Muck (Louisville Institute), and Lamin Sanneh /postdoctoral_project. Assistance with travel costs is available (Yale University). For the call for papers and more information for postgraduate students and early-career researchers. on the conference, see the ASM website, asmweb.org. The Department of Religion and Theology at the Uni- A conference entitled “African Christian Biography: versity of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa, will Narratives, Beliefs, and Boundaries” will be held October host an international conference entitled “Ecclesiology and 29–31, 2015, in Boston, Massachusetts. Hosted by Jonathan Ethics: The State of Ecumenical Theology in Africa,” June Bonk, M. L. Daneel, and Dana L. Robert (all Boston Univer- 3–5, 2015. The conference will examine both current debates sity), the gathering offers the opportunity to reflect on the surrounding ecumenical theology in Africa and practical progress made by the first twenty years of the Dictionary of divides—denominational, theological, and contextual. For African Christian Biography (www.dacb.org) and to identify information, e-mail Heather Griffiths, [email protected]. new directions in the use of biography and autobiography Registration will close on May 15, 2015. for the study of African Christianity. Potential presenters The 2015 consultation of the Yale-Edinburgh Group on should submit a topic description and brief vita to Michèle the History of the Missionary Movement and World Chris- Sigg, [email protected], by February 27, 2015. The Center for tianity, to be held June 25–27 at Yale Divinity School, will Global Christianity and Mission at Boston University School address the theme “Religion and Religions in the History of of Theology is offering subsidies to enable the participation Missions and World Christianity.” This annual event is spon- of presenters. For further details, see www.dacb.org/what sored by the Centre for the Study of World Christianity at the -is-new.html. University of Edinburgh, U.K., and by Yale Divinity School and the Overseas Ministries Study Center, both in New Personalia Haven, Connecticut. For further information, see http:// Elected. David Platt, as president of the International Mis- divinity-adhoc.library.yale.edu/Yale-Edinburgh. sion Board (IMB), on August 27, 2014, by board trustees. The 2015 annual meeting of the Association of Profes- IMB, which works with the churches of the Southern Baptist

14 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Church have tended to tell people that belief in witchcraft is problems had been caused by the pastor who succeeded him superstition: “Do not believe it, talk about it, or seek treatment as a means to get his position. The old pastor dismissed this. from healers.” Implicit in some of these statements is an imported After all, he had discipled this younger pastor like a son since cessationist theology, a claim that we have progressed beyond his salvation as a child. Later, however, the pastor died. When I miracles to rational examination of Scripture. People who attend went to comfort his widow, she secretly told me not to trust the these churches nevertheless talk about witchcraft every day; they new pastor because he had caused her husband’s death. Other just avoid the subject when in church. Many interpret the silence church members use Christian language like a charm to ward to mean that Christ cannot handle their sicknesses, spirits, or off witchcraft. Instead of using a chicken’s blood for protection, witches. Therefore, they continue to address them using non- they pray for the blood of Jesus to cover them.13 Christian methods. In these churches, even pastors or their families I could have preached, as many African Pentecostals do, usually call a neotraditional healer when they are deathly sick. that witchcraft exists, but that Jesus the healer is more power- On the opposite extreme, I could have preached within the ful than witches, healers, and spirits. In every worship service local worldview, telling amazing stories about witches and spirits Pentecostals in our Tanzanian church sing, “There is no God from the pulpit that would make people suspect their neighbors like you,” to affirm that God’s power conquers all powers of and fear their family. Some spiritual leaders do exacerbate the darkness, specifically including Satan, evil spirits, and witches. problem in this way. A retired pastor friend in his seventies Pentecostal pastors attribute the power of neotraditional healers was suffering from diabetes, high blood pressure, and amputa- to demons, not ancestors. Compared with other denominations, tion ulcers. A visiting prophet told the pastor that these health Pentecostals are more likely to pray fervently for healing and

Convention, is the largest denominational missionary-send- in France, lectured for short terms at a seminary in Indonesia, ing body among American evangelicals. Platt, 36, who was and edited a newsletter about China. serving as pastor of The Church at Brook Hills, Birmingham, Died. Johannes (“Jannie”) G. J. Swart, 51, associate pro- Alabama, took up his new office on his appointment. He suc- fessor of world mission and evangelism at Pittsburgh Theo- ceeded Tom Elliff, who had served as president of IMB since logical Seminary since 2013, on September 8, 2014, in Pitts- March 2011. burgh, from an apparent heart attack while playing Frisbee Died. Sebastian Karotemprel, SDB, 83, Indian Catho- with students on the first day of classes. A Dutch Reformed lic missiologist, scholar, institution builder, and ecumenical pastor from South Africa, he came to Luther Seminary in St. advocate, July 20, 2014, in Shillong, India. Former dean and Paul, Minnesota, where he earned a Ph.D., then served as president of Sacred Heart Theological College in Shillong, pastor of a Presbyterian Church in Oil City, Pennsylvania. where he taught for more than thirty years, Karotemprel also Died. Samuel Wilson, 82, missionary, scholar, and mis- taught missiology at the Pontifical Urbaniana University in sions director, July 1, 2014, in Kissimmee, Florida. Wilson, Rome, 1992–2001. The author or editor of twenty-nine books, who retired in 2000 as professor of missions and director he served two terms on the Pontifical International Theo- of the Stanway Institute for World Mission and Evange- logical Commission, was the founding editor of the journal lism, Trinity School for Ministry, Ambridge, Pennsylvania, Mission Today (formerly Indian Missiological Review) in 1978, had previously been director of the Missions Advanced established a major theological library at the seminary, and Research and Communications Center, a ministry of World was responsible for developing the seven-storied Don Bosco Vision International, Monrovia, California. At the outset of Centre for Indigenous Cultures in Shillong, an anthropologi- his career he served as a missionary in Peru with the Chris- cal museum of northeastern peoples and cultures. Karotem- tian and Missionary Alliance (1956–67). Following doctoral prel served on the executive committee of the International studies at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, Wilson Association for Mission Studies (1985–88), was president of became professor at Nyack College and Alliance Theologi- the International Association of Catholic Missiologists (1999– cal Seminary, Nyack, New York (1971–79). His publications 2000), was secretary of the Office of Evangelization for the included, as coauthor, The Hidden Half: Discovering the World Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences (1988–98), and was of Unreached Peoples (1982). a member of the Joint Working Group between the World Died. Isaac Zokoué, 70, theologian, educator, pas- Council of Churches and the Catholic Church. tor, and peacemaker, September 11, 2014, Bangui, Central Died. Arne Benjamin Sovik, 96, Lutheran missionary, African Republic. Zokoué received his doctorate in theol- administrator, scholar, and author, September 16, 2014, in ogy from the Faculty of Protestant Theology, University Minneapolis, Minnesota. Born to missionary parents in China, of Strasbourg, France. He made a vital contribution to the Sovik later returned to China as a missionary, leaving again in establishment and running of the Faculté de Théologie Évan- 1947. Sovik received a Ph.D. from Yale in 1952 and went to Tai- gélique de Bangui (FATEB), formerly known as the Bangui wan for three years. In 1955 he began work at the world mis- Evangelical School of Theology (BEST), in Bangui, Central sion program of the Lutheran World Federation, Geneva, Swit- African Republic, including fourteen years as president of zerland; his twenty-five years in Geneva were interrupted by the seminary, following which he oversaw the creation and four years heading the world mission offices of the Lutheran direction of its doctoral program. Zokoué was prominent in Church in America in New York City. Following retirement in leading national reconciliation conferences and dialogues in 1984, Sovik undertook work for the evangelization of Chinese his home country.

January 2015 15 to share testimonies of supernatural healing and victory over wrong or oppress a resident alien, for you were aliens in the land witchcraft as a result. of Egypt. You shall not abuse any widow or orphan. If you do For instance, a very sick young woman came to Mwanza- abuse them, when they cry out to me, I will surely heed their lima’s house. She sometimes lost consciousness and a strange cry; my wrath will burn, and I will kill you with the sword, and voice spoke out of her, claiming to be Makata, a genie-spirit your wives shall become widows and your children orphans.” God will judge us and even kill us with the machete if we mis- (jinn in Swahili from Arabic djinn). Makata said that the lover treat widows, orphans, or outsiders. These are the people most of the woman’s boyfriend had purchased it during a visit to a often persecuted as suspected witches—accused, banished, neotraditional healer and had sent it to afflict her. To the lead- beaten, and killed. While Scripture does not teach that witches ers of the church, this was a spiritual problem with a spiritual cause harm, it clearly teaches that we should defend the vul- solution: they prayed over her for months, inviting me to join in nerable. When we accuse such people we aren’t battling Satan. telling the demon to leave. I also reminded her of her identity in We’re serving the interests of the ultimate Accuser (the meaning Christ. This combined treatment gave her confidence to refuse of “Satan”). Is it possible that our problems are not caused by the demonic voice and freed her from her sickness. It did not witches, but by God’s judgment for mistreating widows?16 harm the boyfriend’s lover, which probably disappointed the demon. The church healed the woman’s physical, psychologi- The day after this sermon we began a four-day critical con- cal, and spiritual problem. But the social epidemic of envy and textualization discussion on how to respond to those suspected witchcraft accusations in the community remained unchecked. of being witches. Deborah joined others giving their stories of accusation and persecution as suspected witches. Listening to A Contextualized Diagnosis such unheard stories is one way to shift people’s perspectives. Normally, no one believes a woman suspected of being a None of these treatment options deals with the side effect of witch—unless she is giving a forced confession! If she denies vulnerable community members being persecuted. Paul Hiebert, being a witch, the village ignores her denial and chases her out Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tiénou say that simply saying either Yes or of town or kills her without appeal. We then examined the Bible No to local realities results in a “split-level Christianity.” Rather, and Tanzanian law. The conference brought together pastors they urge that we should respond using “critical contextualiza- from the region who were from Catholic, Mennonite, Church tion.” This group process begins with careful study of the local of Christ, Africa Inland Church, and Pentecostal backgrounds. reality, then moves to biblical and empirical evaluation, and finally Every one of these pastors believed that witches cause harm, seeks to initiate a transformative response.14 I have found this and originally many of them believed that killing witches was biblical. They left the conference with an understanding that God loves everyone and commands the church to love them, too. They discovered that God especially loves widows, the We began by discussing poor, orphans and outsiders—the people who are usually per- the reality of persecution. secuted as witches. Participants in this seminar in turn taught four similar seminars in various regions of northwest Tanzania We gave a voice to those at the end of 2013. They plan to teach more in 2015. accused of witchcraft by Grassroots conversations must be complemented by global discussions. Christians of various worldviews need to challenge listening to them tell their and sharpen one another. My 2008 dissertation sparked an inter- stories. est in the people evaluating it, Tite Tiénou and Robert Priest. A conference that we organized, held in March 2013, brought together fifty Christian scholars from Africa and North America approach to be helpful in my research and in seminars. I have who have written about witchcraft or want to learn more. To progressively narrowed the focus of my research (and critical avoid getting bogged down in metaphysical discussions about contextualization discussions) from how people understand the existence of witchcraft, we began by discussing the reality causes of sickness to witchcraft and now to how we should of persecution. We gave a voice to those accused of witchcraft respond to witchcraft accusations and to persecution of those by listening to them tell their stories in the documentary film suspected to be witches. Christians can act to protect widows The Witches of Gambaga.17 Drawing on the many disciplinary and orphans even as we continue to debate the effectiveness perspectives represented within the group, we examined real accorded to witchcraft by our different worldviews. I followed cases in small and large group discussions. The participants left these steps from local reality to transformative response in my with plans to conduct research and present the results during a Swahili sermon that Sunday with Deborah present. second conference, to be held at Africa International University in 2016. Samuel Kunhiyop and I are also writing a book, “What We believe our problems are caused by witches. How do we about Witches?”, intended for African pastors. know witches cause harm? We have heard thousands of sto- ries. But is this biblical? In Scripture I see cases where spirits Hope for Healing and demons cause suffering, but no example of an evil person causing harm through invisible means—which is what we mean Our experiences and the stories we tell ourselves shape how we by witch (mchawi). The word “witch” (mchawi) is used in some interpret the world. Understandably, persons who have heard Bible translations, but the stories show them to be public fig- ures like a neotraditional healer (mganga).15 This mistranslation thousands of stories of witchcraft will likely suspect that a witch is 18 even applies to the verse we sometimes use to justify killing sus- the source of their problems. To them, disciplining or removing pected witches, Exodus 22:18, which says “you shall not permit witches will seem the best treatment plan, despite its cruel side a female sorcerer (mchawi) to live.” effects. To address the root cause, we must change the diagnosis. But let’s keep reading. Exodus 22:21–24 says, “You shall not New experiences and stories can change people’s understanding

16 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 “If you are looking for a dynamic community of men and women who are serious about ministry preparation, biblical studies, theological reflection, and cultural engagement, a community that desires to make a difference over the course of a lifetime for the cause of Christ and his church in this country and around the globe, then we invite your prayerful consideration of Trinity Evangelical Divinity School.” David S. Dockery, President

Studying with us means benefiting from the global experience of our faculty and your fellow students. Our faculty’s unity around the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus and the authority and inerrancy of Scripture allows for community-enriching diversity on everything else.

Focused master’s programs, including the flexibleMA/INTERCULTURAL STUDIES

A top-tier MASTER OF DIVINITY offering preparation for theologically grounded leadership in many contexts (such as pastoral, academic, nonprofit, and international organizations)

The PHD INTERCULTURAL STUDIES — cutting edge research under the guidance of internationally recognized leaders, with full funding available

Watch free lectures at teds.edu/media Learn more about our programs at teds.edu/academics Send us an email at [email protected] or call (800) 345-8337

TEDS is in Deerfield, IL, with extension sites in Akron, Chicago, Columbus, Indianapolis, Madison, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh and south Florida of what causes specific illnesses or at least help them to respond answer, but also treating the community’s relational tensions. differently to accusations and persecution of vulnerable people. John Jusu, a colleague at Africa International University, has A student of mine, Joshua Lusato, states, “When I used to talk taken this insight to heart. He had observed and participated in with Dr. Rasmussen about witchcraft in Tanzania, I thought he the ostracism, persecution, and even killing of accused widows was too skeptical. I was sure that at least 90 percent of those and old women in his home village. After studying deeply what accused of being witches really had harmed someone through Scripture says about the poor and then talking to the suspected witchcraft.” I challenged him to return to Tanzania to research witches, he does not believe they really were witches. He now the social consequences of witchcraft beliefs. cares for and defends sixteen widows and over 100 orphans in Lusato’s research provided new experiences and stories that that village. The level of suspicion of witchcraft against some of changed his perspective. He found that during the years 2004–11, these has now diminished simply because they are cared for and Mwanza Region police records show an average of sixty-four accepted as part of a family. He also wisely confronts accusations murders per year in which the motive on record is that the victim of witchcraft. was suspected of witchcraft. Eighty percent of the victims were women and most were older people. A suspected killer of the After my sermon, Deborah told me why she had appreciated witch was identified in only 10 percent of the cases. Lusato’s wife it. I asked if I could hear her story over lunch. Since this was did a similar study, and found that only 1 percent of the cases her first visit to this church since being forced from her village, had gone to trial. Beyond these statistics are the many more kill- it seemed God had sent her. She agreed to share her story the ings that are unreported or do not specifically state “suspected next day in our seminar. Pastors who were part of the seminar witch” as the motive. In one village he visited Lusato discovered counseled Deborah, Neema, and neighbors of the family. But a that six older people had been killed as suspected witches in the year and a half later Deborah’s accusers have not been brought past eighteen months. Only one of them was listed in the police to justice. Deborah’s children helped her and her husband move records. At the conference in Kenya and the seminar in Tanza- to another village because they fear that someone in the village nia, Lusato said, “After doing my own research, I believe that could attack her again at any time. if there is such a thing as witchcraft, 99 percent of these people Through research, in seminars, and even by reading this are falsely accused.” issue of the International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Within the churches, when the local spiritual-relational more and more people are beginning to listen to the stories of the explanation for congregants’ suffering causes others to suffer, accused. I find hope in that fact. Perhaps we are God’s answer pastors need to act as the true healers, developing a new spiritual to Deborah’s cry.

Notes 1. During June and July, 2013, I (Steven) conducted multiple interviews 10. Ibid., 194. with “Deborah” (a pseudonym), with her son, and with pastors who 11. Ibid., 166–74. have known the family for decades. The pastors also visited the 12. Michela Wrong, “Indictee for President!,” Latitude, March 11, 2013; village to investigate this incident and bring reconciliation. Other http://latitude.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/11/being-prosecuted accounts referred to below (also pseudonymous) are drawn from -by-the-i-c-c-helped-uhuru-kenyattas-chances-in-kenyas-election. my doctoral dissertation and the data collected for it. See Steven 13. Kunhiyop, “Witchcraft,” 374. D. H. Rasmussen, “Illness and Death Experiences in Northwestern 14. Paul Hiebert, R. Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tiénou, Understanding Folk Tanzania: An Investigation of Discourses, Practices, Beliefs, and Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices (Grand Social Outcomes, Especially Related to Witchcraft, Used in a Critical Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 15–29. The critical contextualization Contextualization and Education Process with Pentecostal Ministers” process has similarities to “the pastoral circle.” The pastoral circle (Ph.D. diss., Trinity International University, 2008). steps include (1) insertion to listen to local voices, (2) social analysis, 2. According to Tanzania Human Rights Report, 2009 (Dar es Salaam, (3) theological reflection, and (4) pastoral action. It becomes a circle Tanzania: Legal and Human Rights Centre, 2010), 21, during the because, as with critical contextualization, the process is meant to five-year period 2005–2009, a total of 2,585 people were murdered be repeated, working toward increasing truth and transformation. because they were believed to be witches; www.humanrights.or.tz See, for example, Frans Jozef Servaas Wijsen, Peter J. Henriot, and /downloads/tanzania-human-rights-report-2009.pdf. Rodrigo Mejia, eds., The Pastoral Circle Revisited: A Critical Quest for 3. Andrew F. Walls, “A Consultation on Faculty Development and Truth and Transformation (Nairobi: Paulines, 2005). Doctoral Training for Theological Institutions in Africa” (author’s 15. A similar argument is made in Robert J. Priest, “Witches and the notes, Nairobi Evangelical Graduate School of Theology, Nairobi, Problem of Evil,” Books and Culture, November/December, 2009, Kenya, August 8, 2007). pp. 30–32; www.booksandculture.com/articles/2009/novdec 4. Laurenti Magesa, “Witchcraft: A Pastoral Guide,” African Ecclesial /witchesandtheproblemofevil.html. Review 48, no. 3 (2006): 174. 16. My argument from Exodus 22:21–24 is adapted from a sermon 5. Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, “Witchcraft,” in Africa Bible Commentary, preached in 1649 at the end of an earlier epidemic of witch hunt- ed. Tokunboh Adeyemo (Nairobi: WordAlive Publishers; Grand ing (quoted in Alan Macfarlane, “Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 374. Essex,” in Witchcraft, Confessions and Accusations, ed. Mary Douglas 6. Richard A. Shweder, Why Do Men Barbecue? Recipes for Cultural [London: Tavistock, 1970], 92, 94; www.alanmacfarlane.com/FILES Psychology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2003), 84, 87. /witch_asa_1.htm). Did the shift in seventeenth-century preaching 7. Menan Hungwe Jangu, “Healing Environmental Harms: Social contribute to the shift in actions toward suspected witches, or did it Change and Sukuma Traditional Medicine on Tanzania’s Extrac- result from the shift? My hope is that a change in pastors’ preach- tive Frontier” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Michigan, 2012), 33–35; http:// ing, counseling, and praying today could improve the situations in deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/93827/1/mjangu_1 their communities. .pdf. 17. Yaba Badoe, The Witches of Gambaga, documentary film (Fadoa Films, 8. Koen Stroeken, Moral Power: The Magic of Witchcraft (New York: 2010); see www.witchesofgambaga.com. Berghahn Books, 2010), 166–74. 18. Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, African Christian Ethics (Nairobi: WordAlive 9. Ibid. /Hippo Books, 2008), 378–80.

18 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Toward a Christian Response to Witchcraft in Northern Ghana Jon P. Kirby

he hot afternoon sun is beating down in Ngani, northern by adapting to the enormous changes that have occurred across TGhana. It is Christmas Day and some fifty elderly women Africa.4 Furthermore, witchcraft beliefs seem to be the filter are gathered in the compound of the Catholic Church. They are through which modern social institutions, including Christianity, clearly enjoying themselves, banging out traditional rhythms on are colored, interpreted, given new meanings, and dealt with.5 various homemade instruments and dancing single file in a circle. Social psychologists such as Glenn Adams and other con- Some chant a mournful refrain while the song leader improvises temporary scholars explain witchcraft in terms of group-centric stanzas about their life. Calabashes of sorghum beer are passed versus individual-centric cultural groundings of relationships.6 around. It is their annual Christmas party. One would hardly Witchcraft beliefs occur where people experience themselves suspect that these women have all been accused of witchcraft as inherently connected to others and to unseen worlds. The and will live out their days in the “witch camp” across the street primary experience of oneself as connected to others and as the from the church. Today they will have a full meal, and they will object of others’ attention leads to the presupposition of personal laugh, dance, and sing—a dramatic contrast to the hopeless grind causality. If bad things happen, it is because of other people. This of their lives every other day of the year. For one day a year they presupposition makes a Christian response doubly difficult. are human again.1 Unlike in the West, in Africa there is nothing more sobering Although they are feared by the townsfolk, their confine- than the threat of witchcraft. The media portray accused women ment needs no walls or guards, for attempting to leave or doing as victims, but few Africans believe this—often not even the any harm will break their oath to the earth spirit, which will accused. As Fr. Joseph points out, in the African mind they are bring instant death. Their mud huts and leaky roofs offer little outcasts, and helping an accused witch is itself antisocial witch- protection from the torrential rains. The knee-high walls of their ery. How, then, might one approach a Christian ministry when compounds deny them privacy and human dignity. Their life even the most basic care risks being so grossly misinterpreted? lacks the most basic needs: food, water, shelter, and clothing, The clues to finding an appropriate Christian response lie but most of all, human recognition, companionship, and love. beneath the surface in their traditional worldview and in their Because of the African formula for identity, “I am because we response to problems. In this article I probe some of the deeper are,” social rejection means they are denied their very identity ethnohistorical underpinnings of the witch camps in search of as human beings and children of God. directions for a more contextualized Christian response. Although “Why can’t you do something for these poor women?” a friend the specific features of the Ghanaian situation may differ from of mine accusingly asks Fr. Joseph, the pastor. He shrugs. “What those found in other African contexts, this type of foundational more can I do? I can offer only the most basic help, like bringing analysis is needed in each setting. them water from the river in my pickup, helping to plaster the walls when their huts are about to fall, and giving them some The Seen and the Unseen Worlds grass thatching before their roofs cave in. I give them medicine when they are sick and some food now and then, but anything In the African world all things are interconnected in a great chain else will be taken from them. In small ways, like this party, I try of life that participates in relationships extending in two dimen- to show them God’s love. How can I give them freedom when sions: horizontally, among the living in the visible, material world, their people have made them outcasts?” and vertically, between this world and the invisible world. Though distinct, these dimensions are viewed as part of the same overall Witchcraft and the Media reality. In northern Ghana, one routinely sees large kapok trees growing near compounds. These trees are “clothed” with a strip Violence emanating from witchcraft beliefs permeates Ghanaian of traditionally woven white cotton cloth because a diviner has life. Despite a Christian presence in northern Ghana for more revealed them to be ancestors “come back” to protect particular than a century, witchcraft accusations persist there and, by all houses. Asking, “Where are the ancestors?” usually elicits the accounts, are increasing.2 Neither the publicity, however, which response, “They are sitting right here among us.” focuses on the exotic, nor the Christian responses, such as those All being is in flux, and the world is caught up in a dynamic of Fr. Joseph at Ngani and the Gambaga Outcasts Project of the process. The goal for each person is to achieve fullness of life by Presbyterian Church, get to the core issues.3 When I asked Simon becoming an ancestor. One must accrue life in the seen world in Atunga, head of the Gambaga Outcasts Project, if he believed in order to achieve “abundant life” in the unseen.7 Ideally, as one witchcraft, he responded, “Yes, here in Ghana, everyone believes becomes older and closer to the ancestors, the more life-filled in it. If someone tells you they don’t, they are lying.” Far from one becomes. But the process is fraught with difficulties posed fading away, the phenomenon of witchcraft seems to survive by antilife forces. An elderly Anufo informant explained it to me as a process of maintaining a good destiny.

Jon P. Kirby, SVD, a Catholic priest and missioner, Before a new child is born, the spirit [ancestral or tutelary spirit] worked in Ghana for thirty-six years. An anthro- tells God all that will happen during its lifetime. God gives his pologist, he is the founder and former director of approval, and the child is born with its special destiny. The per- Tamale Institute of Cross-Cultural Studies (TICCS) son will have good fortune or bad in life. This shows if he has a in northern Ghana. Now in the United States, he good or a bad destiny. If he has a bad destiny, he can change it to conducts workshops promoting intercultural and a good one through spiritual help. Life continues until the per- interreligious dialogue using “action-methods” such son dies, and if he has a good destiny, he becomes an ancestor; if as culture-drama. —[email protected] a bad destiny, he becomes a spirit of the wild. A spirit of the wild

January 2015 19 is a spiteful thing, so the name must be forgotten by all, never rituals of restoration. As one informant told Robert Rattray, “The spoken again so that it won’t come back. No child in the family land is a bitter thing, it will cast out, finish your house [if you will ever again be given that name. refuse to purify it].”13 To redress this situation and revive the earth, the elders, chiefs, and people must rely on the earth priest Life’s evils are thus understood in terms of personalized (ten’daana). Harmonious relations can be restored only by a ritual antilife forces from which one must seek protection.8 Behind every of purification called “burying the blood” or “smoothing of the misfortune are broken relations and the hidden bad intentions of land.” Relations in one dimension affect the other; when a break enemies. The frequently heard threat “You will see!” is an example occurs in one dimension, both need mending. Both vertical and of such an evil intention. A powerful curse or a declaration of horizontal mediation is needed. spiritual warfare, this threat is taken very seriously. If a misfortune Although witchcraft can refer to antilife forces at any of these such as a lorry accident or a serious illness occurs subsequently, levels, the greatest threat is always to the community. Earth shrines, the person who uttered the curse is held responsible. which are the center of a community’s life-force, are the key Strategies for dealing with problems and keeping one’s junctures for the maintenance and renewal of relations between destiny on track involve activities at both the horizontal (seen) the seen and unseen worlds, and they are thus the primary locus and the vertical (unseen) levels. The vertical activities or rituals for the control of witchcraft.14 All witch camps, such as those at Ngani and Gambaga, are located within the parameters of an earth shrine that is in the custody of an earth priest. Witchcraft involves much more than individual A History of Antilife “witches” and their victims. The rise in accusations in the north cannot be understood without considering the region’s historical accumulation of antilife forces, In its most pernicious especially communal divisiveness, at the horizontal level. The form it involves whole kingdom of Dagbon—where the five witch camps in northern Ghana are located—is the most powerful centralized chiefly communities. state in northern Ghana. Its people, the Dagomba, are ruled by a king, the Ya Na, and his subchiefs. They coexist with and exercise control over the Konkomba, a nonchiefly people, whom relate to various agents of life and follow a hierarchical order they previously enslaved. The Konkombas’ subservience to the of greater to lesser life extending from God, the source of life Dagomba from precolonial times to the present continues to be at the broadest transterritorial level, through the created earth a major source of tension and conflict.15 spirits and divinities with less life at the territorial level, then to In the precolonial era, the expansion of Dagomba power ancestors at the familial level, and finally to tutelary spirits with occurred in two stages. The first took place in western Dagbon the least life at the individual level.9 The life-negating forces of (1500–1700), where Dagomba warriors killed the autochthonous witchcraft are normally associated with problems at the more Konkomba earth priests, usurped their ritual roles, and assimi- restricted individual or personal level, but they also affect the lated the population.16 In the second stage (1700–1900), because broader familial and territorial levels. Indeed, the individual of the Asante conquest of Dagbon (1742–72) and the increased expressions may be only symptoms of an extensive malaise, for demand for tribute in the form of slaves (1,000–2,000 per year), in its broadest conceptualization, it is any antilife force.10 These the old pattern of “benevolent raiding” gave way to a more antilife forces manifest themselves differently at each level, but predatory type of raiding that allowed for little assimilation of the term “witchcraft” can be applied to any of them. peoples or appropriation of roles. Those who were not enslaved were pushed into territories further east. Earth Shrines and Witchcraft In the colonial era the British practice of indirect rule placed Dagomba chiefs over the very groups that they had formerly Life-negating acts at the level of the family—such as a youth enslaved, giving them a free hand to continue extorting labor, attacking or cursing an elder—are witchcraft because they disrupt wives, foodstuffs, and animals. In eastern Dagbon, including the harmony and integrity of family life in both its horizontal Yendi, where the Ya Na resides, this system permanently locked in and vertical dimensions, causing a “spoiled house” and result- the Dagomba as owners and the Konkomba as slaves. The chiefs ing in a loss of vitality and the untimely deaths of its members. maintained political power over the Konkomba and made ritual At the community or territorial level, acts that threaten the roles subordinate to the political.17 The horizontal (seen) relations horizontal social and political life of people, such as illicit sex were thereby broken and the vertical (unseen) dimensions blocked. in the bush, homicide, or war, are witchcraft because they bring The Dagomba and Konkomba were permanently separated by about a state of ritual pollution, or “spoiled earth,” in which life- their difference in status, and although ritually subjects of the negating forces prevail. Even worse ritual contamination was same earth spirits, their access to the spirit world was subverted. thought to result from spilling a witch’s blood. Early sources speak of witches in the south being executed through strangulation and An Antilife State drowning to avoid this blood-contamination. In the north they were (and still are) beaten or stoned to death to avoid having their After Ghana’s independence in the late 1950s, political patron- blood touch the ground.11 When the vitality and fertility of the age in successive governments widened the split. In 1979 a earth are killed, only pain and suffering are harvested.12 Children new constitution vested in the Dagomba and other traditional and animals die, crops fail, and people fall victim to unlikely chiefs the control of the northern lands on behalf of all northern accidents and other misfortunes. War, in particular, causes this peoples. This action effectively alienated the Konkomba from perilous state of pollution and creates an urgent need for special their hereditary lands. They reacted in a series of local conflicts,

20 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 but the government continued to uphold the authority of the relations in the spirit world, leaving both the horizontal and the chiefs. In 1992 a major referendum to allow nonchiefly groups vertical dimensions in a constant state of ritual pollution. The such as the Konkomba to have their own chiefs was initiated witch camps are not the problem; they are part of a dysfunctional without success. This led to the devastating 1994 civil war, which repair system that aims at restoring a harmonious unity. The engulfed most of the north, from which, after twenty years, the camps are of two types—those in eastern Dagbon, like Ngani, north has yet to recover. and the camp in western Dagbon, at Gambaga—and have very War breeds witchery. Witchcraft involves much more than different functions. individual “witches” and their victims. In its most pernicious In western Dagbon, where there are no Konkombas, the chiefs form it involves whole communities. A Christian response, in are also the earth priests. They thereby combine the two roles order to be effective at the level of individual accusations, must needed for unified mediation. As earth priests, they administer bring “life” to these communities. The church must be a source a ritual “washing of the stomach” to nullify antilife forces and of “life” not only for individuals but also for the state of Dag- reestablish vertical relations with the unseen world. As chiefs, bon, especially by healing the breech between the chiefly and they provide the civil authority needed for building trust hori- nonchiefly groups. zontally in order to send those accused as witches back to their Vincent Boi-Nai, the Catholic bishop of Yendi diocese, has communities. an intuitive grasp of these essentials. Over the last fifteen years But their authority is not always heeded. Accusations are he has fostered peace and reconciliation vertically and horizon- affected by the relative social influence of the accusers versus tally—vertically through regular ritual activities such as masses the accused. A strong accuser, for example, can insist on another for peace and reconciliation and by ecumenical prayer services trial by ordeal to which a weak accused must submit. In the end, that bring together Christians, Muslims, and traditional believers one’s communal influence determines the outcome. Furthermore, of both the chiefly and nonchiefly tribes; horizontally through accusations are made in the heat of the moment, and people need activities aimed at facilitating intercultural dialogue, friendship, time to cool off before trust can be restored. When the community and trust in all the communities of eastern Dagbon.18 Boi-Nai’s is adamant or the accuser has great influence, the accused are efforts and those of his priests have met with some success but sent for a time to the special camp at Gambaga, where they await have also been stymied by politically motivated religious divi- reintegration. Here the system is able to function moderately well sions, to which we now turn. by keeping accusations in check and offering some protection for the weak, who are always those most at risk. But even where Religious Division the system works, it is in need of life-giving grace. In eastern Dagbon, where both groups reside, the situation During the colonial era the development of the north had been is entirely different. In Ngani the accused can never return home, purposely retarded by the British, who saw the region as a con- but at Gambaga many will eventually be reintegrated. The Gam- venient labor pool for the rich cocoa farms and gold mines of the baga Outcasts Project has successfully helped more than fifty to south. Missionaries were excluded, and schooling was limited return; in contrast, if accused women at Ngani go home, they to children of chiefs. But already in the early 1900s the Mission- will be killed. At Ngani both the tribes and the roles have been aries of Africa, called the “White Fathers,” began to establish separated. The Dagomba chief and his people are on one side of churches and schools in the areas bordering Burkina Faso. By town; the Konkomba with their earth priest are on the other. The the 1950s they were establishing schools and literacy programs chief mediates among the Dagomba only in the seen world, and all across the north, including in the towns and villages of the the Konkomba earth priest mediates for his people only in the Konkomba. By the 1960s other Christian groups joined in, lead- unseen. These divisions are aggravated by many other changes ing to literacy programs and Bible translations in the so-called that have occurred, affecting everything from the economy to minority languages. By the late 1970s the nonchiefly peoples, as gender relations.22 they phrased it, “got their eyes opened”; a new awareness of their ethnic identity, lack of political representation, and denial of civil The Weight of History rights and dignity led to a series of ethnic conflicts.19 Chiefly politicians soon became wary of the conscientizing The history of slavery and oppression in northern Ghana has effect of Christian missions. By the end of the 1980s, when an eco- led to a series of interethnic conflicts, culminating in a civil war nomic crisis necessitated alliances with oil-rich Gulf states—which with religious overtones. The legacy of slavery continues to breed the government leveraged by inflating the number of northern Mus- disunity throughout the north through the unequal statuses lims—the new political rhetoric began to recast the old oppositions that were fixed during the colonial era and in the government’s in religious terms. Although the number of Christians was about persistent denial of the rights of nonchiefly peoples. Conditions the same in each group, the nonchiefly groups became associated have now worsened with increased intra-ethnic rivalry between with Christianity, and the chiefly groups with Islam.20 The resultant the two major Dagomba clans in a dispute over their chieftaincy. “aid” included roadside mosques, scholarships to fundamentalist These tensions and anomalies have led to an antilife eruption of schools, and modern weapons that were used with devastating individual accusations. Witch camps are increasing in size, and effect in the 1994 war.21 Worst of all, the war was portrayed as a new camps are being formed. The camp at Naboli, which is only religious conflict, thereby obscuring the real issues and leading to for Konkomba witches, was established in 2008. An undercur- the present state of institutionalized religious division. rent of witchery now threatens the security and quality of life for everyone in northern Ghana. Chiefs and Earth Priests The camps in Dagbon are faulty attempts to deal with the problem of evil. They are only symptoms of a deeper problem: Strained horizontal relations disrupt the vertical dimension, and the peoples’ world is broken, and they are no longer able to repair vice versa. The political and religious hostility in eastern Dag- it. The traditional forms of mediation are obstructed by the con- bon between the chiefly and nonchiefly peoples also disturbed tinued separation of the two ethnic groups and their mediatory

January 2015 21 roles. This division prevents the unitary mediation that, vis-à-vis Conclusion their shared worldview, is needed to reestablish a harmonious, life-sustaining environment for all. Politically and religiously, Christian responses to African problems need to make better they live in an imbalanced state that will not get better by itself. sense to the people than the traditional ones and thereby be Tensions between people groups are not usually seen as good news in their world.23 Rather than simply condemning playing a key role in witchcraft accusations, but in this case they the traditional world along with the way it understands its are crucial. From both a traditional and a Christian perspective, problems and goes about solving them, the church needs to get their state of anomie is alienation from God, the source of life. Our its hands dirty, enter in, and begin to heed the much-maligned primary response as Christians, then, must be to restore relations beliefs and rituals of this world. It needs to understand these in both the seen (with the people) and unseen (with God) axes antilife structures in terms of the institutions of injustice, dis- in life-giving ways. In the light of this analysis, Bishop Boi-Nai unity, and violence in which the people have been immersed, is bringing new life through his rituals and peacebuilding. Fr. along with the historical processes that have produced them. Joseph, in small but significant ways—as the accused witches The ways in which Christians address the antilife atmosphere of laugh, dance, and sing—brings life to those accused. And the witchcraft can become more real, more integral to their worlds, Presbyterian Church is following the lead of the Spirit by bolster- by following the clues offered in the traditional though often ing the traditional roles of the Gambaga earth priest/chief to set faulty responses of the people. the accused free. More needs to be done in each of these areas.

Notes 1. The background to the concepts and issues raised in this article is 13. Rattray, Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, 1:258. explored at greater length in Jon P. Kirby, “Ghana’s Witches: Scratch- 14. There are no shrines to God, but when the people need help for a ing Where It Itches,” in Mission and Culture: The Louis J. Luzbetak transterritorial “God problem,” they go to the Malams (itinerant Lectures, ed. Stephen B. Bevans (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2012), Muslim teachers, expert in the Quran and adept at making amu- 189–223. My analysis is based on field research I conducted in 2001–2 lets and “spiritual medicine,” who usually apply quranic suras to among the Dagomba, Konkomba, and Anufo of northern Ghana. African problems). 2. The Internet offers dozens of recent articles, films, and blogs on the 15. See Jon P. Kirby, “Peacebuilding in Northern Ghana: Cultural topic of witchcraft in Ghana. Themes and Ethnic Conflict,” in Ghana’s North: Research on Culture, 3. By pursuing sensationalism, promoting highly individualistic Western Religion, and Politics of Societies in Transition, ed. F. Kroeger and values over communitarian values, and emphasizing independence B. Meier (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2003), 168–79. over solidarity, the media have misdirected the public and diverted 16. Allan Wolsey Cardinall, The Natives of the Northern Territories of attention from deeper issues. For the Presbyterian Church’s responses the Gold Coast (1920; repr., New York: Negro Universities Press, to the witch camp at Gambaga, see African Christianity Rising, by James 1969), 16. Ault, http://jamesault.com/documentaries/africa-project. 17. “The shrine knows its master” is the phrase the Konkomba use to 4. Susan Drucker-Brown, “Mamprusi Witchcraft: Subversion and designate their custodianship of earth shrines. Changing Gender Relations,” Africa 63, no. 4 (1993): 531–49. 18. In 2002 Shu Gong and I co-facilitated a weeklong workshop that 5. Paul Gifford argues that charismatic Christianity in southern Ghana used sociodrama and culture-drama techniques in which ten has taken on dimensions of traditional religion, including witchcraft, Dagomba and ten Konkomba leaders reenacted conflict situations spiritual causality, and destiny; see his Ghana’s New Christianity: but in reversed roles. The workshop led to greater understanding and Pentecostalism in a Globalizing African Economy (Bloomington: Indiana respect for one another and was a significant step toward reconcili- Univ. Press, 2004), 83–90. ation. See Jon P. Kirby, Culture-Drama and Peacebuilding: A Cobra Is 6. Contemporary authors are beginning to account for the durability of in Our Granary; A Culture-Drama Workbook (Tamale, Ghana: TICCS “irrational beliefs” such as witchcraft by expanding the parameters Publications, 2002); Kirby, “Peacebuilding in Northern Ghana”; Jon of traditional Western disciplines to include Ghanaian perspectives P. Kirby and Shu Gong, “Reconciling Culture-Based Conflicts with and meanings. See references in Kirby, “Ghana’s Witches.” Culture-Drama,” in Healing Collective Trauma Using Sociodrama and 7. Laurenti Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Drama Therapy, ed. Eva Leveton (New York: Springer, 2010), 207–33. Life (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997). 19. Hippolyt Akow Saamwan Pul counts eight major conflicts between 8. See Margaret Joyce Field, Search for Security: An Ethno-psychiatric 1981 and 1994 involving the Konkomba and Dagomba; see his Study of Rural Ghana (New York: Norton, 1960), 87, for the importance “Exclusion, Association, and Violence: Trends and Triggers of of such protection. Ethnic Conflicts in Northern Ghana” (M.A. thesis, Pittsburgh, Pa.: 9. Magesa, African Religion, 61. Duquesne University, 2003), 6. 10. On life and antilife in connection with witchcraft, see Birgit Meyer, 20. Despite these associations, at the time there were actually more Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana Christians among the chiefly groups than among the nonchiefly. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, for the International African 21. See Justice Katanga (pseudonym), “An Ethnographic History of the Institute, 1999), 86. Northern Conflict” (unpublished manuscript, 1994). 11. See Brodie Cruickshank, Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast of Africa 22. Master-slave relations between the Dagomba and Konkomba (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1853; repr., 1966), 177–79, and John help to explain both Dagomba women’s insecurity and the high Beecham, Ashantee and the Gold Coast (London: Mason, 1841), 214–15. incidence of accusations; see Jon P. Kirby, “Mending Structures 12. See David Tait, The Konkomba of Northern Ghana (London: Oxford for Mending Hearts in Dagbon,” in Jon P. Kirby, ed., The Witch- Univ. Press, for the International African Institute, 1961); Robert craft Mentality Seminars: Applications to Ministry and Development S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland, 2 vols. (London: (Tamale, Ghana: TICCS Occasional Papers in Cross-Cultural Oxford Univ. Press, 1932), 1:258; Jean-Claude Froelich, “La tribu Ko- Studies, 2004). Economic imbalance also leads to witchcraft nkomba du Nord-Togo,” Africa 25, no. 4 (1955): 441–42; Froelich, “Les accusations (see Kirby, “Ghana’s Witches”). Konkomba, Les Moba, Les Dyé,” in Les Populations du Nord-Togo, by 23. Traditional perspectives on recurring African problems involving Jean-Claude Froelich, Pierre Alexandre, and Robert Cornevin (Paris: the unseen world offer starting points for contextualized Christian Presses universitaires de France, 1963), 151; Meyer, Translating the ministries. See further suggestions in Jon P. Kirby, The Power and Devil, 87; Jon P. Kirby, God, Shrines, and Problem-Solving among the the Glory: Popular Christianity in Northern Ghana (Akropong, Ghana: Anufo of Northern Ghana (St. Augustin, Ger.: Anthropos Institut, 1986). Regnum Africa, for Akrofi-Christaller Institute, 2013).

22 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Witchcraft Accusations and Christianity in Africa J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu

n the Lord’s Prayer, we pray, “Deliver us from evil.” Such to supernatural powers. For example, in much of Africa AIDS is Irescue from evil and its consequences is critical for anyone understood to be caused by witchcraft.2 Witchcraft, in the words wishing to live by God’s promises in the Bible. For the churches of Basel Mission church historian Hans Debrunner, is “the idea in Africa, evil preeminently includes witchcraft. In Africa, suc- of some supernatural power of which [human beings] become cessful Christian ministry (i.e., ministry with significant personal possessed, and which is used exclusively for evil and antisocial relevance and impact) is impossible unless one takes into account purposes.”3 This understanding resonates with the biblical the supernatural evil implied by the word “witchcraft.” Grasping material on witchcraft activities (Exod. 22:18, Deut. 18:10, Ezek. the power and influence of evil, including witchcraft, is critical, 13:17–23, Mark 1:21–28, Luke 9:37–43). not only for realistic pastoral care, but also for understanding In Africa, belief in the presence and work of evil powers, African responses to the Gospel throughout Christian mission especially witches, is pervasive; most African traditions conceive history. For example, the spectacular growth of African Indepen- of the universe as alive with spirit powers, a place in which evil dent/Initiated Churches (AICs) in the early twentieth century is is hyperactive.4 Evil itself can be of natural or supernatural ori- linked, in particular, to the inability of Western missions to come gin, and usually a causal distinction is made between physical to terms with the reality of supernatural evil, especially witch- disease and spiritual disease. A relationship exists between the craft, and to articulate a Christian pastoral response to it. Historic two causalities, however, for misfortune that emanates from Western mission Christianity has generally been perceived to be natural causes could be made worse by inimical spiritual powers powerless when it comes to dealing with supernatural evil. Those such as witches. Since it belongs to the realm of the supernatural, who are spiritually afflicted and troubled have therefore turned witchcraft works in the same manner as sorcery or occult powers, to alternate resources outside the sphere of mission churches— which are themselves basically forces of destruction. Aylward traditional witchdoctors, medicine cults, charismatic prophets, Shorter, who served as a missionary in Africa, states succinctly or a combination of these—in search of diagnosis, explanations, why witchcraft accusations thrive on the continent. and solutions to problems ranging from ill health to infertility to failing economic fortunes. [They serve as] mechanisms of competition in closed commu- A century after the emergence of AICs, witchcraft and nities [which have] clear boundaries but vague internal struc- belief in its destructive power remain resilient in African life tures. . . . [In them] conformity is the yardstick of who is, or who is not, “with us.” The misfit, the innovator, the eccentric, the and thought. Evil of supernatural provenance requires—and in outsider, the rival quickly becomes [a] threat to the system. . . . AICs has called forth—powerful prayers of intervention. These New factors and new roles are appearing in traditional human churches deal with witchcraft in the context of activities of proph- life which fuel social tensions and competition. . . . That is why ecy and spiritual warfare. Indeed, the single most important witchcraft explanations are applicable to urban situations where contribution made by indigenous churches toward the renewal job competition and inter-ethnic rivalry [are] acute.5 of Christianity in Africa has been the integration of charismatic experiences, particularly prophecy, healing, and deliverance, The Twi peoples of Ghana understand bayie, which Western- into church life. The pneumatic churches, including here Africa’s ers have translated as witchcraft, as the ability to cause harm to independent Pentecostal and charismatic churches, as well as others by use of supernatural powers either alone or in league the classical AICs, for whom dealing with supernatural evil is a with other persons of similar orientation. Witches, it is believed, major pastoral focus, combine biblical notions with traditional fly in the night and engage in mystical cannibalism. They besiege ones in devising the hermeneutical interpretations, rituals, and homes and spiritually suck the blood of victims, which results in sacred spaces to deal with supernatural evil’s perceived effects the onset of diseases. Witches make people poor by spiritually on people and society. “eating” their wealth, which means that certain types of pov- erty are believed to be inflicted supernaturally. Family ties and Witchcraft in African Cosmological Thought those on whom one intimately depends are depicted as poten- tial sources of evil, generating apprehensiveness. Sickness and Supernatural evil and witchcraft are prevalent in the worldview troubles are attributed to envy on the part of relatives and their of Africans. As Stephen Ellis and Gerrie ter Haar write in Worlds spiritually powerful allies. In parts of West Africa, witchcraft is of Power, belief in witchcraft is a commonplace, rather than an popularly referred to as “African electronics,” an indication of extraordinary or esoteric, feature of the spiritual beliefs that many its ubiquity. The implications for Africans’ sense of community Africans share.1 For the African imagination, sacred and secular have been profound. realities are inseparable. It is therefore routine to attribute occur- Despite witchcraft’s association with the power of evil, terms rences with negative effects on people’s lives and circumstances and expressions associated with witchcraft can be used positively. Still, the phenomenon is not viewed neutrally; on the whole, its 6 J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, a contributing editor, morally ambiguous status is weighted on the side of evil. For is the Baëta-Grau Professor of Contemporary African example, in the Wimbum area of northwest Cameroon, the word Christianity and Pentecostal/Charismatic Studies, tfu is related to bru and bfui. These all, according to Elias Bongmba, Trinity Theological Seminary, Legon, Accra, Ghana. refer to the ability to do extraordinary things, but tfu discourse He has served as visiting scholar at Harvard Uni- and practice involve a search for the cause of misfortune.7 When versity (2004), Luther Seminary in St. Paul (2007), used positively, the expressions anyen and bayie, or the English and the Overseas Ministries Study Center (2012). witchcraft, normally refer to “genius.” In its more serious usage, —[email protected] however, anyen or bayie refers to a person’s ability to use some

January 2015 23 supernatural power to harm others spiritually. Victims may be from an alien and dangerous source.”12 In the Christian mind- afflicted with a disease or a negative habit that makes it difficult set, witches have survived as demons, which means witchcraft for them to function constructively; they may even be killed.8 activity is synonymous with demonic activity, and therefore the source of witchcraft is seen as being people demonized by the Witchcraft, Early Prophetism, and AICs devil, or Satan. In most cases the mission denominations, however, dismissed witchcraft as a psychological delusion and a figment The AICs are noted for their creation of ritual contexts for deal- of the unscientific indigenous worldview. But beyond translating ing with supernatural evil, which, in the minds of indigenous the Scriptures into the vernacular, negotiating nearly impassible recipients of the Gospel, manifests itself in failed pregnancies, terrains to preach the Gospel, and dealing with the devastating poverty, moral deviance, lack of general progress in life, negative effects of malaria lay the single most important challenge facing emotions, drunkenness, sexual promiscuity, and general ill-health. mission pastoral ministry, which was the indigenous people’s Specific ailments such as sickle cell disease, epilepsy, and recently ardent belief in the power of witchcraft. Ebola and HIV/AIDS are also widely perceived as caused by witchcraft. Thus in African Christian history, the medical facili- Witchcraft, Mission, and Public Imagination ties established by missionaries were relegated to dealing with common minor diseases and ailments such as malaria, coughs, Through recordings of exorcisms and the production of films that and headaches perceived to be of natural causality. For dealing reinforce conceptions of evil present in current public discourse with supposed supernatural sources of affliction, however, people and imagination, African Initiated Christianity of the pneumatic would commonly bypass these medical facilities to consult with type plays an important role in perpetuating witchcraft beliefs. traditional medical practitioners, seeking herbal preparations The exorcisms and films fall within the realm of spiritual warfare and other “sacramental” substances infused with the needed in which Christians are taught to resist the devil. spiritual energy. When medical treatment or diagnosis failed to In street art Sasabonsam, the personification of evil in the lead to healing, victims and their families typically interpreted the religious culture of the Akan of Ghana, is usually painted as a condition as a spiritual disease and then sought the appropriate huge, dark, hairy, ugly animal creature. His eyes are bloodshot, spiritual center for help. he has unusually long claws, and he lives on tall trees in very Harold Turner, who made the study of primal new religious deep forests. His location in the deep forest suggests a surrealistic movements a lifelong academic pursuit, lists belief in witchcraft and frightful environment. African farmers and hunters return as a key feature in the worldviews that gave rise to independent from the forest with stories of encounters with either Sasabonsam Christian, or, as he calls them, “prophet-healing” movements in himself or some of his cohorts, dwarfs who terrorize people to non-Western societies.9 Turner points out that belief in a hierarchy destroy them. Sasabonsam can also enter the bodies of other of beings—a pantheon that includes the high God, malevolent animals, making the African forest a place filled with mysterious powers. Some discourses on evil hold that witches and wizards are human agents of Sasabonsam. Unseen powers are In places where unseen powers are believed to be active also in the natural order, hunters and farmers who are attacked by believed to be active wild beasts may well blame a spiritual agency at work in these also in the natural order. creatures. In most traditional African societies extraordinary performance, achievement, or skill, especially in competitive situations, is deemed to require supernatural enablement. Very divinities made up of lesser gods, earth-born occult powers such wealthy people therefore easily come under suspicion of having as wizards and witches, and benevolent ancestors—is also an gained their wealth through blood rituals. When such people have element of the primal imagination. By entering into relationship deformities or when any of their close relatives are deformed or with the benevolent spirit-world, people could receive protec- disabled in any way, the deformity may be explained in terms of tion from evil forces such as the powers of witchcraft.10 In the their having visited a shrine, where they exchanged their own or traditional context such protection came through diviners. With someone else’s normal body for material wealth. In contrast, an the rise of the independent church movement, however, the exceptionally intelligent student, talented sports personality, or prophets leading them became Christian alternatives to solutions successful musician may be referred to positively as being a bayie previously available through traditional religious ritual activity. or anyen, simply in appreciation of that person’s extraordinary The soteriological emphases of the AICs included release from gifts, talents, or abilities. This positive usage has not been part both sin and supernatural spiritual bondage. These emphases of the Christian response to witchcraft. were combined with a dynamic pneumatology in which the Witchcraft has had implications for Christian mission Spirit of God was present to heal, deliver, protect, and empower because many people in Africa, both traditionalists and Chris- his children.11 tians, process misfortune through a logic that assumes its real- The arguments so far indicate an important fact: that in Afri- ity.13 E. A. Asamoa (Ghana) and Gerhardus Oosthuizen (South can philosophical thought, witchcraft is real. In support of his Africa), among other African scholars, have bemoaned Western own graces of healing and exorcism, Emmanuel Milingo notes missionaries’ denial of witchcraft beliefs as being irrational and that, although in recent times the ministry of deliverance has backward. No amount of denial on the part of the church, Asamoa been played down, the pastoral practice of the Catholic Church maintains, can eliminate belief in supernatural powers from the has always accepted the power of spirits as real forces in human minds of African Christians. Denial often produces only a hypo- affairs. These powers of evil, he writes, “are ultimately destruc- critical state of internal conflict for the believers. In official church tive and enslaving; it is important to recognize them rather than circles they may pretend that they do not believe in witchcraft, deny them, and to learn to apply the power of the Holy Spirit but privately they resort to practices that assume witchcraft.14 in healing, so that sick people will not be driven to seek help Though African Christians are beneficiaries of Western mis-

24 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 sion Christianity and theological education, they have reservations are sustained in the public imagination by being recapitulated about the type of Christianity they have received. At the level in preaching and in African testimonies of conversion, as well of practical life, they realize that mission Christianity has not as being featured in media resources from churches. engaged constructively with the primal worldview, especially when it comes to traditional notions of spiritual causality. In that Witchcraft and the Prosperity Gospel light Oosthuizen observes that, because of their deeply Western- ized and intellectualized dispositions, missionaries typically The emergence of the prosperity gospel and the popularity it has have ignored witchcraft, sorcery, and the reality of demons.15 achieved are a major challenge facing the church in Africa today. More recently, religious anthropologist Birgit Meyer has come to Prosperity gospel teaches that God has met all human needs of the same conclusion, stating that Western Christian missionar- health and wealth through the suffering and death of Christ. ies interpreted witchcraft as an activity of Satan but dismissed Believers are therefore encouraged to claim these blessings— its negative influence as outmoded superstition.16 The situation including insulation from disease, poverty, and sin—by making was no better among certain of the African elite who trained to positive confessions and sowing seeds of tithes and offerings. serve as clergy alongside Western counterparts in the historic In an African context in which etiology and diagnoses speak of mission denominations. The failure to engage constructively supernatural agency as the cause of misfortunes, witchcraft is with the phenomenon of witchcraft meant that these leaders easily invoked to explain the shortfalls of the prosperity gospel. were unprepared to deal effectively with the anxieties, fears, These shortfalls are evident in the fact that, for the majority of and insecurities that African converts faced regarding witchcraft. those who have imbibed this gospel, poverty and sickness are Witchcraft is reinforced in people’s minds both by Christian everyday realities. preaching and by its coverage in the media, where stories abound The emphasis on health, wealth, promotion, advance, of the lynching of suspected witches. Accusations of witchcraft, privilege, and power in the gospel of prosperity necessarily as ter Haar rightly notes, are made primarily against women implies that those who preach it have a weak theology of pain and children. Many of the women are old and depressed, and and suffering. Rather than address the systemic socioeconomic the children are usually from extremely deprived backgrounds failures brought on African countries and their people by greedy or are orphans without responsible guardians. If mothers die and corrupt leaders, pastors and people alike accept witches during childbirth, it is not uncommon for a surviving child to be and demons as convenient causes of negative life experiences. accused of having caused the death through witchcraft.17 Explaining poverty in terms of witch activities has led to a situ- ation in which Pentecostal/charismatic healing camps receive Witchcraft, Christian Media, and Conversion not only people accused of witchcraft but also perceived victims looking for divine intervention in their plight. The accusers and Accounts of conversion from witchcraft circulate widely through the accused turn to the same well in seeking help.21 popular religious books such as Snatched from Satan’s Claws. In this book Evangelist Mukendi of the Democratic Republic of Witchcraft and Spiritual Warfare Congo is said to tell his personal story of preconversion visits to the supernatural domains of witchcraft. For converts like Muk- In African church life today, especially in its more Pentecostal/ endi, the vital decisions that affect ordinary lives occur in this charismatic streams, the discourse on witchcraft and the fight supernatural realm.18 Nigerian Emmanuel Eni’s Delivered from the against it take place within the context of what has come to be Powers of Darkness has the same story line. Eni’s testimony includes known in contemporary Christianity as spiritual warfare.22 The his participation in a spiritual underworld through which he term “spiritual warfare” as used in conservative evangelicalism ruined lives by making pacts with the devil. In modern African refers to resisting the activities of evil powers through authoritative Christian discourses on evil and the power of Jesus in unmasking prayer in order to free victims of those powers from supernatural and dealing with these powers, distinctions between Satan and witches have been all but erased. Guided by these beliefs that resonate with traditional ideas of causality, new Pentecostal/ charismatic prosperity–preaching churches, like the AICs before Witchcraft is reinforced them, create ritual contexts of healing and deliverance to deal in people’s minds both by with the fears and insecurities of the faithful in search of help.19 Christian preaching and by Witchcraft beliefs are reinforced by ongoing media stories, rumors, and perceptions. The 1992 Nigerian video film Living in its coverage in the media. Bondage, for example, is infused with a neo-Pentecostalist rhetoric of deliverance. In the video, a petty trader named Andy follows a colleague’s suggestion that he obtain some money making possession and oppression. Witchcraft has become synonymous medicine. At the shrine, he is expected to exchange the life of with demonology, a Christian reinterpretation of a traditional his new bride for the instant wealth he seeks. He does so, but religious idea.23 In Africa, whole ministries called “intercessors” then Andy’s wealth begins to disappear when his mother-in-law, are specifically dedicated to the perennial war against demons following traditional religious beliefs, weeps at her daughter’s working against the continent and its member nations. Usually graveside, asking her to take revenge on the one who killed her. no distinctions are made between the sort of evils perpetrated by The point is that Living in Bondage was produced by a Christian witches and those by demons as portrayed in the Bible. organization and that it accepts local belief (that ritual sacrifice of In the 1990s, Redeeming the Land: Interceding for the Nations, human beings can produce wealth) as true. At the same time, the by Nigerian charismatic preacher Emeka Nwankpa, articulated story sustains the Pentecostal Christian position that such wealth the worldview that encapsulates intercessory work for nations is from the devil and can turn against its beneficiaries, just as against the powers of destruction assigned to them by the devil.24 Andy’s life ended in ruins.20 These story lines in African movies The inspiration for a “warfare prayer” mentality comes from

January 2015 25 Paul’s exhortation to the Ephesians: “Finally, be strong in the for them but by invoking fire from God to burn them. Repeating Lord and in the strength of his power. Put on the whole armor denunciations (following the leader) of witches in one’s family is of God, so that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the therefore an important part of contemporary Pentecostal services devil. For our struggle is not against enemies of blood and flesh, in Africa. African Christians are not necessarily oblivious to the but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic fact that certain problems are caused by people in authority and powers of this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of decision makers. Natural explanations are apparent for many evil in the heavenly places” (Eph. 6:10–12). of the problems that people face. Nevertheless, even the most Interest in spiritual warfare is by no means unique to African mundane problems, from food shortages to corruption, are seen Christianity. Partly inspired by European and North American as having their deepest explanations in the actions of powerful conservative evangelical theologians and evangelists such as figures who manipulate spiritual realities. Fear of supernatural Derek Prince, Don Basham, Kurt Koch, Mark Bubeck, and John evil and desire for protection from witchcraft are the reason Wimber, it represents a global movement.25 Books by Peter Wagner, why many people constantly seek power that will effectively such as Engaging the Enemy and Warfare Prayer, and by Charles protect them.32 Kraft have been highly influential.26 Rebecca Brown’s He Set the The search for solutions to spiritual problems has generated a Captives Free and Prepare for War became so popular in Africa plethora of healing camps and prayer services in both Pentecostal/ that Nigerian publishers of popular Christian literature broke charismatic and historic mission churches. Prophets specializing copyright laws and produced cut-rate editions for distribution in healing, deliverance, and exorcism operate to set people free throughout the continent.27 These publications reinforced belief from bondage; and particular difficulties, including the inability in the workings of demons and evil spiritual powers, of which of human reproductive systems to function properly, may be witchcraft was the most well known. When African Christians identified as associated with witchcraft. Healing and deliverance read books on the Christian life as spiritual conflict, it is a short centers are heavily patronized by women in search of the “fruit step to go from biblical demons to local witches.28 of the womb,” that is, the gift of children.33 According to Charles Kraft, Scripture clearly portrays human Witchcraft accusations often emerge when things go wrong life as lived in a context of continual warfare between the kingdom in life without any rational explanation. The conclusion reached of God and the kingdom of Satan. If John could write that “the is usually that the problem lies within existing relationships. Thus whole world lies under the power of the evil one” (1 John 5:19), at prayer services the power of God is constantly invoked to deal then, according to Kraft, we should accept the need for warfare with real, perceived, and imaginary enemies responsible for one’s on the part of God’s forces to defeat the enemy.29 problems in life. Psalm 35—“Contend, O Lord, with those who In civil life, war is associated with the military. With a belief contend with me”—is much loved for the imprecatory manner that Christians must engage in spiritual warfare as a backdrop, in which it calls on the God of Israel to fight one’s battles for African pneumatic movements often use militarized language him or her by bringing the enemy to ruin, shame, and disgrace. and images to portray their mission. One of the first AICs in West African Christians are definitely aware of the material rea- Africa is the Musama Disco Christo Church, a so-called heavenly sons for the socioeconomic and personal quagmires in which the name that means “The Army of the Cross of Christ Church.” In the continent and its peoples find themselves. At church and prayer early 1990s, Pastor Eastwood Anaba of the Fountain Gate Chapel services across the continent, prayers are raised asking God to International in Ghana and an important voice in contemporary deliver the continent from its difficulties. In October 2014, the African Pentecostalism wrote God’s End-Time Militia: Winning the metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Accra War Within and Without. In an introduction to a revised edition, publicly endorsed a call—issued by Nicholas Duncan-Williams, Anaba declares, “The voice of the Lord in these end-times is distinct the archbishop of Ghana’s Action Chapel International, a contem- and loud. It leaves us in no doubt concerning what we ought to porary Pentecostal and prosperity preaching church—to prayer do as a church. It is loud enough to wake up all those who are against the “Ebola Demon.” In the West African countries of in deep slumber on the battlefield. There is a call to war. . . . We Ghana and Nigeria, national thanksgiving services endorsed by are realizing that Christianity is not a game but a titanic conflict their governments are held, and intercessions for political leaders against the forces of darkness.”30 The book’s cover is designed and public officeholders are constant features of these religious in military camouflage colors. gatherings. In the run-up to Ghana’s 2004 democratic elections, Anaba’s book is one of many popular publications on for example, the recurring theme of the various services was spiritual warfare in contemporary African Christianity. Emeka to ask for God’s intervention so as to avoid the chaos that had Nwankpa, mentioned earlier, writes that Jesus Christ has dele- characterized the political systems and transitions of countries gated power to born-again Christians, not only over the influence such as Liberia and Sierra Leone. Spiritual warfare is an important of the devil in the lives of people, but also in spiritual warfare to underlying theological theme of these national prayer services. redeem the land.31 The leaders of these churches routinely include forms of militarization as part of their public image. Spiritual Conclusion warfare summits and conferences are heavily advertised in the public sphere, with images showing the lead speakers in Drawing on a selection from Jesus of the Deep Forest, the prayers of actual military outfits. Advertisements for Archbishop Nicholas Afua Kuma, an ordinary Ghanaian Pentecostal woman, Kwame Duncan-Williams, the founder of a charismatic church in Ghana, Bediako notes that in African Christianity Jesus Christ has been frequently show him wielding a sword, suggesting his power received as one with superior power, able to reduce Sasabonsam over negative spiritual forces, and he is constantly referred to to a mere mouse.34 as an “apostle of strategic warfare prayer.” Jesus blockades the road of death Warfare language fits well with the African understanding of with wisdom and power. witchcraft. At Pentecostal/charismatic prayer vigils and church He, the sharpest of all great swords, services, witches are resisted in prayer as demons who afflict has made the forest safe for hunters. God’s people. This movement deals with enemies not by praying The mmoatia he has cut to pieces;

26 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 he has caught Sasabonsam In his early study Witchcraft in Ghana, Debrunner makes and twisted off its head. the telling observation that, by accepting the reality of witch- craft and claiming the power not only to protect against it but Sasabonsam is huge, while the mmoatia, short creatures or also to heal from it, the AICs came into being as theological dwarfs, exist in African folklore as mysterious figures with spiri- critiques of the historic Western mission denominations.37 In tual powers that come from Sasabonsam. They are believed to be twenty-first-century Africa, witchcraft and how to deal with tiny with their feet pointing backward, which is to say that they its effects on human life and activity continue to be important are weird and ugly, and they “wait for the unwary hunter in the issues, drawing people into indigenous Christian communities. pitch darkness of the night.”35 The word “Sasabonsam” came into This movement says much about the resilient nature of primal Christian vocabulary as the name for Satan via the translators of worldviews in African life and thought. African expressions the Akan Bible. In Jesus of the Deep Forest, Jesus is presented as of Christianity have always been informed not simply by conqueror of the world of evil because he has “twisted off the biblical ideas of Satan, demons, and evil spirits, but also by head” of Sasabonsam.36 We see here African Christians respond- traditional worldviews regarding the sources and causes of ing to the denial of witchcraft through local religious innovation. evil such as witchcraft. Notes 1. Stephen Ellis and Gerrie ter Haar, Worlds of Power: Religious Thought 20. Asonzeh F.-K. Ukah, “Advertising God: Nigerian Christian Video- and Political Practice in Africa (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004), 27. Films and the Power of Consumer Culture,” Journal of Religion in 2. Ibid., 45. Africa 33, no. 2 (2003): 203–31. 3. Hans W. Debrunner, Witchcraft in Ghana: A Study on the Belief in 21. The Cape Town Commitment (Cape Town, S.A.: Lausanne, 2010), Destructive Witches and Its Effect on the Akan Tribes (Accra: Presbyterian 64, forthrightly denounces the prosperity gospel as unable to offer Book Depot, 1959), 1. lasting solutions or deliverance from poverty. 4. See, for instance, J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, “Conquering Satan, 22. See Opoku Onyinah, Spiritual Warfare (Cleveland, Tenn.: Center for Demons, Principalities, and Powers: Ghanaian Traditional and Chris- Pentecostal Theology, 2012) and Pentecostal Exorcism: Witchcraft and tian Perspectives on Religion, Evil, and Deliverance,” in Coping with Demonology in Ghana (Dorset: Deo Publishing, 2012). Evil in Religion and Culture, ed. Nelly can Doorn-Harder and Lourens 23. Onyinah, in Pentecostal Exorcism, has coined the term “witchdemonol- Minnema (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2008), 85–103. Though wizards are ogy” to refer to this religious amalgamation of phenomena related also present in African societies, witchcraft generally involves only to evil. See also Stabell, “Modernity of Witchcraft,” 462. females. For convenience, I use the word “witch” to refer to both 24. Emeka Nwankpa, Redeeming the Land: Interceding for the Nations male and female versions of witchcraft. (Accra: Africa Christian Press, 1994; repr. 1998, 1999). 5. Aylward Shorter, Jesus and the Witchdoctor: An Approach to Healing 25. A representative publication list would include Derek Prince, Bless- and Wholeness (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1985), 96. ings or Curses (Milton Keynes, U.K.: Word Publishing, 1990) and 6. See Peter Geschiere, The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult They Shall Expel Demons (Harpenden, U.K.: Derek Prince Ministries, in Postcolonial Africa (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 1997). 1998); Don Basham, Can a Christian Have a Demon? (Monroeville, Pa.: 7. Elias Bongmba, “Witchcraft and the Christian Church: Ethical Whitaker House, 1971); John Wimber, with Kevin Springer, Power Implications,” in Imagining Evil: Witchcraft Beliefs and Accusations in Evangelism (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1992); Kurt E. Koch, Contemporary Africa, ed. Gerrie ter Haar (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Occult Bondage and Deliverance (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, Press, 2007), 114. 1970); Mark I. Bubeck, Overcoming the Adversary (Chicago: Moody 8. For earlier work underscoring the importance of witchcraft for mission Press, 1984) and The Adversary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1975). in Africa, see Robert S. Rattray, Ashanti (Oxford: Clarendon, 1923); 26. Peter C. Wagner, Warfare Prayer (Ventura, Calif.: Regal Books, 1991) Malcolm C. McLeod, “A Survey of the Literature on Witchcraft in and Engaging the Enemy: How to Fight and Defeat Territorial Spirits Ghana (Excluding the Northern Region), with Particular Reference (Ventura, Calif.: Regal Books, 1993). to the Akans” (B.Litt. diss., Exeter College, Oxford Univ., 1965). 27. Rebecca Brown, Prepare for War (Springdale, Pa.: Whitaker House, 9. Harold W. Turner, Religious Innovation in Africa: Collected Essays on 1987) and He Came to Set the Captives Free (Springdale, Pa.: Whitaker New Religious Movements (Boston: Hall, 1994). House, 1992). 10. See Kwame Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non- 28. Note, for example, Birgit Meyer, “If You Are a Devil, You Are a Witch, Western Religion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1995), 94. and If You Are a Witch, You Are a Devil: The Integration of Pagan 11. See ibid., 91–108; Emmanuel Milingo, The World In Between: Christian Ideas into the Conceptual Universe of Ewe Christians in Southeastern Healing and the Struggle for Spiritual Survival (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Ghana,” Journal of Religion in Africa 22, no. 2 (1992): 98–132. Books, 1984), 50. 29. C. H. Kraft, “Spiritual Warfare: A Neocharismatic Perspective,” in 12. Milingo, World In Between, 31, quoting Francis Macnutt. The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal Charismatic Movements, 13. Bongmba, “Witchcraft and the Christian Church,” 112. See also an ed. Stanley M. Burgess and Eduard M. van der Maas (Grand Rapids: important essay by Timothy D. Stabell, “The Modernity of Witchcraft Zondervan, 2002), 1091, 1092. and the Gospel in Africa,” Missiology 38, no. 4 (2012): 460–74. 30. Eastwood Anaba, God’s End-Time Militia: Winning the War Within 14. E. A. Asamoa, “The Christian Church and African Heritage,” Inter- and Without, rev. ed. (Accra: Design Solutions, 1993; repr., 1998), xi. national Review of Missions 44 (July 1955): 297. 31. Nwankpa, Redeeming the Land, 10. 15. Gerhardus Oosthuizen, The Healer-Prophet in Afro-Christian Churches 32. Ellis and ter Haar, Worlds of Power, 92, 95. (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 120. 33. J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, “Broken Calabashes and Covenants 16. Birgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the of Fruitfulness: Cursing Barrenness in Contemporary African Ewe in Ghana (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1999), xvii, 41. Christianity,” Journal of Religion in Africa 37, no. 4 (2007): 437–60. 17. See Gerrie ter Haar, “Introduction: The Evil Called Witchcraft,” in 34. Kwame Bediako, Jesus in Africa: The Christian Gospel in African His- Imagining Evil, ed. Haar, 1. tory and Experience (Akropong-Akuapem, Ghana: Regnum Africa, 18. See Ellis and ter Haar, Worlds of Power, 51. 2000), 9–10, citing Afua Kuma, Jesus of the Deep Forest (Accra: Asempa 19. For example, see Douglas Akwasi Owusu, The Spectator (November Publishers, 1981), 19. 21, 2009), an account in an important Ghanaian weekend paper of a 35. Bediako, Jesus in Africa, 10. session at Ebenezer Healing Church to exorcise the spirit of witchcraft 36. Ibid. from an eleven-year-old girl. 37. Debrunner, Witchcraft in Ghana, 2.

January 2015 27 Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact his two-page report is the thirty-first in an annual series it was 95.0 percent, by 1970 it had fallen to 76.0 percent, and Tin the IBMR that lays out in summary form an annual by 2015 it had further declined to 52.4 percent. This phenom- update of significant religious statistics. The series began three enon is related to religious diversity; most majority-Christian years after the publication of the first edition of David Barrett’s countries are becoming less Christian through secularization World Christian Encyclopedia (WCE; Oxford Univ. Press, 1982). The and immigration. WCE itself was expanded into a second edition in 2001 (Oxford Univ. Press) and accompanied by an analytic volume, World Chris- Personal Contact tian Trends (WCT; William Carey Library, 2001). In 2003 the World Christian Database (WCD; later published by Brill) was launched, Christians make up one-third of the world’s population (line updating most of the statistics in the WCE and WCT. The Atlas 22). It therefore might be expected that a significant number of Global Christianity (Edinburgh Univ. Press, 2009) was based on of non-Christians would have some kind of personal contact these data and was featured throughout 2010. The World’s Religions (line 50) with a Christian. This is not the case, however, since in Figures, by Todd Johnson and Brian Grim (Wiley-Blackwell, Christians are not evenly distributed globally. Some countries 2013), covers the methodology of counting religionists around the have large Christian majorities, while in others Christians world. In mid-2014 Brian Grim, Todd Johnson, Vegard Skirbekk, constitute small minorities. Within a country, or even a city, and Gina Zurlo produced the first of a series of annuals titled adherents of different religions can be isolated from each other Yearbook of International Religious Demography (Brill). in many ways, including geographically, ethnically, socially, and economically. Redesign In order to estimate the number of non-Christians who have personal contact with a Christian, a formula has been This year we have redesigned the annual statistical table, deleting developed and applied to each ethnolinguistic people group (see many previous categories and adding some new ones. Categories “Methodological Notes” in the Atlas of Global Christianity; also cut include rural dwellers, nonliterates, church attenders, coun- posted in the footnotes online). Thus, for every non-Christian cils of churches, and several evangelism variables. Notably, the population in the world, there is an indication of Christian pres- “Great Commission Christians” concept has been retired. This ence and contact. Summing weighted values for each country, category, introduced in the early 1990s, was used by many agen- region, and continent produces a global total. Although these cies to express ecumenism in mission. While tracking Christians numbers are estimates, they offer a preliminary assessment of within each tradition who are active in mission and evangelism a critical shortfall. Overall, Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims is valid, we have not found a way to corroborate these particu- have relatively little contact with Christians. In each case, more lar estimates with surveys and poll data. We break down the than 86 percent of these religionists globally do not personally Independent Christian category into six subcategories by region know a Christian (or, as line 50 reports, only 14 percent of all (lines 29–34). In every case, global figures are derived by adding non-Christians know a Christian). together data on 234 countries. 2050 Religious Diversity Since 2025 is now only ten years away, we have expanded the A new category this year is Religious Diversity (line 8), a compos- table to include estimates for 2050. The United Nations Popula- ite measure of how diverse the religious makeup of individual tion Division projects population figures for every country of countries is. This measure is adapted from the field of economics the world from 1950 to 2100, allowing us to base our projections (market share studies). The least possible diversity is represented for religion on their population figures. While these projections by 0 and the most by 1. The world as a whole is considerably should be treated with caution, they do point to some important more diverse in 2015 than it was in 1900, but diversity is now on trends. Of particular interest: by 2050, world population (line 1) a slight decline. While many countries in the Western world are will cross the 9 billion mark, and Christians (line 23) will number becoming more diverse through secularization and immigration, 3.3 billion, or 36 percent (line 22). Note that this percentage is others are becoming less diverse. In 2015 the most diverse countries now on the rise after falling for nearly a century. This can be are South Korea at 0.82 and China at 0.81, while the world as a explained partly by the fact that the growth of Christianity in whole (all countries’ individual contributions) is at 0.45. The least the Global South is now outpacing losses in the Global North. diverse country is Afghanistan at 0.00 (99.8 percent Muslim). See Pentecostals (line 38) will likely exceed 1 billion. Finally, the The World’s Religions in Figures, chapter 3, for method and details. unevangelized (line 67) will rise to 2.6 billion, or 27.3 percent (line 68) of the world’s population. Post-Christendom Counting Pentecostals and Martyrs Another new measure is the percentage of Christians who live in countries that are 80 percent or more Christian (line 25). In 1900 This past year we published the following articles related to counting Pentecostals (line 38) and martyrs (line 24):

This report was prepared by Todd M. Johnson, Gina A. Zurlo, Albert W. Johnson, Todd M. “Counting Pentecostals Worldwide.” Pneuma Hickman, and Peter F. Crossing at the Center for the Study of Global 36 (2014): 265–88. Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Johnson, Todd M., and Gina A. Zurlo. “Christian Martyrdom as Massachusetts. Footnotes for the “Status of Global Christianity, 2015” a Pervasive Phenomenon.” Modern Society and Social Science table can be found at www.globalchristianity.org. 51, no. 6 (2014): 679–85.

28 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Status of Global Christianity, 2015, in the Context of 1900–2050

Annual 1900 1970 2000 trend (%) mid-2015 2025 2050 GLOBAL POPULATION 1. Total population 1,619,625,000 3,691,173,000 6,127,700,000 1.12 7,324,782,000 8,083,413,000 9,550,945,000 2. Adult population (over 15) 1,073,646,000 2,304,100,000 4,280,900,000 1.59 5,420,681,000 6,101,720,000 7,516,484,000 3. Adults, % literate 27.6 63.8 76.7 0.37 81.1 84.3 88.0 GLOBAL CITIES 4. Cities over 1 million (megacities) 20 144 361 2.21 501 616 880 5. Urban population (%) 14.4 36.7 46.7 1.05 54.6 58.2 67.3 6. Urban poor 100 million 650 million 1,400 million 3.09 2,210 million 3,000 million 6,400 million 7. Slum dwellers 20 million 260 million 700 million 3.36 1,150 million 1,600 million 3,700 million GLOBAL RELIGION 8. Religious diversity (0–1, 1=most diverse) 0.27 0.43 0.45 -0.06 0.45 0.45 0.44 9. Religionists 1,616,370,000 2,983,012,000 5,330,961,000 1.32 6,493,515,000 7,249,030,000 8,738,368,000 10. Christians (total, all kinds) 558,131,000 1,230,548,000 1,988,399,000 1.32 2,419,221,000 2,727,172,000 3,437,236,000 11. Muslims 199,818,000 571,205,000 1,288,489,000 1.88 1,703,146,000 2,010,408,000 2,678,227,000 12. Hindus 202,973,000 464,184,000 815,787,000 1.26 984,532,000 1,066,463,000 1,183,629,000 13. Buddhists 126,956,000 234,909,000 452,185,000 0.94 520,002,000 564,760,000 575,769,000 14. Chinese folk-religionists 379,974,000 227,577,000 431,396,000 0.34 453,868,000 453,325,000 410,498,000 15. Ethnoreligionists 117,437,000 168,630,000 217,832,000 1.19 260,240,000 265,317,000 274,972,000 16. New Religionists 5,986,000 39,382,000 62,017,000 0.32 65,057,000 64,168,000 60,368,000 17. Sikhs 2,962,000 10,678,000 20,418,000 1.41 25,208,000 29,217,000 34,375,000 18. Jews 12,292,000 13,500,000 13,745,000 0.37 14,532,000 15,000,000 15,500,000 19. Nonreligionists 3,255,000 708,161,000 796,739,000 0.28 831,267,000 834,382,000 812,576,000 20. Agnostics 3,029,000 543,004,000 659,900,000 0.34 694,823,000 704,143,000 686,853,000 21. Atheists 226,000 165,156,000 136,839,000 -0.02 136,444,000 130,239,000 125,723,000 GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY 22. Total Christians, % of world 34.5 33.3 32.4 0.19 33.4 33.7 36.0 23. Affiliated Christians (church members) 521,683,000 1,119,481,000 1,889,261,000 1.35 2,309,108,000 2,610,161,000 3,310,498,000 24. Christian martyrs per year (10-year average) 34,400 377,000 160,000 -3.76 90,000 100,000 100,000 25. Christians, % living in countries ≥80% Christian 95.0 76.0 60.3 -0.91 52.6 52.4 48.0 MAJOR CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS 26. Roman Catholics 266,566,000 664,938,000 1,047,224,000 1.13 1,239,267,000 1,343,831,000 1,632,823,000 27. Protestants (including Anglicans) 133,606,000 255,017,000 426,808,000 1.62 543,397,000 626,591,000 883,616,000 28. Independents 8,859,000 96,381,000 301,490,000 2.21 418,564,000 510,691,000 694,472,000 29. African Independents 40,000 17,569,000 76,319,000 2.38 108,636,000 135,341,000 191,259,000 30. Asian Independents 1,906,000 16,494,000 94,270,000 2.99 146,586,000 188,757,000 289,728,000 31. European Independents 185,000 8,299,000 17,680,000 1.90 23,444,000 27,647,000 34,062,000 32. Latin American Independents 33,000 9,452,000 32,744,000 1.97 43,843,000 52,428,000 66,876,000 33. Northern American Independents 6,672,000 44,022,000 79,524,000 1.18 94,821,000 105,074,000 110,803,000 34. Oceanian Independents 22,000 544,000 956,000 1.72 1,234,000 1,443,000 1,744,000 35. Orthodox 115,855,000 144,067,000 256,628,000 0.66 283,185,000 288,898,000 293,987,000 36. Unaffiliated Christians 36,448,000 111,066,000 99,139,000 0.70 110,113,000 117,012,000 126,738,000 MOVEMENTS WITHIN GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY 37. Evangelicals 80,912,000 105,958,000 239,565,000 2.13 328,582,000 400,076,000 581,134,000 38. Pentecostals/Charismatics 981,000 62,674,000 460,529,000 2.26 643,661,000 795,734,000 1,091,314,000 GLOBAL CHRISTIAN DISTRIBUTION 39. Africa (5 regions) 8,736,000 114,785,000 359,245,000 2.78 541,816,000 704,003,000 1,207,833,000 40. Asia (4 regions) 20,774,000 91,585,000 271,420,000 2.19 375,905,000 464,797,000 598,589,000 41. Europe (including Russia; 4 regions) 368,254,000 467,266,000 546,448,000 0.16 559,900,000 546,065,000 501,488,000 42. Latin America (3 regions) 60,027,000 262,919,000 481,355,000 1.20 575,464,000 628,336,000 702,896,000 43. Northern America (1 region) 59,570,000 168,472,000 209,585,000 0.67 231,499,000 239,501,000 266,038,000 44. Oceania (4 regions) 4,323,000 14,463,000 21,178,000 1.08 24,892,000 27,459,000 33,654,000 CHURCH ORGANIZATION 45. Denominations 1,600 18,800 34,200 1.85 45,000 55,000 70,000 46. Congregations 400,000 1,416,000 3,400,000 1.59 4,309,000 7,500,000 9,000,000 CHRISTIAN MISSION 47. National workers (citizens) 2,100,000 4,600,000 10,900,000 0.64 12,000,000 14,000,000 17,000,000 48. Foreign missionaries 62,000 240,000 420,000 -0.32 400,000 550,000 700,000 49. Foreign-mission sending agencies 600 2,200 4,000 1.63 5,100 6,000 7,500 50. Non-Christians who know a Christian (%) 4.3 10.5 13.6 0.24 14.1 14.8 15.4 URBAN MISSION 51. Global urban population 232,695,000 1,353,274,000 2,864,278,000 2.18 3,957,725,000 4,702,865,000 6,432,512,000 52. Christian urban population 159,600,000 660,800,000 1,223,415,000 1.64 1,560,439,000 1,800,195,000 2,028,925,000 53. Megacities under 50% Christian 5 65 226 1.53 284 357 450 54. New non-Christian urban dwellers per day 5,200 51,100 129,000 0.25 134,000 137,000 164,000 CHRISTIAN FINANCE (in US$, per year) 55. Personal income of church members 270 billion 4,100 billion 17,000 billion 3.69 42,000 billion 60,000 billion 150,000 billion 56. Giving to Christian causes 8 billion 70 billion 300 billion 3.75 700 billion 990 billion 2,400 billion 57. Churches’ income 7 billion 50 billion 120 billion 3.73 280 billion 400 billion 990 billion 58. Parachurch and institutional income 1 billion 20 billion 180 billion 3.76 420 billion 590 billion 1,420 billion 59. Ecclesiastical crime 300,000 5,000,000 18 billion 4.01 50 billion 100 billion 690 billion 60. Income of global foreign missions 200 million 3 billion 17 billion 3.79 45 billion 60 billion 150 billion CHRISTIAN MEDIA 61. Books (titles) about Christianity 300,000 1,800,000 4,800,000 3.63 8,200,000 11,800,000 14,500,000 62. Christian periodicals (titles) 3,500 23,000 35,000 4.32 66,000 100,000 120,000 63. Bibles printed per year 5,452,600 25,000,000 53,700,000 2.91 82,600,000 110,000,000 135,000,000 64. Scriptures (including selections) printed per year 20 million 281 million 4,600 million 1.07 5,060 million 6,000 million 9,200 million 65. Bible density (copies in place) 108 million 443 million 1,400 million 1.98 1,880 million 2,280 million 3,700 million 66. Users of radio/TV/Internet 0 750 million 1,830 million 1.08 2,150 million 2,430 million 2,870 million WORLD EVANGELIZATION 67. Unevangelized population 880,122,000 1,650,559,000 1,833,442,000 0.99 2,124,216,000 2,314,510,000 2,608,900,000 68. Unevangelized as % of world population 54.3 44.7 29.9 -0.13 29.3 28.6 27.3 69. World evangelization plans since 30 c.e. 250 510 1,500 2.89 2,300 3,000 4,000

January 2015 29 My Pilgrimage in Mission John P. Martin

was born in New York City on December 28, 1939, as the seminary days from the secular world and even from our Mary- Ison of an Irish Catholic immigrant family and became an knoll missionaries overseas.) Soon thereafter while in language altar boy server in the sixth grade at Ascension Parish School school, I spent an occasional weekend “helping out,” barely, in in Manhattan in 1950. In 1952, while in the eighth grade, I went the huge housing development of San Juan de Aragon, where a through a three-step process that became my “vocation story” Maryknoll priest was serving. This was a hands-on introduction and led me to become a member of Maryknoll. First, with the to the culture and language of my adopted country of mission. total innocence of a twelve-year-old, I rejected the path of the Time for another revelation: it seemed to me that the style Catholic diocesan priesthood because of a personal quirk I once of pastoral ministry in Mexico City differed only in language noticed in the priest coordinator of the altar boys. (It represented from pastoral ministry at home in the United States, as the work no ill will or bad behavior on his part.) Second, soon afterward, seemed the same. I asked myself, Why aren’t these Maryknoll presuming to already know all about doing Masses, funerals, priests doing things that are more explicitly missionary? My mis- weddings, and baptisms, I decided to await “another challenge.” sionary dream was raising its head in my consciousness again. (Years later I recovered the memory of these exact words.) And, These tensions and naive impressions and subtle influences third, an unlikely classmate introduced me to two priests doing all were duly buried in my unconscious in the predominant vocation promotion for the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers in culture of missionary priests committed to the pastoral ministry New York City, and I discovered the challenge of my life. I got of baptized Catholics, as I found no support for any of my deep hooked on becoming a missionary and discovered that I had to personal inspirations to be expressed or developed—even if I enter the seminary, which I did in 1955 in order to become one. had been able to express them then, which I was not. But now This did not seem at all out of place, as I had been contemplating I am. “There has to be more to being a Maryknoll missionary the priesthood as normal within my tradition. priest than doing this work, as valuable as it is,” seemed to be Thus was set up a lifelong dichotomy and tension between the deeper urging of my heart. my inner fundamental calling to be a missionary, that is, to It simmered within me silently as I dedicated myself for many establish the church overseas, which was my dream, and the years to the pastoral needs and opportunities of a rural community ministerial role that I was expected to fulfill as a priest. Because of in the forests of eastern Yucatán and the teeming populations of the overwhelming significance that the Roman Catholic Church Mexico City’s rural migrants. Openness to friendships with these gave to the priesthood for any male believer with a “vocation,” fine peoples became a hallmark of my years of living among during my eleven years of formation there seemed to be little them, and these friendships continue to this day. The former or no room for further development of my initial inspiration to experience among a rural population gave me a good taste for the become a missionary. core traditional values of the Mexican people that are enshrined In the summer of 1964 I studied linguistics with the Wycliffe in their campesinos. In the urban setting of rural migrants I felt at Bible Translators, mostly Southern Baptists, at their Summer home because I was revisiting and identifying with the family Institute of Linguistics. The linguistic skills that I learned were roots of my parents, who were rural immigrants from Ireland. invaluable tools for my missionary adaptation, helping me first I became aware of a degree of creativity in responding to these of all to learn quickly to speak Spanish well. peoples that surprised me and helped me to overcome my low self-esteem that had been furbished in my seminary years. Mexico The late 1960s and early 1970s was a decade of tectonic shifts in the Roman Catholic Church as a result of the Second I was assigned to Mexico in the spring of 1966, and soon a dream Vatican Council. It seemed as if some of us “liberal” newcomers came to the surface: as a true missionary, I would be dropped had floated off and become separated from the plate carrying into an area to live with a people who did not know anything the “conservative” old-timers, not just moving away from one about Jesus Christ, so I would begin by just giving testimony another but rather screeching our ways apart, inch by stressful to my Christian faith and living with them to assimilate their inch. In the view of the old-timers, I and others like me could not culture, and then we would together work out some kind of seem to do anything right. This tension became the harbinger of reciprocal sharing. It seemed that this vision was another, but the breakdown of my dream that I would spend the rest of my secret, gift from the Wycliffe Bible Translators, for that is what life with the Mexican people. The prospect of separation from their missionaries did. the extended family into which I had been adopted kept me from I landed in Mexico City in July of 1966 and learned how this unthinkable thought, until the separation became inevitable. naive I was to think that there were areas there untouched by the Catholic Church. (We had been hermetically sealed off in those Bangladesh

John P. Martin, MM, a Maryknoll missionary priest It turned out that our central leadership foresaw the need to offer (and brother to all), lives in retirement at Maryknoll, me and many others new challenges for doing mission in other New York. He is writing his memoirs as well as situations and with newer styles of living. At the end of 1974 I other materials so as to share with others the fruit grasped onto that offer to be part of an “ecclesial team” of priests, of his cross-cultural and interreligious experience. sisters, and lay missionaries among the Muslim people of Ban- —[email protected] gladesh, then considered the neediest country in the world. This would be a dream come true, since to that point I had not had any community or work experience except with Maryknoll priests

30 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 in Mexico. Here again my naïveté popped up, as I dreamed of testimony. I learned something new for myself from those Ben- being a missionary among our Muslim sisters and brothers with galis that I carried over in my later years of ministry back in my no involvement with a local church or hierarchy. I was implicitly beloved Mexico. To live with a vision as brother, friend, and neighbor trying to keep a distance from the priestly ministry as the main seemed to me quite sufficient and elementary as a motivation or way in which to carry out one’s missionary calling. rationale for being a missionary and witness for Christ. These By December of 1975, a not very ecclesial team of five of us concepts have helped to lessen my need to be “doing things for priests landed in Dacca, the capital. Another disappointment! We others” in order to sense personal satisfaction in my missionary all had previous mission experience only in Christian countries presence among the people, first in Bangladesh and even later (Bolivia, Philippines, and Mexico), yet we came together on a back in Mexico doing pastoral work. Doing things for others, vision of ourselves living as brothers and friends among the which I did plentifully, became a more integral response on my Muslim population with a strong commitment to our communal part out of my basic missionary motivation. lifestyle. Our vision and our community living were new and Upon our arrival in early December 1975, I had had the most unique values in the Maryknoll world at the time. We had to deal traumatic experience of culture shock of my life, in part because with the expectations of the local Bengali bishops and priests of my vaunted vulnerability as my basic attitude toward people that we each be assigned to a separate “mission” to do pastoral in a new cultural situation. For several years I suffered through ministry for the Catholics. Because of the untimely but fortuitous bouts of physical sickness and psychic depression. death in 1977 of our archbishop, who had wanted to give us an opening for our mission vision, his temporary replacement Visits to India was not willing to prevent the archbishop’s wish from being implemented. Thus we were able to start out on this venture of Four years later I found myself traveling to a most unusual fools for Christ to do mission in a way that none of us had ever place in India, given my focus on a presence among Muslims: done before, with people of a religious tradition that we knew the Christian-Hindu Ashram of Father Bede Griffiths outside of nothing about either. In mid-1977 we rented a small, hot, noisy, Trichy in the state of Tamil Nadu. I had assimilated something of uncomfortable house in the town of Tangail in the north-central the repugnance of the Muslims for traits of the Hindu tradition, part of the country. such as making images of their deities. Father Bede had left his We did have a vision of friendship and brotherhood, but monastery in England for India as a Benedictine monk in 1955 we were too ignorant to have anything like a plan. So each of to follow the dream of an indigenous type of Christian contem- us tried our hand at relating to whomever we could, however plative life. His ashram became a center of attraction for many that might develop. Within our first week there, I took a ride by pilgrims, young and not so young people, disenchanted Christians bicycle rickshaw out of town to visit a nearby “Muslim university” and Jews, in those decades of the 1960s and beyond, who were founded by a renowned freedom fighter and religious leader, searching for spiritual values in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sufi Moulana Bhashani. I put “university” in quotes, for it was short Islam. He also did a grand service to the Christian churches of on whatever one might expect to find there, being only a cluster India by challenging them to open up new approaches, besides of small schools around a mosque and madrasa for teaching total isolation, to the sincere believers all around them. children to memorize the Quran. Despite the warnings of the In December 1979 Father Bede was the midwife for two won- Bengali priests and the veteran missionaries that you can never derful revelations for me. First, he gave me a way to understand make friends with a Muslim, on my first visit, Masud Khan, the the deep psychic and spiritual dimensions of my culture-shock director, and I became friends with our first eyeing of one another. experience as a shift from living on the masculine side of my Our visits often saw him reading the Quran and explaining it personality to the feminine, thus challenging me to greater bal- to me in his enviable combination of intense fervor and a social ance and equilibrium in my life. (My heterosexual orientation conscience. After a year of occasional visits, he floated the idea was not affected.) And the expansive spiritual environment of of my going to live there with them as a Christian in residence. the ashram sowed a new seed in my heart: to be a brother not It seemed like a marvelous idea, but internal problems with the just to Muslims, but to all peoples. staff over other matters sabotaged it. In the succeeding years I made pilgrimages to several holy When I found myself spending more time at home than my places in India belonging to the Hindu, Islamic, Buddhist, and companions, I continued a trend from my Mexican period of Sikh traditions, just to hang out and be still, to listen and to medi- openness to building family ties, this time with the family from tate, to read their Scriptures, and to join their rites. In December whom we rented our house. Their boys were in and out of our 1981, upon finishing my commitment of six years in Bangladesh, house all the time. I started getting invited into their home in back I made monthlong pilgrimages to half a dozen places for the of ours, where the mother and two older daughters lived their life same purposes. secluded from the view of men outside the family. Eventually I was able to enter spontaneously as a member of the family, for I United States called myself to all “Jon bhai,” which translates as Brother John. When the neighborhood boys saw the canceled stamps on my I did not know it until months later back in the United States when letters and asked for them, at first I just gave them away. Then I the aura had dissipated, but I began ever so slowly to emerge from decided to make them work for them by writing me a short essay that special time and space that the Spirit had created around me in Bengali about a stamp’s image. They loved the idea; the word and in me during that long pilgrimage. Some people’s responses spread around; and soon about a dozen boys were in the “club,” to my story were “Wow!” as they helped me to grasp its meaning. each sporting his homemade album. It pleased me to see them Then came the challenge of getting used to living in this country searching for information about the foreign stamps for their essays. again, a place where I had never worked in my life, but now as Thus I added another personal role to that of our twofold an adult at age forty-four I engaged in reverse mission, sharing community vision, namely, “neighbor.” It fit me so well and has the fruits of my sixteen years in Mexico, Bangladesh, and India stuck with me to live and to preach as a way of giving Christian with folks in this country. It took me a year and a half of transi-

January 2015 31 tion time and a series of retreats and other experiences before I care of a corner of a huge urban parish under our Maryknoll care. was ready to accept an assignment to our house in Los Angeles. I was not prepared, though, for the dysfunctional dynamics of that Knowing that my culture shock in Bangladesh was due in part highly marginated community. Much alcoholism, many broken to a shoddy transition out of Mexico, I learned once and for all families, low educational prospects, and high unemployment were to be aware of these transitional times. signs that the “high” society’s concept of the neighborhood—that All told, I worked for seven years with much satisfaction, is, as a place where undesirable elements such as the cemetery, creativity, and personal growth at the task of being a “mission slaughter house, red light district, dirty garages, and bus station promoter” for Maryknoll in Los Angeles, Chicago, and Jackson- were concentrated—had been interiorized. I was able to frequent ville, Florida, in a wide variety of situations, conferences, church the home of my adopted family and visit many old friends, for collections, vocational promotion, and so forth, for I was highly I had maintained my communication with these folks over the motivated to share the fruits of my overseas living with people intervening twenty-two years by letters and visits on vacation. here at home. I had been uniquely enriched beyond measure by The difference between then and now in my priestly ministry was those years and those peoples of several cultures and religious enormous, for I had been subtly working on reconciling those two traditions. The missionary dimension of my life, the challenge I vocations to be missionary and priest. I had left behind the anxiety accepted at twelve years of age, was alive and very well in my and inner tensions of yesteryear; the conflicts of those days with my heart and spirit and could not be contained, as it was not mine companions were mostly gone. The inner spiritual resources from to cling to, but rather to give away. those years of purification and growth made themselves evident There are some Pharaohs that are not Egyptian, and my in the words and actions that I used in my pastoral care. I found run-in with one of my department heads left me in a black it easier to spend my energy and my time in a more compassion- hole in our community organization. Looking for a way to get ate fashion with people. I was eminently available, and it did not back to India, in 1989 I took some courses in world religions at bother me. My sermons were more biblical and applicable to their Harvard Divinity School. This experience challenged me to get lives. The formation of the laypeople in community responsibility a master’s degree with a focus on Hinduism and Islam. It made was my chief goal, and it worked. me conscious of how little I really knew about either one. But During the eight years of this pastoral ministry, I committed it helped in the long run to get a multiple entry visa for India, myself to accompanying hundreds of couples in the Marriage where I was permitted by my Maryknoll leadership to remain Encounter movement through retreats that I qualified to give nation- from 1991 through 1994. ally. Counting on the friendships I started back in 1966, I offered to teach these old friends the rudiments of contemplative prayer India through Father Thomas Keating’s “Contemplative Outreach,” eventually giving many retreats each year, forming several weekly I chose to live in Calcutta, since I already knew Bengali. I hoped prayer groups, and training many people to take over after me. to find an ashram community in West Bengal to enhance my After leaving the pastoral ministry, I next worked on my contemplative lifestyle, and I looked forward to doing social longtime dream of leaving behind some specifically missionary outreach with the folks in nearby villages. It really was a great work. Pastoral ministry left folks with many good memories proposal that my superiors accepted willingly. of the priestly care of our missionaries but with scant focus on Nevertheless, I found it impossible to fulfill, except for doing mission. The question often came to me of how much speaking Bengali. I ended up living in Shantiniketan, 100 miles of the adulation was due just to our being American and how northwest of Calcutta, which is home of the world-famous much to our being missionary. In 2006 I launched a community Visva-Bharati University, founded by Rabindranath Tagore. I of Maryknoll Affiliates, a small local group of people interested rented a flat from a Hindu Brahmin family, though I enhanced in assimilating our missionary spirituality under four rubrics: my contemplative lifestyle more as a hermit than in community. community life, spirituality, global vision, and action in the com- Once again I was invited to live as brother, friend, and neighbor munity. At that time there were more than fifty active groups in to the people in town, with no proposed outreach on my part. the United States, but fewer than a dozen in other countries. It My fluency in Bengali did help a lot to make it easy to get on was impressive to see the enthusiasm of this group for being part with the people without much hesitation. of our worldwide missionary movement. Then a funny thing happened on the way out of my hermitage, I have to admit that I was (indirectly) responsible for the when I started getting bubbly inspirations to get back to Mexico, closing of all missionary activity by Maryknollers after their to my adopted family, and to priestly ministry. Well into my sixty-nine years in Mexico. Because I had opted to ask for a year’s third year there I was strongly convinced that this would be my sabbatical during 2012, our leaders in Latin America decided future path, somewhat surprised that these three years seemed that the three remaining older, retired priests had to move to our to be all that the Spirit was giving me a rope for. They had suf- retirement facility in the Unites States. On the one hand, we could ficed for many encounters with foreign pilgrims at ashrams and leave with a clear conscience because of the dedicated labor of travelers on the road, with Indians in many parts of the country, the scores of our priests, brothers, sisters, and lay missionaries Christian, Hindu, and Muslim; for innumerable hours of writing who had worked in a majority of the states of the country since my reflections; for good, simple social times with my neighbors; 1943 in a wide variety of ministries. We were able to support the and for much reading about the historical riches of South Asia. creation of a Mexican national missionary society, the Guadalupe Missioners, in 1949. On the other hand, I could leave to follow my Mexico Again dream of continuing to share the fruits of my many rich experi- ences of a cross-cultural and interreligious nature through writing Faithful to my awareness of the need for a transition, I spent two my memoirs. This writing continues to the present. years active in mission promotion in the United States before, Dreams really do come true, provided you do not expect to in January 1997, returning to live and work in Merida, Yucatán, see them in Technicolor accompanied by Dolby sound tracks. Mexico; it felt as if I was going home again. I was given the pastoral They may look more like worn but cherished photos.

32 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 “I am excited to be a part of a global-minded community that both equips and learns from current and future mission leaders.”

AssociateDr. Sue Professor Russell of Mission and Contextual Studies The Legacy of Frank Arthur Keller Kevin Xiyi Yao

n the late nineteenth century, China’s Hunan Province was they welcomed CIM founder J. Hudson Taylor into their home, Iconsidered one of the country’s toughest mission fields. With during what was his first visit to Changsha, but the very next its deeply entrenched Confucianism and widespread xenophobia, day he suddenly died. Hunan was a source of notorious anti-Christian literature and a Though Keller came to China as a medical missionary and hotbed of antimissionary activity. Never- focused on this ministry in the early years of theless, Western missionaries were drawn his career, the center of his various ministries magnetically by the province’s central loca- from beginning to end was evangelism. tion and huge unreached population. A few He served as an itinerant missionary, con- missionaries attempted to enter the province centrating on the urban centers of Hunan as early as the 1860s, and the China Inland Province and sharing the Gospel through Mission (CIM) was especially aggressive street preaching and handing out tracts. in trailblazing there. But Hunan Province He depended heavily on local assistants; fiercely and successfully resisted the entry of at least two Chinese evangelists, named Li missionaries until the dawn of the twentieth and Yang, played important roles in Keller’s century, when Frank A. Keller, a CIM medi- early mission outreach. cal missionary, was among the missionary During these early years in Hunan, pioneers who opened the doors of Hunan. Keller developed a supporting network Keller was born on May 26, 1862, in of powerful backers in North America. Fort Plain, New York. He received a B.A. They included Lyman Stewart (1840–1923), from Yale University in 1892 and undertook cofounder of Union Oil. A major supporter medical studies at Albany Medical School, of several key fundamentalist projects in in New York, graduating with an M.D. in North America, Stewart provided most of 1896. During his student years he became the funds Keller needed for his mission proj- deeply involved in the Student Volunteer ects. Keller used the money to hire Chinese Source: Undated Biola brochure Movement, serving as its traveling secretary Frank Arthur Keller assistants and to purchase printed Gospel for 1892–93.1 Upon completion of his studies, materials from various mission publishing he joined CIM and arrived in China in 1897. After a short period houses and Bible societies.2 Lyman’s brother, Milton Stewart, of language training, he was assigned to Hunan Province, the also became a staunch supporter of Keller, mainly through his field to which he devoted his entire life. active and influential Milton Stewart Evangelistic Trust Fund. Early Ministry in Hunan Houseboat Ministry

Keller’s ministry in Hunan had a bumpy start. After arriving in In 1909 Keller’s ministry underwent a major change. In those October 1898, he was twice driven out by local anti-Christian days foreign tobacco companies sometimes sent out their sale mobs. But he refused to give up, making his way to Changsha, clerks on steamboats to distribute cigarette samples to residents. the provincial capital, in June 1901. Other Western missionaries Some came to Changsha. Keller was deeply troubled by their zeal had made a number of attempts to enter that city, but all had and techniques. He later recalled: “As we saw their strenuous failed. In 1898, for example, B. H. Alexander of the Christian work and heard of their far-reaching plans, and thought of the and Missionary Alliance was able to evangelize in the city, but thousands and thousands of towns and villages whose millions he had to live outside the city wall. Keller’s medical skills, how- of people had never heard of Christ, or even seen a copy of God’s ever, gained him entrance. In June, 1901, two Chinese soldiers Word, who would soon be smoking cigarettes, our hearts were guarding the city were wounded in a drill, and Keller stepped filled with burning shame and at the same time throbbed with forward to bind up their wounds. This action earned the trust a great ambition, to be equally comprehensive in plan, wise in of the local officials, who later allowed Keller to settle in the city method, and prompt in action for the King.”3 No evidence can permanently. By this means he was instrumental in gaining entry be given that he completely abandoned his medical practice to the city for CIM and other mission agencies. thereafter, but clearly his long-existing passion for evangelism Keller married Elizabeth Tilley in 1902, and the new couple found new expression. By this time he was well on his way to a launched a series of ministries from their home base in Changsha. shift of his focus from evangelism through medical practice to In June 1905 a notable event occurred in their home. On June 2 evangelism by more direct means such as Bible conferences and theological education. Kevin Xiyi Yao, educated in China and the United Taking advantage of the dense network of the rivers in States, is associate professor of world Christianity and Hunan Province, Keller mobilized local Chinese believers Asian studies, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, and organized them into itinerant evangelistic bands, sending South Hamilton, Massachusetts. He previously taught them out on houseboats. On July 30, 1909, the first band of six at the China Graduate School of Theology, Hong Kong evangelists, led by Yang, was launched. The man-powered (2003–11). —[email protected] boat they used was actually a floating mission station with bedrooms, kitchen, dining room, and a larger room for worship and study. The boat stopped by the villages and towns along

34 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 rivers, and the evangelists went out two by two, visiting almost considerably expanded and improved. Every September the every household. Sometimes the boat stayed in a berth in one members of the houseboat ministry and Chinese church leaders, particular location for weeks while the team went ashore to as well as other believers from Hunan Province, gathered there evangelize among local communities. The evangelistic trip by for three weeks. They spent their mornings and evenings in the first band lasted thirty-six days, canvassing seven districts Bible study, prayer, and fellowship, inviting many well-known in the south of Hunan Province. The team distributed 190 copies Chinese and Western church leaders to lead these gatherings. of the Bible and 8,244 Gospel pamphlets.4 By 1918 the event attracted an average of eighty people every Under Keller’s leadership, the ministry grew rapidly. By 1912 year from ten to twelve denominations.13 the number of evangelists increased to twenty-four, who were Evangelism was an indispensable part of the Nanyoh divided into several teams to cover more and larger districts of the Bible Conference. From 2:00 to 6:00 p.m. each day the partici- province. The following year the number grew to twenty-eight.5 pants were sent out to meet pilgrims on their way home. They From 1911 to 1916 the teams visited a total of 363,767 households treated them with tea and shared the Christian message with and distributed 17,837 copies of the New Testament.6 From the them. They also put up Christian posters along the paths to the beginning Keller was clear that “the immediate objective of the temples. By the fall of 1916 the number of pilgrims contacted work is to assist the missions working in Hunan in speedy and by the evangelists reached 40,000; altogether the pilgrims had thorough evangelization of the twenty-two millions of people liv- received 39,600 copies of Scripture quotations and 20,000 Gospel ing in this province.”7 He thus insisted that the evangelistic teams pamphlets.14 It was no surprise that the evangelistic outreach enter a district “only on the invitation of the missionary in charge.”8 among the pilgrims brought Keller and his ministry into con- Keller made persistent efforts to ensure that teams were flict with the local religious leaders. Local Buddhist monks and indigenous. Even though they reported to Keller and the mission Taoist priests told some pilgrims to burn the Gospel materials. agencies, “the direct conduct of each party is entrusted absolutely Certain temples even made an attempt to buy out the property to its trained Chinese leader.”9 For this reason he emphasized of the Bible conference and thus drive out Keller’s ministry. the training of Chinese believers, and gradually the houseboat Keller did not yield to the pressure but continued his campaign ministry took on a growing dimension of theological training. The against “heathenism” and kept working “to spread widely the first trip had already included Bible studies for the team members knowledge of the Gospel of Christ our Saviour.”15 in their daily schedule. Each day, before starting their evangelistic activities at 10:00 a.m., they prayed and studied the Scriptures. Hunan Bible Institute After returning from their work around 4:00 or 5:00 p.m., they took time in the evening to study and to share their experiences The establishment of Hunan Bible Institute (HBI) was undoubt- of the day. Later, courses on the Bible, theology, church history, edly the culmination of Keller’s missionary career. He was always homiletics, and even sacred music were added. While serving as keenly aware of the necessity for training national church leaders, evangelists, students could finish the curriculum in two years. In and the training components of the houseboat ministry and the addition to being mobile bases for evangelism, the houseboats Nanyoh Bible Conference were testimony to his commitment to thus functioned as floating Bible schools. theological training. At one point he even planned to develop the For the houseboat ministry, however, Keller relied heavily on financial support from America.10 The Milton Stewart Evangelis- tic Trust Fund and Mary W. Stewart, widow of Milton Stewart, were the major financial backers of this ministry, continuing until Keller mobilized local 1934.11 In the years that followed, this dependency on American Chinese believers and money remained, which explains the financial hardship Keller’s ministry experienced during the Great Depression.12 organized them into itinerant evangelistic Nanyoh Bible Conference bands, sending them out Even while launching the houseboat ministry, Keller turned his on houseboats. eyes to another area for evangelism: Nanyoh (now Nanyue). Located about 130 miles south of Changsha, Nanyoh is one of the five sacred mountains of China and a very significant site for conference in Nanyoh into a permanent Bible training institu- Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Every fall thousands of tion, but ultimately he chose Changsha as the location for a new pilgrims from all over the country would flock to the mountain theological school. and worship at numerous temples there. The Hunan Bible School (HBS; later Hunan Bible Institute) In the fall of 1909 G. G. Warren of the English Wesleyan Mis- was officially launched in 1916. In that year Lyman Stewart sion organized an evangelistic team to share the Gospel with the decided to take over full responsibility for the support of Keller’s Nanyoh pilgrims. Touched by Warren’s vision, Keller decided to work in Hunan Province. This decision led Keller in 1916 to place join the team and also obtained funding from North America to his existing ministries and the newly proposed Hunan Bible purchase copies of the Bible for this venture. A German CIM mis- School together under the supervision of the Bible Institute of sionary lent them a property located in the small village of Nanyoh Los Angeles (Biola), which also was funded by Lyman Stewart. Kai. Resting at the foot of the mountain, the property turned out For these reasons HBS/HBI was often referred to as “the Evan- to be strategically located. Not only did the village have a large gelistic Department of Biola,” “Biola in China,” or “the China temple, but also several nearby paths led toward the mountain. Branch of Biola.” When Warren departed a few years later, Keller took over The years from 1916 to the early 1930s were the golden years the ministry and transformed it into an annual event combining of HBI’s history. A donation of $355,000 from Milton Stewart Bible study and evangelism. The facilities at Nanyoh Kai were enabled a twelve-acre, state-of-the-art campus to be completed

January 2015 35 in 1927.16 The institute served churches from more than twenty donations and distributing them to HBI. In the early 1920s Biola denominations all over the country, but the new campus was passed on $30,000–$40,000 to HBI annually.21 Until the mid-1930s so modern and so splendid that one has to wonder whether the HBI students did not have to pay tuition.22 Keller’s apparent Chinese church could ever have afforded to maintain it.17 Keller’s failure to intentionally and persistently encourage the Chinese leadership stimulated a long period of stable growth of the student church to contribute more was a signal weakness of the school. body; enrollment grew from 39 students in 1919 to 117 in 1922.18 Originally Keller modeled HBI on a Bible school, but later In the years 1918–29, a total of 239 students graduated from HBI.19 he made consistent efforts to upgrade its academic standards. Throughout these years Keller was indeed the soul of the By the early 1930s HBI had a full curriculum in place, tailored HBI community. As the longtime superintendent, he was revered for students from various educational backgrounds. High school by HBI faculty and staff. His wife, Elizabeth, was also involved graduates would be enrolled in a two-year program, junior high in ministering to female students. During these years Keller was school graduates in a three-year program. Others would first enter committed to indigenization of the faculty. Under his supervision a preparatory program. A bachelor’s degree was the terminal in the late 1920s and early 1930s, HBI successfully recruited an degree. In 1933 the name of the school was officially changed from outstanding Chinese faculty and placed Chinese church leaders Hunan Bible School to Hunan Bible Institute. But Keller had no and theologians in charge of many departments of the school. By intention of turning HBI into an academic ivory tower. For him, the 1931, twelve out of the sixteen faculty and staff were Chinese.20 school’s purpose was to serve the Chinese church, and therefore practical training was just as important as academic training. As a result, he worked to ensure that the houseboat ministry and the Bible Conference continued to be vital parts of HBI’s ministry.23 HBI’s chronic financial From 1931 to 1935 the number of houseboats sent out annually dependence upon the stood between six and eight.24 From attendance of 200 in 1922, the American churches skewed enrollment of the Nanyoh Bible Conference grew to 350 in 1924.25 After 1926 the annual Bible Conference moved to Changsha, where the balance of power. it continued for another decade or so though on a much smaller scale. In addition, with Keller’s encouragement, HBI faculty and students initiated a number of local evangelistic outreaches such Until the mid-1930s Chinese remained the majority of the fac- as newspaper advertising evangelism and prison and hospital ulty. They were responsible not only for caring for most of the ministries. HBI was a complex of ministries, not just a theological classroom teaching load but also for the operation of most of the school, and in the 1920s and 1930s it stood out as a powerhouse departments, ranging from correspondence courses to logistics. of nationwide evangelism in China. In fact, in the 1930s HBI boasted one of the most prominent and Between 1935 and 1937, however, HBI came close to ship- influential Chinese faculties among all the evangelical theological wreck because of its twisted administrative structure. As Frank schools in China. This faculty included Chen Chonggui (Marcus Keller prepared to retire, tension between the Chinese faculty Chen, 1884–1964) and Cheng Jigui (T. C. Cheng, 1882–1940). The and the Biola board over the succession plan began to intensify. former was a popular speaker at revival meetings across the When Charles Robert was identified as the person most likely country and edited an influential nationwide journal entitled to be appointed by the board—over a number of more pres- Budao Zazhi (Evangelism). The latter was instrumental in trans- tigious and popular Chinese professors—most of the Chinese lating the Scofield Reference Bible into Chinese and introducing faculty and staff rose up in protest. In June of 1935 they joined dispensationalism to the Chinese church via a hugely popular hands with some Chinese church leaders in Changsha to form correspondence course. Through the efforts of these Chinese a new board and declared a takeover of HBI, which lasted for faculty members, HBI quickly earned the trust of the Chinese a year. Then the Biola board asked Keller to reorganize the evangelical churches, and it became a stronghold of evangelical Changsha board, effectively ending Chinese independence. theological education in China in the 1930s and 1940s. Consequently, HBI lost most of its prominent Chinese faculty. Despite its achievements in raising up a prominent Chinese Heartbroken, Keller called this controversy “a tragedy.”26 The faculty, however, HBI made little headway toward becoming eruption of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 made the school’s self-supporting, and it failed to implement self-government fully normal operation impossible, and it did not enroll new students during Keller’s tenure. As the founder and superintendent, Keller until the fall of 1947. enjoyed enormous prestige at HBI, holding the community In 1937 Keller officially retired, and Robert was appointed together through his personal charisma. He did not seem to feel the new superintendent the following year. But for three years an urgent need to set up an effective administrative structure Keller continued to live in Changsha, leaving for Los Angeles or local decision-making procedures. Instead, he and Charles in 1940. He died on July 24, 1945, in Los Angeles. During the Robert, a longtime HBI faculty member and the treasurer, turbulent war years, HBI was under Charles Robert’s leadership. constituted the real center of power at HBI. Oddly enough, the With its educational operation suspended, the campus was often institute remained under the final authority of the Biola board turned into a refugee and medical center. HBI recovered quickly in the United States and thus was never able to establish its own in the wake of the war, but under the Communist regime, it board in China. The Chinese faculty and staff of HBI might be eventually had to shut its doors in the early 1950s. brilliant and might direct their own departments and ministries, but their voice was insignificant in deciding the overall direc- Conclusion tion of the school or in arriving at decisions on crucial matters. Another unfortunate factor, namely, HBI’s chronic financial In his own time Frank Keller was not one of the most famous dependence upon the American churches, further skewed the bal- Western missionaries in China, but the course of his ministry was ance of power. Keller’s donor network was the essential lifeline definitely unique. He did not articulate his theological views sys- of the school. For its part, Biola was responsible for collecting the tematically, but in the 1920s and 1930s his passion for evangelism

36 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 When looking to save money on your international insurance:

There's no substitute for experience

We save groups & (866) 636.9100 individuals money:

www.missionaryinsurance.info • By setting up self-funded plans to save on premium

• By offering superior advice from our years of experience

• By saving short-term workers money - Medical plans for about $1 a day

SHORT-TERM THE NEW ACA HEALTH ★★★★★ (Five stars) “The best TEAM insurance options for INSURANCE educators, - - and plans for - - missionaries FREQUENT LAW AND YOU. WHAT and mission TRAVELERS YOU NEED TO KNOW agencies.” and his exclusivist attitude toward non-Christian religions put this regard, evangelical missionaries were not immune from him in the conservative camp. He was a practitioner by nature such missteps—as Keller’s failure and HBI’s “tragedy” testify. and content with a low-key, non-self-promoting approach to In any case, it is beyond doubt that Frank Keller exerted ministry. This fact explains why he accomplished as much as any a shaping influence upon evangelical Christianity in China of the contemporary conservative mission leaders in China but through HBI and related ministries. He also played a pivotal did not gain much fame beyond the HBI and Biola communities. role in connecting Chinese evangelical churches with the inter- In his lifelong attempts to indigenize the ministries he initi- national evangelical movement via such prominent conservative ated, Keller’s record is mixed. He largely succeeded in raising figures as the Stewart brothers and such influential institutions the level of Chinese participation and creativity, but he fell well as Biola. His immense achievements did not earn him national short of helping HBI become self-supporting and self-governing. or international recognition during his lifetime, but the imprint While liberal missionaries, with their ambitious and costly of his legacy can still be seen in the theology and ministry of the establishment of institutions, might more readily be guilty in church in China today. Notes 1. Record of the United States Home Council of Overseas Missionary 16. Robert T. Harrison, “Biola in China: The Hunan Bible Institute, Case Fellowship (China Inland Mission)-Collection 215, Box 17, Folder Study of an American Christian Institution in China, 1916–1952” 2, P455, Billy Graham Center Archives, Wheaton College; Henry (typewritten manuscript, March 1985), Biola University Library, Owen, “Frank Arthur Keller, 1862–1945: A Tribute,” The King’s 11–12. According to “Facts about the Hunan Bible Institute for Business 36, no. 9 (September 1945): 335. Board Consideration,” a report from 1950, HBI’s campus contained 2. See Henry W. Frost to Lyman Stewart, December 21, 1905, January a 750-seat auditorium, twenty classrooms, numerous offices, four 1 and 4, 1906, in Charles Everleigh Clements, “The Bible Institute dormitories, a large dining hall, six residences, tennis courts, and of Los Angeles in China: An American Missionary Experience basketball and football grounds. The entire property was worth $1 as Viewed from the Stewart Papers” (unpublished manuscript, million (“BIOLA in China,” 241–42). December 1975), 8–12; hereafter “BIOLA in China.” 17. For example, the thirty-five graduates in 1935 came from thirteen 3. Bible Institute of Los Angeles Afloat in Hunan, China ([Los Angeles]: Bible provinces and ten denominations (Budao Zazhi [Evangelism] 8, no. Institute of Los Angeles, 1917), 3; pamphlet, Biola University Library. 3 [May–June 1935]: 64). 4. Frank Keller to Ralph Smith, November 10, 1909, “BIOLA in China,” 18. “A Brief Statistical Survey of the Work Done by Bible Institute of Los 24–28. Angeles through Its Evangelistic Departments and Student Body for 5. Xiao Mu-guang, “Hunan Zhu Jia Budao Tuan” (Hunan Evangelistic the Year 1922,” The King’s Business 14, no. 3 (March 1923): 261. Bands), in Zhonghua Jidujiaohui Nianjian, 1917 (China mission year 19. Budao Zazhi 4, no. 1 (January–February 1931): 76. book, 1917), vol. 4 (Shanghai: Christian Literature Society for China, 20. Ibid., 1. 1917), 115. 21. Harrison, “Biola in China,” 13. 6. Ibid., 117. 22. See “The HBI Recruitment Announcement,” Budao Zazhi 8, no. 1 7. Frank A. Keller, “The Hunan Colportage Work of the Bible Institute (January–February 1935), cover page. of Los Angeles,” in China Mission Year Book, 1917, vol. 8 (Shanghai: 23. See “BIOLA in China,” 62; Frank A. Keller, “Our Bible Institute in Christian Literature Society for China, 1917), 353. Hunan Province, China,” The King’s Business 14, no. 2 (February 8. Ibid., 354. 1923): 153; John Murdoch MacInnis, “Nanyoh—China at Worship,” 9. Ibid., 353. The King’s Business 16, no. 2 (February 1925): 59. 10. Keller estimated the cost for one boat and its equipment to be $3,500. 24. See Budao Zazhi 4, no. 1 (January–February 1931): 1; 5, no. 2 See Afloat in Hunan, China, 41. (March–April 1932): 1; 5, no. 3 (May–June 1932): 1; 5, no. 6 (Novem- 11. Mary W. Stewart to the Board of Directors, Bible Institute of Los ber–December 1932): 1; 7, no. 1 (January–February 1934): 1; 7, no. 6 Angeles, April 7, 1934, “BIOLA in China,” 452–55. (November–December 1934): 1; 8, no. 1 (January–December 1935): 12. W. Twitchell to Mr. Lucy (business manager of Biola), November 16, 1; 8, no. 6 (November–December 1935): 1. 1933, “BIOLA in China,” 447. 25. “BIOLA in China,” 62; Keller, “Our Bible Institute in Hunan Prov- 13. Afloat in Hunan, 11. ince, China,” 153; MacInnis, “Nanyoh—China at Worship,” 59. 14. Ibid., 38. 26. Frank A. Keller to Edmonds and the Board, September 25, 1936, 15. Frank Keller to Ralph Smith, October 9, 1909, “BIOLA in China,” 70. “BIOLA in China,” 314.

Assembly of the International Association for Mission Studies, 2016—Call for Papers

“Conversions and Transformations: Missiological Approaches • Gender in Mission to Religious Change” is the theme of the fourteenth assem- • Religious Freedom and Mission bly of the International Association for Mission Studies • Theology of Mission (IAMS), which will take place August 11–17, 2016, in Seoul, • Interreligious Issues South Korea. The 2016 IAMS assembly will be an opportunity for crit- Prospective presenters should submit their proposed topic ical and constructive dialogue on issues of transformation and a 250-word abstract by August 25, 2015. Papers accepted and conversion across scholarly disciplines, Christian tra- by the organizers must be no more than 2,000 words long and ditions, and practical contexts. All papers will be presented are due by May 31, 2016. After the assembly, expanded ver- within one of the IAMS Study Groups: sions of conference papers can be submitted to Mission Studies, the IAMS journal, for consideration for publication. • BISAM: Biblical Studies and Mission Further details, including criteria for accepted papers • DABOH: Documentation, Archives, Bibliography, and information on how to submit proposals, can be found and Oral History on the IAMS website, http://missionstudies.org. Queries • Healing/Pneumatology can also be sent to [email protected].

38 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Longing for Community: Church, Ummah, or Somewhere in Between? A Review Essay Michael Nazir-Ali

his book on the theme of Christian witness in Muslim Roman Catholic contributor, made huge sacrifices for Christ Tsettings contains contributions from some twenty and evoked the admiration of numerous Muslims and Chris- missiologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and linguists. It tians. The difficult question, however, is to what extent they spans a huge range of mission involvement spread over several accepted the prohibitions of Islam on freedom of expression, continents, and there is much practical wisdom to be found belief, and the right to change one’s belief. The same question here. We need to remember that these can be asked of many missionary were addresses presented to a mixed Longing for Community: projects today: To what extent conference, and therefore we should Church, Ummah, or Somewhere are they simply accommodating not demand too much academic rigor in Between? themselves to a dhimmi frame- from them. work? And is campaigning for The chapters concentrate heavily Edited by David Greenlee. Pasadena, greater freedom simply a waste on the questions of effective evange- Calif.: William Carey Library, 2013. of energy? lism, conversion, and discipleship, Pp. xix, 273. Paperback $19.99. Given that the connection of but there is little here about the social, Islam to Muslim-majority cultures economic, and political dimensions is particularly strong, does there of Christian mission. Given the disciplines of many of the not need to be, nevertheless, a proper distinction between reli- contributors, there is a somewhat uncritical use of the social gion and culture? Should not this be so, even if many cultural sciences and their jargon, without a sufficient amount of practices and values are derived from a particular religious theological rigor being brought both to the use of the social tradition? The problem with identifying culture entirely with sciences and to the description of various missionary situa- religion is that contextualization can begin to look very much tions in which the contributors find themselves. like capitulation. The issue becomes sharply focused in the A glaring omission is ecclesiology. Individual stories are debate about “insiders,” or followers of Jesus within Muslim well told and groups described, but often with little information communities who maintain their Muslim identity. To what extent regarding how the authors view the significance of the church for has there been conversion if people continue to participate in mission, in both its local manifestation and its universal nature. the salat (ritual prayer), make the shahada (the Muslim profes- A few of the contributors are from a Muslim background, one of sion of faith), derive their knowledge of Jesus and devotion whom does mention the church as being significant for converts to him mainly from the Qur’an and the Hadith, and so on? as they transfer from one community to another. Other questions concern the relation of communities of such As so often today, the phenomenon of conversion is con- followers (if they are in communities) to other local churches sidered from anthropological and sociological perspectives, and the worldwide church. Also, how are persons and cultures but we need more on conversion’s spiritual and theological to be transformed by the Gospel if the status quo ante is largely aspects, as well as the priority of the missio Dei in this and maintained? There remain serious questions about whether such other areas of mission. The issue of continuity and disconti- communities or persons will be allowed to survive within the nuity is a complex one and needs to be examined in all of its Dar al-Islam (House of Islam). aspects, with both the positive (as praeparatio evangelica) and We must remember that evangelists and missionaries stand the negative (the lingering on of the undesirable) meriting within the apostolic tradition and are not semidetached from it due attention. It is indeed useful, as in one of the contribu- or outside it altogether. This means, for instance, not making up tions, to tabulate both what has attracted converts to the new elements of contextualization but using the rich and varied sources faith (a sense of God’s love, security, freedom, guidance, and of Christian tradition—for example, in patterns of worship, lit- so forth) and what has turned them away from their old way urgy, the public reading of the Scriptures, and forms of private of life (such as empty ritual, inflexible law and customs, and devotion. In Islamic contexts, we are particularly fortunate that distance from the divine). so much has been taken from Eastern Christian traditions and can In the entirely laudable project of seeking to communicate be reappropriated without violence to the integrity of the Gospel. the Gospel in an Islamic milieu, there is always the lurking The problem sometimes is that Western Christian missionaries, danger of lapsing into a dhimmi mentality which assumes the and even Westernized indigenous Christians, are unaware of validity and priority of an Islamic worldview and value system. this rich heritage waiting on their doorstep or are suspicious of Some of the great heroes of the faith, mentioned by the only it. In some places, Islam is an import into an existing Christian culture; elsewhere, both Christianity and Islam have come from Michael Nazir-Ali, a citizen of both Pakistan and the outside. Whatever the case, rich resources for inculturation are United Kingdom, is president of the Oxford Centre available because of the historic interaction between Muslims for Training, Research, Advocacy and Dialogue and Christians. Let us use them! (OXTRAD) and formerly was bishop of Rochester The book represents a brave attempt at assessing the many (U.K.) and Raiwind (Pakistan) and general secretary opportunities and problems for Christian witness in Muslim con- of the Church Mission Society. texts. I hope it is only the beginning and that some of the issues —[email protected] raised in this review essay will be tackled at the next conference and in any publications that result from it.

January 2015 39 The Roman Catholic Church Worldwide (Changes from 2007 to 2012)

Region 2007 2012 Change %

Africa Catholic population 164,925,000 198,587,000 +20.4 Priests (diocesan and religious) 34,658 40,133 +15.8 Catholics per priest 4,759 4,948 Graduate-level seminarians 11,602 12,003 +3.5

North America Catholic population 82,140,000 86,452,000 +5.2 (excluding Priests (diocesan and religious) 52,648 49,072 -6.8 Mexico) Catholics per priest 1,560 1,762 Graduate-level seminarians 3,128 3,420 +9.3

Central America Catholic population 158,468,000 165,811,000 +4.6 (including Mexico Priests (diocesan and religious) 22,905 24,400 +6.5 and Caribbean) Catholics per priest 6,918 6,796 Graduate-level seminarians 4,447 4,462 +0.34

South America Catholic population 327,962,000 346,556,000 +5.7 Priests (diocesan and religious) 45,942 49,452 +7.6 Catholics per priest 7,139 7,008 Graduate-level seminarians 10,258 9,155 -10.8

Asia Catholic population 120,894,000 134,641,000 +11.4 Priests (diocesan and religious) 52,802 60,042 +13.7 Catholics per priest 2,290 2,242 Graduate-level seminarians 15,216 15,148 -0.44

Europe Catholic population 283,240,000 286,868,000 +1.3 Priests (diocesan and religious) 194,393 186,489 -4.1 Catholics per priest 1,457 1,538 Graduate-level seminarians 13,773 12,148 -11.8

Oceania Catholic population 9,027,000 9,706,000 +7.5 Priests (diocesan and religious) 4,676 4,725 +1.0 Catholics per priest 1,930 2,054 Graduate-level seminarians 536 588 +9.7

WORLDWIDE Catholic population 1,146,656,000 1,228,621,000 +7.1 Priests (diocesan and religious) 408,024 414,313 +1.5 Catholics per priest 2,810 2,965 Graduate-level seminarians 58,960 56,924 -3.5

From The CARA Report 20, no. 1 (Summer 2014): 8; used by permission.

40 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 MAY 28-30, 2015

the ON KNOWING HUMANITY CONFERENCE Developing a Christian Anthropology

What does it mean to study humanity from both scientific and theological perspectives? How might Christian theology inform the work of anthropological ethnography and theory? Might such integrative work yield results that are valuable for the purpose of solving human problems? This conference will bring together scholars from anthropology, theology, and Christian ministry to discuss common interests and potential collaboration on topics such as the significance of humanity’s divine image for human personhood and the construction of culture; the underlying reasons for humanity’s destructive behavior toward self, others, and the environment; and the role that purpose and hope play in human thought and practice.

www.eastern.edu/OKHconference Contact Dr. Eloise Meneses at [email protected] 19 25 Book Reviews The Modern Spirit of Asia: The Spiritual and the Secular in China and India.

By Peter van der Veer. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2014. Pp. xi, 282. $75 / £52; paperback $24.95 / £16.95.

This study in comparative sociology, while religion played a central role within despite sometimes brilliant insights, for- driven by “anthropological theory” and nationalisms of India, religion was viewed ays grounded in actual historical events fashionable tropes of “discourse analy- as such an obstacle to progress in China reveal little about those events that has sis,” makes vast and sweeping historical that it had to be strictly controlled and not already been known for some time. claims about complexities of Indian and marginalized. In pursuit of this argument, What may be new within this study lies Chinese cultures. In so doing, it attempts van der Veer addresses different under- in the way already-known events can be to refute the notion that elements of standings of art, compares yoga with qi remolded. Vocabulary for such analysis, modernity within these cultures are imi- gong, looks at concepts of secularism and borrowed from current fashions of literary tations derived from the West. Rather, of conversion within Christian histories, criticism, sociology, and anthropology, it argues that ancient traditions of these differentiates between constructions of invokes the lineage of Max Weber and societies have been transformed in dis- religion in India and campaigns against genuflects before the rhetoric of Edward tinctive and unique ways. superstition in China, and juxtaposes Said and his disciples. Peter van der Veer, director of the Muslim Kashmir and Muslim Xinjiang. Interactions between four select Max Planck Institute for the Study of As a prominent champion of com- concepts—religion and magic, secularity Religious and Ethnic Diversity, in Göt- parative studies in religion and society, the and spirituality—are connected, defined, tingen, and distinguished professor at author stresses the importance of deeper and then redefined in respect to relations Utrecht University, begins by exploring understandings of what is spiritual and of power within imperial and national how, out of nineteenth-century imperial what is secular within these two major institutions. Yet, for scholars interested history, Western concepts of spirituality civilizations. In pursuing this theme, in the history of Christian missions, there and secularity, as also of religion and where ideology can parade in the garb is not much new to be learned from such magic, were utilized to epitomize tradi- of theory, veracity is ever and always rhetorical exercises, however dazzling tions of China and India. He then attempts seen as conditional and contingent, if not they may seem. to show how modern notions of religion contrived. Comparative analysis of cul- —Robert Eric Frykenberg and magic were grafted into the respec- ture ends in intellectual construction and tive nation-making projects of nationalist invention. The “conditional idea” is made Robert Eric Frykenberg is professor emeritus of intellectuals within China and India in to represent “real presences” in a house history and South Asian studies, University of ways that were quite distinctive. Thus, of cards that is largely abstract. Thus, Wisconsin–Madison.

Can a Renewal Movement Be ment—without breaking fellowship” Renewed?: Questions for the (61), the value of diversity (84), the need Future of Ecumenism. to actualize within the churches the sub- stantive agreements already reached (44), By Michael Kinnamon. Grand Rapids: the role of the laity and local congrega- Eerdmans, 2014. Pp. vii, 163. Paperback $24. tions (154), the failure of evangelicals and postdenominational churches to engage This masterly and impassioned analy- as well as pointers to further research. ecumenically (129), the need for ecu- sis of the current state of the conciliar Originally delivered as speeches, the menical formation (134), and the severe ecumenical movement is the product of chapters range widely from peace issues financial constraints facing ecumenical many decades of leadership within the to Christian-Jewish relations and from structures (126). movement in North America and glob- justice to ecclesiology. After an introduc- On the basis of Kinnamon’s analysis, ally. Kinnamon writes out of personal tory chapter the book falls into two main one is tempted to respond to the book’s experience while drawing on an amaz- sections, the first reviewing the com- title, Can [this] Renewal Movement Be ingly rich tapestry of ecumenical rela- mitment of the ecumenical movement Renewed?, with a fairly definite No—but tions, at points inviting ecumenical col- to such issues as peace, justice, and the only because Kinnamon presents a nar- leagues to contribute directly to the text environment, while the second deals with row view of ecumenism, that of conciliar of his book. He is far from optimistic for major challenges such as relationships ecumenism focused on North America. the ecumenical future but nevertheless with Catholic and Orthodox churches In a book subtitled Questions for the maintains a clear vision of the central- and the “add on” approach to ecumen- Future of Ecumenism, it is surprising, for ity of ecumenism to biblical ecclesiology, ism within some denominations. The example, to find no reference at all to the combining this conviction with a lucid concluding chapters present an agenda Global Christian Forum, the amazingly strategy for renewal. for ecumenical renewal. ecumenical work of the Bible societies, As Kinnamon confesses, the book is Themes that Kinnamon returns to and denominational mission agencies full of lists (4), which provide helpful sum- often are the tension between “cheap that increasingly work ecumenically. mary analysis of each issue addressed, unity” (59) and “passionate disagree- Although there is a very brief reference

42 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 to ecumenical communities (154), major Bible in Mission. ecumenical movements such as the Global Day of Prayer, the Alpha Course, Edited by Pauline Hoggarth, Fergus Mac- and Micah Challenge are ignored, as donald, Bill Mitchell, and Knud Jørgensen. is the more formal cooperation we see Oxford: Regnum Books International, 2013. internationally, for example, between Pp. x, 317. £30.99. Presbyterians, Catholics, and Anglicans heroically working for peace in South There can be little question as to the cen- two sections. Section 1, “The Bible in Sudan or between evangelical and Ortho- trality of the Bible to Christian faith in Mission in the World and in the Church,” dox leaders focused on mission through general and Christian mission in particu- presents various religious contexts and the Lausanne-Orthodox Initiative. lar. Bible in Mission documents the wide confessional approaches to the topic in Kinnamon reminds us that “the ecu- range of ways that the Bible has been a broad fashion. Section 2 offers specific menical movement began as a lay [youth] foundation, motivation, and instrument case studies divided into four geographic enterprise—in the mission fields” (154). of mission. Appearing as the eighteenth regions. It moves the discussion from What, sadly, he fails to present is the hope, volume in the Regnum Edinburgh Cen- theory to the experience of real people in indeed the actuality, that renewed ecumen- tenary Series, celebrating the 1910 Edin- real places, illustrating how the Bible has ism will not be led by conciliar structures burgh World Missionary Conference, been read, translated, or communicated but by a network (127) of globally minded Bible in Mission has a “transversal” focus, in different contexts, with different audi- youth who draw creatively on the multifac- seeking to reflect the great confessional, ences and with different theological con- eted Christian tradition and a rich pallet of geographic, historical, and hermeneuti- victions. For example, chapters present global theologies. This renewal movement cal diversity of the global church. This environmentalist, feminist, liberationist, can be—is being—renewed. volume is not a textbook or systematic and evangelical approaches to the Bible —Mark Oxbrow treatise, but rather a collection of essays and mission. Readers will discover ways displaying a broad array of perspectives in which the Bible relates to the HIV crisis, Mark Oxbrow, international director of Faith- on this important but often overlooked poverty, evangelism, children, and youth. 2Share, a global network of mission agencies of subject. Concerns range from personal spiritual various ecclesial traditions, is also facilitator of the The text begins with three introduc- growth to social transformation. Contri- Lausanne-Orthodox Initiative for collaboration tory chapters, of which Tim Carriker’s “The butions also vary stylistically: some are in mission, former assistant general secretary of Bible as Text for Mission” provides an more descriptive or historical in nature, the Church Mission Society (1988–2008), and an especially helpful overview. The remain- and others advocate for a particular Anglican priest based in Oxford, U.K. ing twenty-six chapters are divided into approach; some are research based, while

Anthropomorphism Through Ancient Eyes Evangelically Rooted. Critically Engaged.

AsiA n AmericA n exper ience for Theology TodAy

In this bold theological proposal, Amos Yong draws on the Asian American religious experience to develop a pentecostal global evangelical theology. “By providing a thorough examination of the burgeon- ing yet essential field of Asian American theology, Yong fills a significant gap in evangelical scholarship. This book will serve as the essential text not only for Asian American readers but for everyone concerned about the future of North American evangelicalism.” —Soong-Chan Rah, North Park Theological Seminary 255 pages, paperback, 978-0-8308-4060-1, $25.00

Visit ivpacademic.com to request an exam copy.

Follow us on Twitter Join us on Facebook 800.843.9487 ivpacademic.com

January 2015 43 IBMR The Future of Ev #10904 1 10/13/14 3:06:24 PM others are more anecdotal. This section and horizon-expanding sampling of how potentially challenge, any reader who provides both inspiration and informa- the relationship of Bible and mission can is passionate about God’s mission and tion in a fascinating and sometimes sur- be understood. But this diversity also the Word of God. prising exploration of the subject. makes for rather bumpy reading as the —Craig Ott The variety of perspectives and reader moves from chapter to chapter. themes is at once the strength and the The editors have clearly chosen diver- Craig Ott, professor of mission and intercultural weakness of this volume. The wide range sity over thematic continuity. Overall, studies at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, of theological orientations, contexts, and Bible in Mission offers a valuable collec- Deerfield, Illinois, is director of its Ph.D. program styles exposes the reader to a colorful tion of essays that will enlighten, and in intercultural studies.

Trinity and Revelation. Vol. 2 of The three chapters of section 1 cover the A Constructive Christian Theology what, why, and how, giving a picture for the Pluralistic World. of what a missional church looks like, why the church should be missional, By Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen. Grand Rapids: and how to be missional. Martin Allan Eerdmans, 2014. Pp. 486. Paperback $40. ably identifies the marks of a missional church. Through studies of Jonathan Author Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen here the eschatological communion of all God’s Edwards’s work, Samuel Logan shows offers the second in his planned five- people (180). Kärkkäinen’s construal of how the Reformed faith produces moral volume series on constructive theology. God is firmly rooted in the monotheistic behavior: “What that person seeks first, Overall, he aims to offer practical rea- Christian tradition, but in dialogue it Edwards calls that person’s affections” sons for eliminating conflicts between displays the relationality and mutuality (29); “gracious affections arise from the religions, provide a globally acceptable that characterize the triune God. For the mind being enlightened right and spiri- theory of the existence of one true God author, the triune God is the God of all tually to apprehend divine things” (35). for all religions, and establish a theologi- people and the whole of creation. This In the same chapter we find reasons cal framework for a coherent account of pluralistic and dialogical and yet confes- why we should exercise our Reformed this truth (420–21). The book is cast as an sional approach to understanding the faith in Jesus: “The fundamental reason “act of hospitality, giving and receiving divine is not a cheap tactic to nudge all why I, and you, should exercise faith in gifts” (5). The author clarifies, explains, other religions to relinquish their posi- Jesus Christ is because He deserves it” and reflects on the Christian doctrines tions and embrace Christianity. His is a (36). Thomas Schirrmacher brings to our of revelation and the Trinity, subjecting border-crossing invitation to dialogue, attention convincing arguments from them to rigorous and thorough interfaith engagement, and peaceful coexistence. Paul’s letter to the Romans for establish- engagement. He argues that any theolo- Kärkkäinen is seeking honest and mutual ing a close relationship between local gian in search of God’s wisdom and love encounter with the ideas of the divine and churches and world missions. must be willing to “exchange gifts of practices in other religions. Section 2 discusses various areas in inclusivity, belonging, mutual learning, Kärkkäinen interacts with a vast which the church can be missional. By and enrichment” (5). number of interlocutors, always critiquing giving practical applications for mis- The nature of the Trinity, the articu- and reshaping their logic and arguments. sional vision, this section complements lation of truths that Christians believe, The problem is that it is not always clear the first section well. P. J. Buys’s chapter the quest for a fuller knowledge of the whether the prodigious efforts he expends on missional response to poverty and relation between God and world, and the in the dialogue are supporting an explicit social injustice, based on his experience methodology that structures the whole thesis or clarifying his own distinct voice. in South Africa, is insightful. As a pastor project pivot on the “spirit of hospital- In many places, the pluralistic clamor in a megalopolis, I found the chapter by ity” (364). Kärkkäinen carefully argues drowns out the small still voice of his Tim Keller, “What Is God’s Global Urban that the complex task of dialogue and constructive project. His style demands Mission?,” exceptionally helpful. Keller religious conversation in our pluralistic very close reading. Once his voice is heard, reflects on urban mission in the Bible, as world demands “respectful honoring however, it pays off handsomely. well as on the growing importance of the of the otherness of other traditions and —Nimi Wariboko urban mission of our days. Other chapters their representatives, as well as bold but on missions in the context of healthcare, humble arguing for one’s own deepest Nimi Wariboko is Katherine B. Stuart Professor violence against women, child sexual convictions, in the hope of being both of Christian Ethics, Andover Newton Theological abuse, migrant churches, secularity, Islam, enriched and enabled to share a convinc- School, Newton Centre, Massachusetts. hidden believers, and homosexual groups ing testimony” (365). help us to see numerous practical ways to The author’s view of the Trinity is be involved in mission. based on a broad and rich understand- This is a helpful book. It would be ing of revelation, which derives from even more relevant across the world, the Bible, natural theology, and insights Reformed Means Missional: however, if it included a chapter on how from other religions. At the same time, his Following Jesus into the World. to do mission in the context of civil unrest notion of revelation is cast in a Trinitarian and political instability. Many countries— framework and conditioned by a spirit Edited by Samuel T. Logan Jr. Greensboro, particularly now Ukraine—face unrest and of hospitality. Kärkkäinen views under- N.C.: New Growth Press, 2013. Pp. 288. instability and would benefit from having standing the Trinity as enmeshed with Paperback $19.99. Reformed missions in their midst. the task of “discernment of the unfolding —Ivan Bespalov of the economy of salvation,” that is, the The book Reformed Means Missional well creating, providing, saving, and conserv- defines and shows in practice the mis- Ivan Bespalov is the pastor of Holy Trinity Presby- ing work of the triune God on the way to sional nature of the Reformed churches. terian Church, Kiev, Ukraine.

44 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 To the Ends of the Earth: which has become important in contempo- Pentecostalism and the rary Pentecostalism, could also have been Transformation of World analyzed more extensively. Nevertheless, Christianity. this is a useful volume that will serve seminaries and university departments By Allan Heaton Anderson. Oxford: Oxford looking for a broad study of the history, Univ. Press, 2013. Pp. xviii, 311. £64 / $99; nature, and mission of Pentecostalism as paperback £16.99 / $24.95. most significant regions of Pentecostal a form of world Christianity. activity—Latin America, Asia, and Africa. —J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu Pentecostalism has changed the face of Anderson has dealt with his chosen world Christianity, most visibly in the themes quite fairly, although in chapter J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, a contributing editor, non-Western world. The attention given 5, on the use of the Bible, he could have is Baëta-Grau Professor of African Christianity and in recent scholarship to Pentecostal gone a little beyond the older African Inde- Pentecostal Theology, Trinity Theological Seminary, Christianity and its various versions of pendent Churches. Prosperity preaching, Legon, Ghana. charismatic renewal is testimony to the growth and influence of a movement that, until half a century ago, was on the margins of world Christianity. To the Ends of the Earth, part of the Oxford Series NEW BOOKS FROM EERDMANS on World Christianity (edited by Lamin Sanneh), is a welcome addition to Allan FOR FREEDOM OR BONDAGE? Anderson’s already impressive collec- A Critique of African Pastoral Practices tion of writings on Pentecostalism. Pentecostalism is distinguished from Esther E. Acolatse Roman Catholicism and historic Protes- “This is an important book. With the increasing significance of tantism by its emphasis on the experience Africa within contemporary Christianity, new and urgent theo- of the Holy Spirit as normative in church logical issues are arising for pastoral practice as African under- life and worship. “The experience of the standings of the spirit world interact with the biblical materials Spirit and belief in world evangelization and traditional Christian practice. Acolatse is beginning a are hallmarks of Pentecostalism,” Anderson much-needed conversation between African and Western writes, along with the belief of Pentecostals that they are “called to be witnesses for Jesus theologians, with huge pastoral implications.” Christ in the farthest reaches of the globe — ANDREW F. WALLS in obedience to Christ’s commission” (1). ISBN 978-0-8028-6989-0 ● 233 pages ● paperback ● $35.00 This thought informs the title of the book as Anderson presents stories from across CAN A RENEWAL MOVEMENT BE RENEWED? the world showing how—even within Questions for the Future of Ecumenism Western contexts, where Christianity is on the decline—Pentecostal forms are keeping Michael Kinnamon the hope of the faith alive. In nine chapters the “Michael Kinnamon’s well-resourced, clear, and thoughtful book book covers history, as well as missiological reviews past achievements and proposes future directions for and theological issues that have turned American conciliar ecumenism. His very practical, always infor- Pentecostal/charismatic Christianity into mative, and sometimes disconcerting observations will chal- a world religious force. Various chapters lenge readers to deepen their own commitment to Christian deal with missions and migration, women unity.” and family, the Bible and community, and — JOHN W. CROSSIN, OSFS preachers and entrepreneurs. The final ISBN 978-0-8028-7075-9 ● 175 pages ● paperback ● $24.00 chapter addresses contemporary prosperity- preaching Pentecostalism, using as a case MIGHTY ENGLAND DO GOOD study Korean pastor David Yonggi Cho, for many years head of the world’s largest Culture, Faith, Empire, and World in the Foreign Missions congregation. This approach helps readers of the Church of England, 1850–1915 bridge the gap between this new form of StudieS in the hiStory of ChriStian MiSSionS Pentecostalism and its classic forebears. Steven S. Maughan Pentecostalism is basically a revival “Steven Maughan’s monumental study will be of particular sig- movement that can exist both as separate nificance in understanding the complexities of British overseas churches and denominations and as a stream of renewal within historic mission expansion, the changing nature of metropolitan religious society, denominations. The movement’s unen- and the ideology of evangelicalism everywhere. The range of cumbered ecclesiology allows it to become Maughan’s research will make this an indispensable starting a grassroots phenomenon that appeals point for years to come.” very much to non-Western believers in — ANDREW PORTER particular. It is helpful that Anderson, ISBN 978-0-8028-6946-3 ● 527 pages ● paperback ● $45.00 besides discussing African Pentecostalism, gives attention to Asian versions of the movement, with insightful information At your bookstore, particularly on India. Chapter 7, on trans- or call 800-253-7521 4022 formation and independence, is important www.eerdmans.com for the bird’s-eye view it provides of the January 2015 E45 Owning the Earth: The Linklater takes the reader through the Transforming History of Land American Revolution, the Russian Revolu- Ownership. tion, the Cold War, the mortgage collapse of 2008, and the Arab Spring, using his By Andro Linklater. New York: Bloomsbury, measure of whether a concept of private 2013. Pp. xi, 482. $30; paperback $16. property is operative and how this factor is balanced with social justice (i.e., the Owning the Earth, while not a book about habeas corpus—had all emerged from the needs of society) as a way of evaluating missions, reveals an underappreciated landowners’ basic need for security of ten- various movements and governments. Yet link between colonial history and mis- ure” (43). Thus, rather than taking politics the central theme of the book is the future: sion history: the desire to own land. In or economics as basic to society, Linklater “The task of feeding nine billion people in twenty-three chapters divided into six argues that all rests on land tenure. the middle of the twenty-first century will sections, Andro Linklater surveys the The type of capitalism that developed create such a mass of urgent and seemingly growth of the idea of private property in Britain was thus different from Conti- insoluble problems, it might seem perverse in England and America, compares this nental (e.g., Dutch or French) capitalism, to suggest that the most important is how view with the alternatives being pursued and certainly different from other forms the land is owned. But that will be the key elsewhere in Europe and China, and of feudalism and serfdom (e.g., Polish to solving all the others” (393). strives to account for how Western civi- or Russian). This difference was critical, Where is the concern here for mis- lization took shape. It is a tale well told. Linklater argues, because “the history sionaries and mission agencies? First, Linklater begins in 1583 with the first of the next two centuries would make it the study reveals the complicity of mis- British attempts to conceive of how land in universally obvious that a private property sionaries in support of and participation the New World would be owned. First, the society could harness resources that were in the land grabs of the past. Second, the British had to ignore the fact that the land not available to societies organized in other study wrestles with the issue of how to was already held by First Nations/Native ways” (108). balance individual needs with social jus- American peoples. Second, the models Linklater ranges widely in his con- tice, which is surely a missionary concern. they worked with reflected the struggle for sideration of the opportunities and the Finally, mission agencies might examine land ownership in the British Isles between dangers arising from a clear concept of their own conceptions of ownership and the kings, the nobles, and individuals on private property. When inventions or even their practices in securing land, even for the land. Linklater claims that, in the recent ideas are protected by patents (i.e., turned “sacred” purposes. English past, “the liberties enshrined in the into private property), then the relation- —Michael A. Rynkiewich common law and in statutes from Magna ship between private good and public good Carta onwards—freedom from taxation teeters off-balance. When private property Michael A. Rynkiewich is retired as professor of without representation, recourse to the slips over into monopoly, then society anthropology from the E. Stanley Jones School of supreme authority of the legal system, the suffers because the means of progress are World Mission and Evangelism, Asbury Theological necessity of trial by jury, the existence of taken off the table for most people. Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky.

Grassroots Asian Theology: in this household of faith. Salvation is Thinking the Faith from the therefore the restoration to a right position Ground Up. in the family of God, where people are called the “holy brothers” (91–127). The By Simon Chan. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Holy Spirit is the bond of love between Academic, 2014. Pp. 216. Paperback $22. the Father and the Son, and between the church and Christ (129–56). Finally, church Grassroots Asian Theology presents a family perspective as an appropriate and life is a family life, or the communion of vibrant picture of the people of God distinctive approach for Asian theology saints (both the living and the deceased), in the Global South, especially among (43–46). He also draws extensively from who are joined in communion with the the grassroots branches of Christianity. a broad and diverse Asian religious cul- Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (157–202). Simon Chan, professor of systematic the- tural context, including a “middle zone” In places, readers may not agree with ology at Trinity Theological College in (discussed by Paul Hiebert, Daniel Shaw, Chan or may need further discussion Singapore, brings Asian grassroots Pen- and Tite Tiénou) in Asian folk religions and exploration—for example, regard- tecostalism as an authentic “flavor” into to provide rationale for the grassroots ing the controversial practice of ancestral global ecumenical Christianity, challeng- Pentecostal-charismatic movements in veneration (113–17, 188–97). Neverthe- ing the issue of “how theology ought to Asia (30–35). In the chapter “God in Asian less, Grassroots Asian Theology draws our be done” in an Asian context (8). Contexts,” he favors the triune family attention to Asian Christianity, where With theological articulation seri- as an analogy for the relationship of the grassroots charismatic-Pentecostalism ously and creatively derived from several persons within the Trinity (47–68). In the has significantly contributed to the efforts historic Christian theological traditions, next chapter, Chan discusses humans as of the global church toward theological including Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and relational beings, not individuals, with contextualization. Protestantism, Chan lays out a number sins seen in light of shame (useful in Asia’s —KimSon Nguyen of very interesting theological premises. culture of honor and shame, in contrast Carefully grounding his premises in Scrip- with the Western culture of guilt), which KimSon Nguyen is a Ph.D. student in the School of ture, in tradition, and in ecclesial experi- fractures the harmony of the community Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, ence, he contrasts Eastern and Western (69–90). Christ is seen as both high priest Pasadena, California. ways of thinking, ending with the Asian and ancestor; he is our “greatest ancestor”

46 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Two Women: Anyentyuwe and influential in the lives of both women (xii). Ekâkise. This work has great value for the student of African mission history, particularly those By Henry H. Bucher. Lulu Publishing, 2014. interested in women’s roles and status, Pp. vii, 109. Paperback $18.96. gender issues, and sexuality. —Mary Cloutier Publication of Two Women: Anyentyuwe the local culture, church leadership, and and Ekâkise brings out of obscurity this the foreign missionary community for their Mary Cloutier served seven years in Gabon as a controversial and until now unpublished failure to support such women in crisis. Christian and Missionary Alliance missionary, 1911 manuscript, written by mission- Bucher offers the reader rich historical teaching at Bethel Bible Institute, Libreville. She ary doctor Robert Hamill Nassau, who and cultural context without taking sides recently completed a Ph.D. in intercultural studies served in the late nineteenth century in in the issue. He also gives due credit to at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, what is now Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Robert Nassau’s sister Isabella, who was Illinois. and coastal Cameroon. At the time it was written, the editor at the American Tract Society begged Nassau to suppress the account, fearing that it “would injure the cause of mission” (xix). A century later, editor Henry Bucher presents the work in its original form, while enriching it with a wealth of research notes, helpful maps, photos, three indexes, and sugges- tions for further reading in historical and contemporary scholarship. Two Women, a biographical work, details the lives of two young African women, Anyentyuwe and Ekâkise, who were educated by the mission and mem- bers of the local church community. Both eventually fell into moral error, resulting in Summer Institute for church discipline and excommunication. Anyentyuwe, born into a wealthy fam- ily in what is now Libreville, Gabon, was ISLAMIC STUDIES educated and raised at the mission. Later orphaned, she became a default “servant” to the mission. In her twenties she was raped by another mission worker, result- JUNE 29 – JULY 10, 2015 ing in pregnancy. A refined and educated young woman with an illegitimate child, Let AGTS and Global Initiative: Anyentyuwe was turned out of the mis- Reaching Muslim Peoples teach sion and entered into a series of long-term liaisons with wealthy foreign men, which you to relate and minister further damaged her reputation, though to Muslims. the liaisons provided some financial and domestic stability. The widowed Robert • Take courses in Islamic Studies for Nassau eventually hired Anyentyuwe as a graduate or undergraduate credit governess to his young daughter, moving her to their remote interior mission station • Audit courses in Islamic Studies and touching off scandalous rumors regard- for a 75% discount in price ing their relationship. Ekâkise was similarly educated at the • Earn a certificate Cameroon mission but was sold by her extended family to a man with multiple Professors wives. A child-bride at ten and a mother Our resident faculty for Islamic at fifteen, Ekâkise protested the unhappy and abusive marriage but received no Studies includes 5 doctorates sympathy from church leaders. As with and more than 200 years Anyentyuwe, her extramarital liaisons resulted in excommunication. Nassau’s of field experience in intervention and financial assistance Muslim countries. (paying her bride-price to free her from her marital contract) only exacerbated the tensions in the community. These two controversies, decades apart, injured Nassau’s reputation and resulted in his recall from the mission field. agts.edu/link/siis15ibmr The manuscript is Nassau’s “apologia” (xxii), defending his own actions and those 1-800-467-AGTS of the two women, while openly critiquing

January 2015 47 Beyond Literate Western Models: This long-overdue pioneering work Contextualizing Theological paves the way for more freedom and Education in Oral Contexts. creativity in theological education among oral-preference learners. This is certainly Edited by Samuel E. Chiang and Grant Lovejoy. important in the Global South, but not Hong Kong: International Orality Network, only there. The book could have given 2013. Pp. 229. Paperback $14.95; Kindle $9.95, more attention to oral-preference learn- available at Amazon.com. ers among literates in the West. More important, the book fails to recognize Beyond Literate Western Models is a fas- It makes the crucial suggestion that an the need to encourage the emergence cinating attempt to contextualize theo- interdisciplinary approach be used in of authentic local Christian theology. logical education in oral contexts for oral contexts. Also important is the role of The task of contextualizing theological effective world evangelization. Samuel context in informal settings of theological education (and mission) in oral contexts Chiang and Grant Lovejoy have assem- education. The book discusses the differ- also needs to listen to voices of the local bled fifteen papers, along with some of ences between Western approaches to people in their struggle for justice, peace, the more insightful responses from a adult learning and those of West Africa, and human dignity. In short, the holistic 2012 consultation on orality held at the where under the influence of local culture nature of the Gospel of Christ needs to be Billy Graham Center, Wheaton, Illinois. learning takes place communally. Some emphasized. For that reason, for a project The four sections of the volume address helpful grassroots experiences are used as such as this, more attention should be pertinent issues, including local culture, examples. The book gives some creative given to the local context in formulating methodology, and forms and methods of suggestions for effective theological edu- theological or missiological questions, theological education among oral prefer- cation among oral-preference learners, prioritizing issues, and finding answers ence learners. including the use of context-based ques- to the questions. The book begins by discussing the tions, such as, “Why are the people not —Jangkholam Haokip importance of preparing students from interested in reading?” and “How might formal theological institutions to train one collaborate with oral leaders and co- Jangkholam Haokip is assistant professor of theology, local people to tell Bible stories effectively. opt their in-put?” (153). Union Biblical Seminary, Pune, India.

In the World Interior of Capital: Reading Sloterdijk is a provocative For a Philosophical Theory of experience, for he challenges common- Globalization. sense presumptions and philosophical orthodoxies, offering striking analyses of By Peter Sloterdijk. Translated by Wieland how our world has come to appear to us Hoban. Malden, Mass.: Polity Press, 2013. as an enclosed crystal palace. This is an Pp. x, 308. Paperback $28.95. extremely vital and valuable book that is highly recommended for philosophically Peter Sloterdijk, an important contempo- going on; he avoids the celebration of inclined readers. It combines astute theo- rary philosopher, published In the World multiculturalism, differences, and local retical assessment with important practical Interior of Capital (original German ed., narratives by postmodern scholars. Sloter- application to demonstrate how our world 2005) as a summary and reflection on his dijk pays particular attention to the role of actually operates. lengthy trilogy Sphären (Spheres). In this cartography, because it provides an image —Clayton Crockett book, in forty-two short chapters, Sloter- of the world as a sphere; this “roundness” dijk offers his iconoclastic reflections on of theory shaped Western consciousness Clayton Crockett is professor and director of religious globalization. from the Greeks until the end of moder- studies at the University of Central Arkansas, The image Sloterdijk uses to illustrate nity. He also focuses on the crucial role of Conway, Arkansas. our globalized world is the Crystal Palace, Christian mission in the constitution of the famous large-scale enclosure for the the modern world. Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. Today Today, Sloterdijk claims, we are pass- we live in an elaborate “crystal palace,” ing into a new way of thinking. Rather which also functions as a hothouse, rather than being a round sphere, today’s crystal than under the open sky. The palace is the palace absorbs the outside world into The Spiritual Expansion of invisible construction of global capital its complex crystalline structure. It is an Medieval Latin Christendom: The itself, which works unseen to shape our enclosure, but it is not a sphere. Sloterdijk Asian Missions. world and our understanding of ourselves uses a somewhat cynical tone to describe in it. This palace, which has floors to des- what is happening with thought and life Edited by James D. Ryan. Farnham, U.K: ignate the unequal status of humans who today, but he does not simply celebrate or Ashgate, 2013. Pp. xlv, 367. £110 / $200. live within it, stands as “a planetary palace lament it. He gives us tools to understand of consumption” (12). the world, and at the end of the book he The Spiritual Expansion of Medieval Latin Most of the book consists of Sloter- cautiously suggests that “being extended Christendom, the eleventh volume in the dijk’s analysis of how this global crystal in one’s own place is a good habit of being” series “The Expansion of Latin Europe, palace came about, based on the European (263), in contrast with the modernist pre- 1000–1500,” adds significantly to the expansion and conquest of the globe. He tensions to universality. At the same time, history of missions in Asia. Divided connects political and economic events this being in one’s own place should not into three parts, the volume comprises to philosophical ideas and develops a become an excuse for ignoring what is essays covering the “long and complex general logic for understanding what is happening elsewhere. history of the Asian mission of the High

48 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 Middle Ages” (xvii). The essays focus exploitation, while another group would the suppression of the Jesuits, while still on the development of the Latin-speak- cite the same faith to insist, in the name others are concerned with the Inquisition’s ing missionary movement outside its of justice, on a radical transformation of persecution of Jews who had converted to immediate European context, provid- society. Christianity but then supposedly reverted ing a comprehensive discussion of the The book’s nine chapters contain pri- secretly to their old religion. multifaceted context in which the Asian mary sources covering the five centuries Chapter 5 covers the new order of mission came into existence, developed, of Latin American church history. The first church-state relations that emerged fol- and withered. The contributors use a four deal with the colonial period and lowing independence. Included here is diverse body of primary sources, both illustrate how Christianity was used both the Roman Catholic Church’s response written and material. to support and to condemn the exploitation to the new liberal forces that came to The essays in part 1, “Crusades and of Native Americans and African slaves. dominate Latin America in the last half the Mission,” discuss the evolution of A few of the documents also show how of the nineteenth century. Chapters 6 and missions in the context of the Crusade Indians viewed Christianity. Others treat 7 treat the animosity between Catholics movement. Major themes are conversion and the Crusaders as agents of conver sion. Jean Flori discusses the motivations and the idealized perceptions of the Cru- saders and questions whether conversion was their primary goal. Along similar lines, Elizabeth Siberry demonstrates that there were indeed two distinct camps: Crusaders (warriors) and missionaries Get ConneCted (nonmilitary promoters of Christianity). through the overseas Whereas part 1 discusses the inter- action of Christians and Muslims in the Ministries study Center Middle East, part 2, “Discovering Asia,” introduces the development of Latin- The Overseas Ministries Study Center has served church leaders and speaking missions further east through missionaries from around the world since 1922. Each year some fifty the themes of exploration, travel, and long-term residents from as many as twenty countries contribute trade. Part 3, “The Missions with the Mongol Empire,” treats the missionary to OMSC’s vibrant community life. Similarly broad is the ecclesiasti- movement during the “established” period cal spectrum represented in the OMSC community—Roman Catholic, of the Mongol Empire. In particular, the Orthodox, Evangelical, Pentecostal, Anabaptist, Reformed, Lutheran, appraisal of relationships between the Independent—all of whom find at OMSC a welcoming and nurturing Mongols and Christianity, including the community. role of diplomacy and trade in chapters 13–16, is most instructive. This volume will be a great resource Weeklong seminars, public lectures, corporate worship, and informal for scholars interested in missionary move- exchanges afford Western mission personnel, pastors, educators, students, ments, as it brings together the product and others opportunity to gain insight into the perspectives and concerns of of research that is otherwise found only in scattered monographs and periodicals. seasoned non-Western mission and church leaders. In addition, OMSC pub- —Barakatullo Ashurov lishes the International Bulletin of Missionary Research, which is widely re- spected as a leading professional journal of mission research and reflection. Barakatullo Ashurov is an independent researcher in Central Asia. He received his doctoral degree from Many of today’s foremost missiologists and mission thinkers SOAS, University of London; his research focuses appear both in the IBMR and as lecturers at OMSC. on medieval Christianity in Central Asia and Iran. You are invited to join the OMSC community for a week—or a month— and to stay in one of our comfortable guest rooms. In summer months, our apartments are also available for rental. Our international mission Nuestra Fe: A Latin American community in New Haven, located between New York City and Boston, Church History Sourcebook. is one block from Yale Divinity School and its renowned Day Missions Library. Numerous research, cultural, and recreational opportunities are By Ondina E. González and Justo L. González. located in or within easy driving distance of New Haven. Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon Press, 2014. Pp. xv, 239. $54.99; paperback $44.99. Get connected! For the latest information sign up for The Hearth news- In their introduction, the Gonzálezes letter and occasional e-mails—and join us on Facebook. While you’re at note that, from the famous 1511 homily it, sign up for a subscription to our award-winning free IBMR e-journal. of Fray Antonio de Montesinos, in which he condemned the colonists of Hispan- E-mail subscription: www.omsc.org/email_subscriptions.php iola for their mistreatment of the Indi- Newsletter: www.omsc.org/newsletter ans, a pattern was set in Latin America that has continued until our own time. Journal: www.internationalbulletin.org One group of Christians would invoke Facebook: www.omsc.org/fb www.omsc.org their Christian faith to justify abuse and

January 2015 49 and Protestants that developed in the authors include for readers of the texts to is thus prepared to consider in the light postcolonial period and lasted until the ponder. The only disappointing feature of of Scripture the wide variety of encoun- Second Vatican Council in the 1960s. These the book is the absence of an index and a ters, both positive and negative, that chapters were for me the most interesting bibliography, which would have proven Christians have had with the four reli- section of the book. Here the documents valuable for guiding readers who want gious traditions under review. expose a Catholic hierarchy clinging to the to delve deeper into the study of Latin Judaism’s extensive scriptural over- conservative past and fearing the so-called American religious history. lap with Christianity and a commonal- modernism that Pope Pius IX condemned —Edward T. Brett ity of themes and figures of both faiths in 1864 in his Syllabus of Errors. They with Islam have invited direct scriptural likewise reveal a Protestantism imported Edward T. Brett is professor emeritus of history, La juxtapositions through the centuries. by Europeans and North Americans who Roche College, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Christian commentators unabashedly saw Latin American culture as backward used Jewish Scriptures to make sense of and who seemed oblivious to the oppres- Islam, even as Jewish theologians chal- sive policies of the liberal politicians who lenged Christian thinkers on the validity supported them. of their understanding of the First Testa- Chapter 8 focuses on the Catholic True and Holy: Christian Scripture ment. The relationship of Christianity to Church after Vatican II, with its interne- and Other Religions. Hinduism is more subtle, given the few cine battles over liberation theology and early Christian records documenting how the “preferential option for the poor” By Leo D. Lefebure. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis St. Thomas’s congregations viewed the of the Medellín bishops’ conference. Books, 2014. Pp. ix, 274. Paperback $30. majority culture scripturally. Gandhi’s Chapter 9 treats the new challenges use of Christian Scripture, however, to Pentecostalism and Africo-Caribbean In True and Holy, Leo Lefebure discusses oppose British hegemony shows how religion pose for both Catholicism and interreligious dialogue, hermeneutics, the Christian Bible is not reserved for liberal Protestantism. and interfaith relations. Christianity’s Christians alone to interpret. As a result, The Gonzálezes are to be commended interactions with Judaism, Islam, Hin- the church’s understanding of Jesus owes for their excellent choice of document duism, and Buddhism are prefaced by much to Hindu perspectives. selection. Their book should prove espe- analysis of the interplay of interreligious Buddhism is the main focus of Lefe- cially valuable to undergraduate and and intrareligious dialogue, as well as a bure’s personal scholarly interests. The graduate students of Latin American his- review of hermeneutics from the early relationship of Buddhism to Christianity tory. A bonus feature is the questions the church fathers to the present. The reader as viewed through the lens of biblical

International Bulletin of Missionary Research The reliable source for Christian mission history and analysis Take a coffee break online @ www.internationalbulletin.org ——Free online or in print worldwide by mail ——

“While cleaning my home office, I came upon a bunch of IBMR issues. I’m now taking the luxury of reading one article each morning, which is like having coffee with a col- league across space and time. It energizes me for the day’s work.” —Dr. Miriam Adeney, anthropologist, missiologist, and author of Kingdom Without Borders: The Untold Story of Global Christianity (2009)

Whether in print or online, you will receive 4 issues per year (January, April, July, and October) of the IBMR, the Associated Church Press award-winning journal of the Over- seas Ministries Study Center.

The IBMR is an easily searchable gateway to in-depth feature articles, book reviews, news items, and conference notices. Go to www .internationalbulletin.org/register to sign up.

It’s FREE online—or only $23 a year including postage worldwide.

INVITE A FRIEND TO SUBSCRIBE AND JOIN US ON FACEBOOK.

50 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 interpretation is not readily obvious to the Southern Baptist Convention. They father of Protestant missions on six conti- more casual observers or practitioners have produced an evangelical outline, nents, but instead presents William Carey of Buddhist-Christian interreligious founded on conservative theological as “the Father of the Modern Missions dialogue. Yet Jesus, who spoke of camels principles. They are to be commended Movement” (116). The authors’ survey passing through the eye of a needle, would for presenting their study as an inte- of culture focuses upon applied missiol- not have been a stranger to modes of grated text; consequently, it is difficult to ogy, continuing work done by scholars expression found in Zen. trace who wrote which chapter (though such as Eugene Nida, Paul Hiebert, and Lefebure cautions Christians not sometimes the footnotes give an indica- David Hesselgrave. In this context it deals to reject how Scripture may speak to us tion). with issues such as contextualization and through the eyes of the other. His examples After the preface, this well-written intercultural communication—topics that are thought-provoking. and well-ordered book offers thirteen are discussed again in the fourth section —Steven Blackburn chapters in four sections: biblical and of the book. This section explores making theological foundations, historical founda- disciples, church planting, and the role of Steven Blackburn, an ordained Congregational- tions, culture (with chapters on applied individuals and the local church in mission, Christian pastor, serves as library director and anthropology and world religions), with global missions as the comprehensive faculty associate in Semitic Scriptures, Hartford and practice (e.g., strategies for disciple perspective. Here Donald McGavran Seminary, Hartford, Connecticut. making). Many chapters have a short and Ralph Winter are taken as guides. I conclusion, and each chapter ends with wholeheartedly agree with the authors’ resources for further study. The book message on the book’s final page of text: includes indexes of names, of subjects, “The global context of Christian mission and of Scripture. is constantly changing, [but] the impera- Introduction to Global Missions. The biblical and theological survey tive nature of the missionary mandate does focuses on mission in both the New Testa- not change” (272). By Zane Pratt, M. David Sills, and Jeff K. ment and the Old Testament (with special The chapter on religions (in the third Walters. Nashville, Tenn.: B&H Publishing references to Isaiah and Psalms) and in section on culture) gives only little atten- Group, 2014. Pp. viii, 280. Paperback $34.99. the intertestamental period. The survey tion to Taoism in China, Shinto in Japan, of mission history discusses developments and shamanism in Korea. Unfortunately, The three authors of this introduction from the early church to martyrs in the it uses the outmoded term “animism” to to global missions and global mission twentieth century. It does not mention describe the many religions that are now studies are professionally engaged in Nicolaus von Zinzendorf as the founding commonly known as primal or traditional

AMOS YONG AT FULLER: Building on Excellence

We’ve always been innovators in mission. Now, with esteemed missiologist Amos Yong directing our doctoral program, Fuller’s Center for Missiological Research is an even more creative place of innovation—ever deepening insight into the seminal missiological issues facing our world.

FULLER.EDU/CMR

January8513-14-10-Fuller 2015 CMR_IBMR 1/2p-02.indd 1 10/22/14 4:01 PM 51 religions. The authors’ view that the World Anderson, 1998; Jonathan Bonk, 2007) and, mission studies. Whereas the Pentecos- Council of Churches as a whole embraces in particular, David Bosch’s Transforming tal movement as a whole receives full “theological liberalism” and “pluralism” Mission (1991), the most translated and attention in discussions of the current (128) is patently incorrect. The authors here most widely used missiological textbook. global topography of Christianity, Pente- pass over missionary statesmen such as As a mission scholar in a state uni- costal mission itself has been less studied. Hendrik Kraemer and Lesslie Newbigin, versity, I am disappointed; as a mission This comprehensive compilation of global who were an integral part of the ecu- theologian, however, I sincerely recom- Pentecostal mission portrays the dynamics menical movement and at the same time mend this book. After all, it will help its of Pentecostal mission from diverse geo- vehemently opposed relativism inside its readers to engage in God’s global mission. graphic and denominational backgrounds. ranks. The authors of the Introduction to —Jan A. B. Jongeneel The majority of the authors represent Global Missions refer to John Stott but fail views from the Global South. Yet, with to mention that this evangelical leader and Jan A. B. Jongeneel is honorary professor emeritus of only two female theologians, the range of drafter of the Lausanne Covenant (1974) missiology at Utrecht University and an honorary contributors lacks a gender balance. All of was a devoted member of the Anglican lifetime member of the International Association them share Pentecostal convictions, thus Church, one of the founding churches of of Mission Studies (IAMS). His magnum opus is giving the volume an insider perspective the World Council of Churches. Jesus Christ in World History (Peter Lang, 2009). on global Pentecostal mission. The book’s one-sidedness also comes A historical overview of the cen- to the fore in the bibliography. The authors tury of Pentecostal expansion in diverse pay no attention to publications of Majority sociocultural contexts is followed by World theologians. Moreover, from Gustav organizational surveys of Pentecostal Warneck onward, they fail to include even Pentecostal Mission and Global mission practice. In systematic theological a single source published in continental Christianity. terms, the volume describes Pentecostal Europe. The largest missiological series mission in the pneumatological categories in the world, Studies in the Intercultural Edited by Wonsuk Ma, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, of power, healing, and restoration. The History of Christianity (Bern: Peter Lang), and J. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu. Oxford: thematic spectrum includes self-reflexive certainly deserves a place in such a volume. Regnum Books International, 2014. Pp. 397. perceptions and outlines themes arising Also lacking are mention of contemporary £30.99 / $44.99. in Pentecostal mission, including ecol- mission handbooks and mission encyclo- ogy, Pentecostal social responsibility, and pedias (e.g., by David B. Barrett, 1982, 2001; This “Pentecostal volume” in the Edin- ecumenism. Jan A. B. Jongeneel, 1995–97; Gerald H. burgh Centenary Series fills a lacuna in The volume does not deny tensions

Interested in online learning? OMSC will offer six weeklong, graduate-level mission seminars online FREE at www.omsc.org/online.

October 27–30, 2014 (Monday–Thursday) January 20–23, 2015 (Tuesday–Friday) Building Bridges with Hindus in Diaspora. Culture, Values, and Worldview: Anthropology for Dr. Atul Y. Aghamkar, OMSC senior mission scholar, South Mission Practice. Asia Institute of Advanced Christian Studies, Bangalore, India, Dr. Darrell Whiteman, The Mission Society, shows how one’s will discuss Hindu migrants’ beliefs, practices, and perceptions worldview and theology of culture affect cross-cultural mission. about Christianity, and suggest ways Christians might relate with Hindus. Cosponsored by Greenfield Hill Congregational March 3–6, 2015 (Tuesday–Friday) Church, Fairfield, Connecticut. Theological Formation for Integral Mission. Ms. Ruth Padilla DeBorst, OMSC senior mission scholar, Inter- January 6–9, 2015 (Tuesday–Friday) national Fellowship for Mission as Transformation, San José, Caribbean Encounters with Protestant Missions. Costa Rica, examines the missional value of contextual theo- Dr. Elmer Lavastida Alfonso, Second Baptist Church, Santiago logical practice that integrates faith with all of life. Cospon- de Cuba, Cuba, considers how, since 1900, Cuba, Jamaica, and sored by Franciscan Missionaries of Mary. other nearby islands have encountered Protestant missions. March 24–27, 2015 (Tuesday–Friday) January 13–16, 2015 (Tuesday–Friday) Servant Mission in a Troubled World. The Holy Spirit and Korea, North and South. Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk, OMSC executive director emeritus, ex- Rev. Ben Torrey, The Fourth River Project and Jesus Abbey, amines theological, ethical, and missiological implications of Taebaek, Kangwon Do, South Korea, examines the impact of political violence, human dislocation, economic inequity, and four generations of his family in Korea, beginning with evange- religious ideology as contexts for Christian life and witness. list R. A. Torrey’s sowing of seeds for revival. Cosponsored by Cosponsored by St. John’s Episcopal Church, New Haven, United Church of Westville, New Haven, Connecticut. Connecticut. Overseas Ministries study Center (203) 624-6672 [email protected] Details: www.omsc.org/online

52 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 39, No. 1 that exist between Pentecostal mission Mission Station Christianity: and the broader Christian community. It Norwegian Missionaries in considers emphases on church growth and Colonial Natal and Zululand, church planting as a strong Pentecostal Southern Africa, 1850–1890. asset vis-à-vis the ecumenical focus on mis- sio Dei. Several chapters, however, reveal By Ingie Hovland. Leiden: Brill, 2013. Pp. xii, an ecumenical consciousness within the 263. €109 / $141. Pentecostal movement. For example, the book devotes considerable attention to During the past thirty years, expanding of the important role that Christianity the theme of church and society, address- scholarship on the history of Christian- played in the evolution of African-Euro- ing questions of social justice and inter- ity in southern Africa has moved the pean relations during the nineteenth cen- religious dialogue and considering the focus of discussion away from African- tury. development of Pentecostal theologies of European confrontations, which preoc- Ingie Hovland’s Mission Station Chris- religion. By exploring such areas in global cupied scholars during the anticolonial tianity is a valuable contribution to that Pentecostal mission, the volume suggests and antiapartheid struggles, toward growing body of scholarship. Building a Pentecostal rapprochement toward the more complex and nuanced views of on the work of anthropologists Jean and wider ecumenical movement. As the the social changes that accompanied volume delineates hitherto marginalized those conflicts. In doing so, scholars areas of Pentecostal mission, it opens up have often attempted a multidisci- Please beware of bogus renewal fresh directions in Pentecostal studies; plinary approach, combining the histo- notices. A genuine IBMR renewal its insider perspective, which highlights rian’s concern for temporal specificity, notice will have a return address variations in Pentecostal mission theology, individual agency, and political change of Denville, NJ 07834 on the outer will contribute to discussion of ecumenical with the anthropologist’s examination envelope, and the address on the praxis. Students as well as practitioners of broader cultural influences and differ- reply envelope will go to PO Box of mission will find much of value here. ent ways that people have conceptual- 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. —Andreas Heuser ized their experiences and surroundings. Please e-mail [email protected] Though perhaps sometimes discordant or call (203) 624-6672, ext. 309, with Andreas Heuser is professor of non-European in their multiple disciplinary emphases, any questions. Thank you. Christianity, with a focus on Africa, in the Faculty the resulting studies have neverthe- of Theology of the University of Basel, Switzerland. less greatly enriched our understanding

NEW MASTER OF ARTS IN THEOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AT EASTERN UNIVERSITY

THIS 11-MONTH PROGRAM PREPARES YOU TO TEACH, SERVE IN CROSS-CULTURAL CHRISTIAN MINISTRY, OR WORK IN AN INTERNATIONAL SETTING.

• A faith-based approach to anthropology • Preparation for doctoral programs • Excellence in academics • Complete the degree in one year • Practical application

Eastern University is a Christian university Contact Learn more at dedicated to faith, reason and justice. Dr. Eloise Meneses www.eastern.edu [email protected] 1300 Eagle Road, 610.341.5953 St. Davids, PA 19087

January 2015 53 John Comaroff and historians Norman viewed their stations as European-run Etherington, Paul Landau, and Elizabeth enterprises located between the British Elbourne, Hovland shifts from their study and the Zulu. The book continues with a of “missionized” Africans to explore chapter describing how the Anglo-Zulu instead the “impact of the encounter on the wars brought the NMS into closer associa- missionaries themselves” (10). She focuses tion with British colonial rule, and a final on small Christian communities founded chapter summarizes how the mission sta- and led by Lutheran missionaries of the tions shaped—and were shaped by—the Norwegian Missionary Society (NMS) dur- missionaries’ “way of working out how to ing the mid-nineteenth century in the bor- live Christianity in the world and to cre- derland between the British colony of Natal ate an inhabitable Christian space” (233). and the Zulu kingdom. Though her interest While very well-written and well- is apparently inspired in part by her own reasoned, and adding Norwegians to upbringing as a child of missionaries at one a field of study generally dominated of those communities, Hovland’s study of by British missionaries, Mission Station Plan Your the “social and material microcosm of the Christianity also treads a somewhat mission station” (20) is guided primarily uneven path between anthropology and Summer Research by the fact that, rather than promoting the history. More comprehensive archival development of African-led congregations research including government records, Time at OMSC in African communities, as envisioned by newspapers, diaries, personal corre- many missionaries elsewhere in southern spondence, and documents from other Efficiency to three-bedroom. For Africa, the NMS missionaries instead mission societies is arguably beyond the summer rates and reservations, adopted a strategy of building European- scope of an anthropological work, but e-mail a request with your choice run outposts of “Christian civilization” in the book’s recurring “Note on Method” of dates to Judy C. Stebbins, the midst of “heathen darkness.” interludes suggest that the author’s use [email protected] In explaining how and why the NMS of historical primary sources could have mission stations assumed that position, been incorporated more effectively. This Overseas Ministries Hovland divides her book into chapters historian found Hovland’s arguments to that consider in greater detail various be most original and compelling when study Center aspects of the communities. After first she moved beyond her dependence on describing the historical setting of the published missionary reports to include www.omsc.org/summer NMS missions, she examines the physi- other materials (e.g., 60–71, 87–91, 210–16, cal needs of the missionaries and the 220). Overall, however, Mission Station influence these needs had on the use of Christianity provides a valuable contribu- CIRCULATION STATEMENT mission spaces. Next is a detailed analysis tion to the study of mission history and Statement required by the act of August 12, 1970, section of “conversion” and the contradiction the impact of European colonial conquest 3685. Title 39, United States Code, showing ownership, management, and circulation of InternatIonal Bul- between Christian egalitarianism and on Christianity in Africa. letIn of MIssIonary research. Published 4 times per colonial racism. Another chapter describes —Stephen Volz year at 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511. Zulu perceptions of the mission stations. Publisher: J. Nelson Jennings, Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT The section ends with an overview of the Stephen Volz is associate professor of history, Kenyon 06511. Editor: J. Nelson Jennings, Overseas Ministries main ways that Norwegian missionaries College, Gambier, Ohio. Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511. Senior Associate Editor, Dwight P. Baker; Managing Editor, Daniel J. Nicholas; Overseas Min- istries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511.The owner is Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511. The known bondholders, mortgagees, and other secu- rity holders owning or holding one percent or more of total amounts of bonds, mortgages or other securities Dissertation Notices are: None.

Column A Column B Birdsall, S. Douglas. Mbusa Banga, Etienne. Average no. of Actual no. of “Conflict and Collaboration: “A Critical Study of Leadership in copies each issue copies of single A Narrative History and Analysis of the Anglican Church of the DRC: during preceding issue published 12 months nearest to filing the Interface between the Lausanne With Comparative Reference to A B Committee for World Evangelization Kimbanguist Models.” Total no. copies printed 2,978 2,875 and the World Evangelical Fellowship, M.Phil. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission Paid circulation: sales the International Fellowship of Studies/University of Wales, 2012. through dealers, carriers, street vendors, and Evangelical Mission Theologians, counter sales 0 0 and the AD2000 Movement.” Mail subscriptions 1,926 1,841 Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission To search OMSC’s free online database of Total paid circulation 1,926 1,841 6,300 dissertations in English, compiled in Free distribution 557 586 Studies/Middlesex University, 2013. Total distribution 2,483 2,427 cooperation with Yale Divinity School Library, Copies not distributed: 345 410 Cochrane, Steve. go to www.internationalbulletin.org/resources. office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled “From Beit Abhe to Angamali: after printing Connections, Functions and Roles of Sage, Steven Brent. Returns from news agents 0 0 Total 2,828 2,837 the Church of the East’s Monasteries “Missio Dei and the Local Church: Percent Paid and/or in Ninth Century Christian-Muslim Case Studies in Pursuit of a Missional Requested Circulation 77.6% 75.9% Relations.” Ecclesiology for the Presbyterian I certify that the statements made by me above Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission Church in America (PCA).” are correct and complete. (signed) J. Nelson Jennings, Editor Studies/Middlesex University, 2014. D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2013. Serving God’s Servants Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders

January Student SeminarS SPring 2015 March 24–27, 2015 on World miSSion SerVant miSSion in a troubled February 24–27, 2015 World. “Developing Your Christian for the City yet to Come: Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk, OMSC executive Worldview” an introduCtion to miniStry director emeritus, examines theological, January 6–9, 2015 in an urban World. ethical, and missiological implications Caribbean enCounterS With Dr. Mark R. Gornik, representing the of political violence, human disloca- ProteStant miSSionS. City Seminary of New York faculty tion, economic inequity, and religious Dr. Elmer Lavastida Alfonso, Sec- team, asks, “What is taking place in the ideology as contexts for Christian life ond Baptist Church, Santiago de urban church? Are there particular pat- and witness. Cosponsored by St. John’s Cuba, Cuba, considers how, since terns and practices? What direction does Episcopal Church, New Haven, Con- 1900, Cuba, Jamaica, and other the Bible provide?” This course offers necticut. $175. nearby islands have encountered an introduction to theology, mission, Protestant missions. $175. and ecclesiology in a world of cities. April 7–10, 2015 $175. ethniCity aS gift and barrier: January 13–16, 2015 human identity and ChriStian the holy SPirit and Korea, March 3–6, 2015 miSSion. north and South. theologiCal formation for Dr. Tite Tiénou, Trinity Evangelical Rev. Ben Torrey, The Fourth River integral miSSion. Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, Project and Jesus Abbey, Taebaek, Ms. Ruth Padilla DeBorst, OMSC se- works from first-hand experience in Kangwon Do, South Korea, exam- nior mission scholar, International Fel- Africa to identify the “tribal” issues ines the impact of four generations lowship for Mission as Transformation, faced by the global church in mission. of his family in Korea, beginning San José, Costa Rica, examines the mis- Cosponsored by Trinity Baptist Church, with evangelist R. A. Torrey’s sowing sional value of contextual theological New Haven, Connecticut. $175. of seeds for revival. Cosponsored by practice that integrates faith with all of United Church of Westville, New life. Cosponsored by Franciscan Mis- April 14–17, 2015 Haven, Connecticut. $175. sionaries of Mary. $175. doing oral hiStory: helPing ChriStianS tell their oWn Story. January 20–23, 2015 March 10–13, 2015 Ms. Michèle Sigg, Dictionary of African Culture, ValueS, and ChriStianity in ameriCa. Christian Biography, shares skills and WorldVieW: anthroPology Dr. Edith L. Blumhofer, Wheaton Col- techniques for documenting mission for miSSion PraCtiCe. lege, Wheaton, Illinois, introduces par- and church history. Cosponsored by the Dr. Darrell Whiteman, The Mission ticipants to the formative role Christian- U.S. Center for World Mission. $175. Society, shows how one’s world- ity has played throughout U.S. history. view and theology of culture affect $175. April 21–24, 2015 cross-cultural mission. $175. Culture, interPerSonal ConfliCt, March 17–18, 2015 and ChriStian miSSion. January 26–30, 2015 omSC reSident-led Seminar Dr. Duane H. Elmer, Trinity Evangeli- miSSionarieS in the moVieS. SeSSionS cal Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, Dr. Dwight P. Baker, Overseas Min- OMSC residents, who are experienced helps Christian workers strengthen in- istries Study Center, utilizes both missionaries, church leaders, and terpersonal skills, resolve conflicts, and video clips and full-length feature scholars from around the world, will minimize cultural misunderstanding. films to examine the way mission- lead morning and afternoon seminars Cosponsored by SIM USA. $175. aries have been represented in the on topics about which they have spe- movies over the past century. Cospon- cial concern, experience, and exper- May 5–8, 2015 sored by The Evangelical Covenant tise. Check www.omsc.org/seminars SPiritual reneWal in the Church, Chicago, Illinois. $175. for details. $95. miSSionary Community. Rev. Stanley W. Green, Mennonite Links to register for seminars and OMSC’s annual brochure are found online at www Mission Network, and Dr. Christine .omsc.org/seminars. For additional information, e-mail [email protected]. Sine, Mustard Seed Associates, blend classroom instruction and one-on-one For a FREE subscription to the InternatIonal BulletIn of MIssIonary research e-journal edition, go to www.internationalbulletin.org/register. sessions to offer counsel and spiritual direction for Christian workers. Co- sponsored by Mennonite Mission Net- Overseas Ministries study Center work. $175. (203) 624-6672 New Haven, Connecticut www.omsc.org/seminars Book Notes In Coming

Ashley, J. Matthew, Kevin F. Burke, and Rodolfo Cardenal, eds. A Grammar of Justice: The Legacy of Ignacio Ellacuría. Issues Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2014. Pp. xvi, 283. Paperback $25. Progressive Pentecostalism, Connor, Phillip. Development, and Christian Immigrant Faith: Patterns of Immigrant Religion in the United States, Canada, Development NGOs: A Challenge and Western Europe. and an Opportunity New York: New York Univ. Press, 2014. Pp. x, 165. Paperback $22. Bryant L. Myers Fensham, Charles. Embodying Memories: Early Bible To the Nations of the Earth: A Missional Spirituality. Translations in Tranquebar and Toronto: Clements Academic, 2013. Pp. viii, 173. Paperback $19.95. Serampore Daniel Jeyaraj Fountain, Daniel E. Transforming the Dualistic Health for All: The Vanga Story. Worldview of Ethiopian Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2014. Pp. xx, 214. Paperback $14.99. Evangelical Christians Gravelle, Gilles. Rich Hansen The Age of Global Giving: A Practical Guide for Donors and Funding The War in Syria and the Christians Recipients of Our Time. of the Middle East Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2014. Pp. xxi, 125. Paperback $12.49. Mary Mikhael Kureethadam, Joshtrom. The Missional Heart of Member Care Creation in Crisis: Science, Ethics, Theology. Kelly O’Donnell Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2014. Pp. xi, 388. Paperback $50. Church-State Relationship: Three Mudge, Lewis S. Case Studies from Contemporary We Can Make the World Economy a Sustainable Global Home. China Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014. Pp. xiii, 162. Paperback $18. Peter Tze Ming Ng Cultural Past, Symbols, and Nowell, David Z. Images in the Bemba Hymnal, Dirty Faith: Bringing the Love of Christ to the Least of These. United Church of Zambia Bloomington, Minn.: Bethany House, 2014. Pp. 188. Paperback $13.99. Kuzipa Nalwamba Occhipinti, Laurie A. “That Was the Beginning of Great Making a Difference in a Globalized World: Short-Term Missions That Work. Things at Miango”: Brakwa Tingwa Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014. Pp. 146. $40; paperback $20. and the Origins of Christianity in Miango, Nigeria, 1913–1936 Peppard, Christiana Z. Tim Geysbeek, Amos Koggie, Just Water: Theology, Ethics, and the Global Water Crisis. and Zamfara Iveh Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2014. Pp. x, 230. Paperback $28. Reich, Simon, and Richard Ned Lebow. In our Series on the Legacy of Good-Bye Hegemony! Power and Influence in the Global System. Outstanding Missionary Figures Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 2014. Pp. viii, 190. $95 / £65; paperback $24.95 / of the Nineteenth and Twentieth £16.95. Centuries, articles about Thomas Barclay Shenk, David W. George Bowen Christian. Muslim. Friend: Twelve Paths to Real Relationship. Carl Fredrik Hallencreutz Harrisonburg, Va.: Herald Press, 2014. Pp. 223. Paperback $14.99. J. Philip Hogan Thomas Patrick Hughes Sinclair, John Henderson. Hannah Kilham Bandombele and Mama Bandombele of the Congo: The Story of My Missionary Lesslie Newbigin Uncle and Aunt. Constance Padwick Bayport, Minn.: [Published by the author], 2014. Pp. xii, 407. Paperback $39.95. John Coleridge Patteson Wan, Enoch, and Elton S. L. Law. James Howell Pyke The 2011 Triple Disaster in Japan and the Diaspora: Lessons Learned and Ways Pandita Ramabai Forward. George Augustus Selwyn Portland, Ore.: Institute of Diaspora Studies—USA, 2014. Pp. x, 117. Paperback $5.95. Bakht Singh James M. Thoburn Wigg-Stevenson, Tyler. M. M. Thomas The World Is Not Ours to Save: Finding the Freedom to Do Good. Harold W. Turner Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Books, 2013. Pp. 220. Paperback $16. Johannes Verkuyl