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Home , Dvarapala, Ellora Caves, Hindu studies, Religious text, Shudra, Soma (drink)

Hinduism: a very short introduction

Dr. Varuni Bhatia Assistant Professor of

A timeline for

c. 1500-500 BCE  Axial Age and Rise of New c. 500 BCE-200 CE  Classical Hinduism c. 300-600 CE  Puranic/ Temple Hinduism c. 600-1200 CE  Devotional Movements c. 1000-1600 CE The Vedic Period

 Some of the earliest and most venerated texts of the are a collection of liturgical and sacrificial verses called the . The Vedas are composed in a form of archaic and are traditionally considered revealed . They are revealed by the to sages and wise men, who hear them and pass them down orally to generations. As such, the Vedas are not man-made (apauresheya) and are firmly placed within an oral-aural (shruti) tradition.  The Vedas were composed by migrating Central Asian tribes into the subcontinent, called the . tribes settled in north between c. 1500-1000 BCE. —as —as ’ noble men noble ‘ Sanskrit language and were were and language Sanskrit Vedas. the of authors inplace took Migration these and waves, Aryans or themselves— called they of plains inthe settled the reinhabiting rivers, flourished once that regions Valley Indus the under had but Civilization, ruindue into fallen gradually causes, of variety a to includingclimatic and epidemic. The Aryans were a group of of group a Aryanswere The pastoral Sanskrit-speaking who people nomadic and the from Asia South entered generally Scholars west. Sanskrit-speaking that agree Aryans fair-skinned and Asia, inCentral originated westwards, migrated and southwards. and eastwards migrated that branch The (i.e., Asia South into developed eastwards) GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD OF THE ARYANS, C. 500 BCE Rig Rig collection. It is It collection. emerged the cosmos, the cosmos, the emerged elements, natural societal and classes, beings, organization. earliest the also is This infind we that reference four the of literature traditions: Vedic in classes Kshtriya (), (Trader/ (Warrior), and Agriculturalist), these of Duties (Servant). will more become classes the over clear and codified will as centuries, few next of form this to oppositions of ordering hierarchical society. This hymn appears in the in appears hymn This the of chapter tenth Veda addition, later a perhaps the of one itgives but the how of pictures clearer was the of Creation Vedic the by imagined people. here imagined is Creation a , of act an as Gods the by made Man, primordial the of parts body whose from HYMN TO PURUSHA, THE PRIMORDIAL MAN, RV 10.90

”

the …. the the two feet was born the earththe born was feet the and two the fashion they did Thus ears. the quartersfrom from the head the heaven issued forth; from from forth; issued heaven the head the from and , from the breath the wind was born. born. windwas the breath the from Agni, and eye the sun was born; from the mouth Indra mouth the from born; was sun the eye were born. born. were were made into the rajanya; his two thighs thighs two his rajanya; the into made were the feet two his from ; the formula was born from it…. it…. from born was formula were born the verses and the ; chants; sacred the and verses the born were sacrificial the meters; the born itwere from

its clarified butter, the summer the sacrificial the summer the butter, clarified its oblation…. the autumn the and fuel, Purusha as the oblation, then the Spring was was Spring the then oblation, the as Purusha

When the gods performed the sacrifice with sacrifice the performed gods the When

From the navel was the atmosphere created, created, atmosphere the was navel the From

The moon was born from the mind, from the from mind, the from born was moon The His mouth became the ; his two arms arms two his Brahman; the became mouth His

From that wholly offered sacrificial oblation oblation sacrificial offered wholly that From “ Gods and men in the Vedas  Over a period of a thousand years, Vedic literature developed from a core set of four liturgical texts to a vast corpus of commentaries. The hymns in the core texts are mostly devoted to Vedic in praise, making offerings to them, and asking them for favors in return. Vedic gods, and some , are considered by scholars to be anthromoporphic, i.e., forces of nature that were assumed to have human form. Primary Vedic deities are Indra (Rain and Thunder), Agni (Fire), (Sun), (Wind), (the upholder of order), (the magical plant), Usha (Dawn), and so on.  was done to these gods in the form of a or fire sacrifice. An of fire was built, ritual were made for a fixed period of time (that could often run into days and months), and at the end of the sacrifice, the were destroyed. Metaphysical Literature

 Out of the elaborate performances of Vedic sacrifices emerged a need to understand these external metaphorically and metaphysically. A vast body of philosophical texts that dwell upon the nature of the Self (atman), the Absolute (Brahman), and the Real (Sat) emerges in around the 6 century BCE. These texts are called the .  Early Upanishads put in place a non-dualist conception of the world. They decidedly shift emphasis from external sacrifices to an internalization of sacrifice. The Upanishads lay emphasis on the attainment of knowledge instead of the performance of the correct ritual. Rise of and , c. 500 BCE

 Around the time that the earliest Upanishads were being composed, another social and religious upheaval was to take place in India. This would be the rise of Buddhism and Jainism —two non-Vedic, heterodox systems of thought that would over the years develop as independent world religions unto themselves.  The Vedas had put in place a four-fold system of class hierarchy in Aryan society, consisting of the , the warriors, the traders, and the servants. The founders of these new religions posed a tremendous challenge to this hierarchy. Indeed, both the Buddha and were themselves princes (and thus warriors) who chose to renounce wealth and power and become wandering ascetics. These traditions of renunciation are called Shramana traditions. SHRAMANA (RENOUNCER) TRADITIONS, REJECTION OF VEDIC RITUALISM

Jainism Buddhism Hinduism: Main Concepts Some of the main concepts of Hinduism are put in place by this time. These are:  of action or  An essential Self, Atman or Jiva  The Absolute, Brahman  Transmigration of souls and Rebirth, Samsara  Bodily and mental disciplines,  Class divisions in society,  Release from the cycle of births and deaths, Classical Hinduism

Gods and Goddesses, Temples, and Devotional Movements The Rise of Hindu Brahmanical Kingships  For many centuries after the rise of Buddhism, India was ruled by kings primarily patronizing Buddhism.  Brahmanical kings assume power with the Gupta Dynasty in c. 400 CE in . The reign of the Gupta kings is classified as the Golden Age in Indian . It was a period of immense cultural production in the realm of Sanskrit literature, mythology, texts on law and society, metallurgy, music and dance, the arts, and (most importantly for our purpose) temple building and .  Similarly, the rise of the in southern India in c. 9th century CE heralded a similar age in that part of the subcontinent. , and other goals of Man  In this period of what scholars have termed Brahmanical (or Vedic) resurgence in the Indian subcontinent, Dharma is established as the key aspect governing all aspects of social and ritual life of (upper ) Hindus.  Dharma, a term translated as ‘’ today, derives from a Sanskrit term dhri which means ‘to hold up.’ Hence, Dharma is anything that upholds. In the Gupta period, a number of Dharma texts are written. These are codes of social law governing relations between kings and subjects, the various classes, rules of marriage, rules of studentship, and prescribing the role of women in society.  Brahmanical kings, such as the Guptas, actively proclaimed to rule according to Dharma as laid down in these texts. Gupta and Chola Empires (at the height of their extent) Sacred Sites in

 Some of the earliest dated sacred and consecrated sites in South Asia are of a Buddhist nature. The Buddhists constructed two kinds of large structures: the , or Monastery for its large order of renouncer and ; and the Stupa or a structure under which the Buddha’s remains were kept. Dhamekh Stupa, , c. 5th Stupa, c. 3rd century BCE century CE Buddhist Monasteries

Nasik Ellora, 400-900 CE Padmapani From 2nd century BCE to CE Early Hindu Temples

These are either small or cave temples.

Temple to the Ten Incarnations at Deograh, c. 4-6th century. Rock-cut/ Cave Temples Kailashnath Temple, , c. 700 CE Large Temple-Cities and Complexes, 800-1200 CE

 Large temple complexes, with a main dedicated to one of the chief such as or or , with smaller surrounding temples dedicated to numerous deities, emerge in this period. These temples are akin to royal capital cities, being the center of both sacred and temporal authorities.  Key centers: Madurai (Minakshi, The Fish-Eyed One), (Venkateshwara, of the Venkata Hill), (, Lord of the World), Tanjore (Brihadeshvara, The Great Lord), Rameshvaram (Lord ), Bhuvaneshvar (Lingaraja, Lord of the Linga). Tanjore Brihadeshvara Temple, 10th century CE Chola Dynasty, Raja Raja Chola Temple Complex at Khajurao () Chandela Dynasty, 11th century CE , Bhuvaneshwar (Orissa), 12th century CE Chodaganda Dynasty, King Anantavarman Hindu Gods and Goddesses  Temple building and went hand in hand with each other. During the same period as large scale temple building, patronized by prominent Brahmanical kings, commenced in India, so did myths and legends about gods and goddesses. Temple structures narrated these legends, and the sculptures on their walls and images of enshrined within their sanctum sanctorum embodied these legends.  We witness the emergence of prominent Hindu Gods in this period: Shiva, Vishnu (and his most-loved incarnations Rama and ), and the Great .  Subsidiary gods such as , , Hanumana and so on are also widely depicted in temple panels. Epics and  The great Sanskrit epics, the and the receive their final form in c. 400 CE. These epics tell the stories of Rama and Krishna, two incarnations of Vishnu. Both are shown to be divine figures and earthly kings, who destroy non-dharmic forces and restore the sway of Dharma in the world.  The Hindu , the is a part of the Mahabharata epic. It is here that Krishna declares, “Whenever there is chaos in the world, I create myself,” putting in place an elaborate theory of incarnations or avatara.  According to Puranic legends, Vishnu has 10 incarnations, each protecting Dharma at different times and ages. The Ten Avataras of Vishnu Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, Dwarf-Priest, Rama with the Axe, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Kalki Devotional Hinduism, c. 1000-1600

 Alongside the development of Puranic mythology and temple building arose a counter movement of devotion.  Wandering minstrels, often from that were not allowed inside the temples, would sing songs in the praise of various gods and goddesses. These were songs in regional languages, languages spoken and understood by the common people. These songs represent strongly monotheistic tendencies. Devotional Hinduism arose in southern India, but very quickly spread to other parts of India, in the west, north, and east.  Vishnu and his incarnations Rama and Krishna emerge as key deities in devotional traditions, although we find devotional literature dedicated to Shiva and the goddess as well. Some slides from UMMA collection

Descriptions of Hindu Gods and Goddesses Vishnu stele Northeastern India, Bengal, Pala or Sena workshop circa 10th century Black schist Museum purchase made possible by the Margaret Watson Parker Art Collection, 2003/1.385 This was probably made for the main sanctum of a temple or for one of the prominent niches on its exterior. The Hindu Vishnu—who is believed to preserve the universe and maintain cosmic order—rises like a pillar from the base of this sculpture: his body is perfectly erect, his form symmetrical. The stone matrix behind him is pierced to suggest that the god stands free from any support. Yet, the arched matrix that surrounds Vishnu is essential—as a structural support, as a visual frame, and as the god’s temporary home. There is an intimate relationship between the god’s body and his sculptural surroundings: two arms are embedded in the behind him while two project forward echoing the curved bell of his hips. A unites the planes of carving in an elliptical halo, framing his body for the gaze of his devotees. Vishnu with attendants Gadadevi and Chakrapurusha India, Jammu and Kashmir 9th century Bronze with silver inlay Museum purchase, 1970/2.146

Indian religious images make it possible for an all- pervading, but otherwise invisible, to be seen and known. By taking anthropomorphic form, the becomes “real”—not as stone or bronze, but as a vision in the worshiper’s mind. Specific postures, hand gestures, and objects held in the hand—known as attributes—signify aspects of the god’s potency, making infinite powers conceivable in distinctly human terms. Like the stone sculpture of Vishnu adjacent to it, this bronze shows the god with four arms in his form as universal king. His front hands hold a conch and a lotus bud, while the back two rest upon small figures that personify additional attributes. The female, Gadadevi, represents the club, while the male, Chakrapurusha, represents the discus. Vishnu as , Madhya Pradesh, Chandella workshop circa 10th century Sandstone Museum purchase made possible by the Margaret Watson Parker Art Collection Fund, 2002/1.167 The body of Vishnu’s boar-headed incarnation, Varaha, forges a diagonal bolt through this sculpture. His right foot is planted decisively at the corner of its projecting base; his left is flexed for leverage on a lotus pedestal. Against these rooting forces his body surges upward, culminating in an acutely raised snout. The magnitude of Varaha’s gesture and his relative scale suggest a superhuman strength, and his feet are splayed apart in a position that defies human physiology. In Hindu image making, the remarkable form of a god’s body reveals his or her boundless capacities. In this case, Varaha’s distinct posture depicts a well-known Hindu episode in which Vishnu took the form of a great boar to rescue the world from a demon who had imprisoned the earth beneath the cosmic ocean. Vishnu India, 17th–18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel and Dr. and Mrs. Steven J. Figiel, 1978/2.123 “So my mind touches the lotus feet of Ranga’s Lord (Vishnu), delights in his fine calves, clings to his twin thighs and, slowly rising, reaches the navel.” It was in sensual, even erotic, terms such as these that poet– described the effects of Vishnu’s image almost a millennium ago. The image was believed to capture the essence of the deity, and such ecstatic contemplation of the god’s physical body was seen as an important means of approaching the divine. This small bronze image of Vishnu was clearly beloved by its beholders; its face and torso shine from the hands of devotees who rubbed it repeatedly, anointing it with oils and sweet fragrances. Vishnu is portrayed as a resplendent king, his body straight and symmetrical in contrast to the sinuous bodies of his two consorts, who are drawn to his magnificence. Rama India, Tamil Nadu 14th century Bronze Gift of Michelle Caplan, 2000/2.153 Knowledge of Hindu gods is conveyed through visual means as well as by repeated encounters with the same ideas and stories. Images of Rama, such as this one, recall events of the epic Ramayana, in which the god fights a battle of colossal proportions to rescue his wife from the demon . Story and image alike emphasize Rama’s humanity: like us, he makes mistakes, suffers lovesickness, and feels regret. One of Vishnu’s incarnations, Rama is not only a god but also a human hero. That paradox ensured his victory against Ravana, who was granted protection against gods and demons, but not man. In this bronze, Rama is presented as a human warrior, with two arms that once held a bow and arrow. Resplendent, he dances in joyful . Though he may be distinctly human, Rama is imbued with divine beauty. India, Tamil Nadu 17th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel, 1976/2.53 The monkey–general Hanuman stands with his hands clasped before his chest in the anjali , a gesture of devotion, offering, and humility. Anjali mudra is one of thousands of hand positions used in Hindu rituals, classical dance, and yoga. Here, the gesture is directed at Rama, under whose service Hanuman performed remarkable acts of heroism described in the great epic tale, the Ramayana. In Vishnu temples and home shrines, bronzes such as this would have been grouped with figures of Rama, , and . This gesture, therefore, more than identifies the figure; it evokes the emotional dynamics between the epic’s characters, lending a theatrical quality to figures that are otherwise static. At the same time, Hanuman’s gesture presents the quintessential icon of devotional love, a sentiment familiar to all worshipers and closely associated with him. Hanuman is beloved by devotees, as is evident in the condition of this bronze—lovingly rubbed to a smooth finish almost devoid of details. Standing figure of Shiva India, Madhya Pradesh 10th–11th century Sandstone Gift of Mark and Iuliana Philips, 1998/1.181 The great Hindu god Shiva encompasses many aspects or personalities, as he has absorbed the conflicting identities of various deities over time. Here he is shown in his role as the divine ascetic, or , unclad but for an animal skin about his loins, with matted hair piled high on his head. His erect phallus simultaneously indicates potency and self-control; it is through arduous practices of self-discipline that he has gained extraordinary powers. At the abstract level, the phallus represents procreative energy that is never exhausted; it is neither erotic nor pornographic to the Hindu viewer. This image, carved from the buff-colored sandstone typical of central India, has an especially graceful stance and sweet facial expression. Shiva and India, Bengal 12th century Bronze Museum purchase for the James Marshall Plumer Memorial Collection, 1964/2.85 The Hindu god Shiva exhibits contradictory qualities. He is at once a lone wandering ascetic and an exemplary husband and lover. Images of Shiva and Parvati in stone and bronze praise the lovers’ bond, and sculptors have found many ways to describe their deep intimacy in formal terms. Particular attention was focused on defining the nexus between the two figures. In some cases, the lovers share a common pedestal but do not touch; their bodies communicate through the contour of their hips and sway of limbs. In other examples, such as this bronze, Parvati sits directly on Shiva’s lap while he cups her left breast. Presented in royal ease, engaged in animated conversation, the couple represents a divine prototype of idealized, erotic love. Shiva India, 18th century Bronze Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel and Dr. and Mrs. Steven J. Figiel, 1977/2.46 Shiva is believed to reveal himself to human beings in different and often contradictory forms. This object is a combination of two: a human face and a linga. The linga, or vertical shaft, dates back to the earliest representations of Shiva, and it is primarily in this form that Shiva is worshiped in the temple’s sanctum. It is often misinterpreted as a phallus, but more often it is an entirely abstract sign—a simple, rounded column, or even an uncarved stone. And, while the linga is associated with Shiva’s creative power and myths of castration, its meaning transcends singular identification with the phallus. The shaft may be differentiated into three sections linked with , Vishnu, and Shiva; in other instances it appears as a fiery column of light. Here, the linga appears as an abstract column articulated simultaneously as Shiva’s neck and face. This startling juxtaposition is yet another means for representing the indefinable: a god that transcends all categories Shiva dancing Nepal 18th–19th century Bronze or copper alloy Gift of the Estate of Thakur Rup Chand, 1995/1.86 Shiva loves to dance. He dances in triumph at defeating demons; he dances for the pleasure of his consort; he dances the world into extinction and then back into existence. The god’s dancing form provided a popular subject for artists, who cast bronze figures for both festival use and home worship. Most of these depict the Lord of Dance with his body fixed in perfect equilibrium, his face uncannily serene. This one, by contrast, emphasizes the god’s vigorous motion and theatrical splendor. With an ecstatic thrust, Shiva kicks one leg to the sky and arches back, responding to the force of the thrust, the motion —it seems—increasing his rapture. on her lion mount India, 13th–14th century Stone Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel and Dr. and Mrs. Steven J. Figiel, 1981/1.315 Worship of the female principle took on dramatic new dimensions in India in the fifth and sixth centuries. Images of the Hindu goddess Durga killing the buffalo demon appeared across the country. In caves and temples, in metal and stone, artists captured the ferocious, protective energy of the goddess as revealed in her heroic victory. In this stone sculpture, there is little evidence of the fight. Durga sits in perfect tranquility on her lion mount. Even when she is depicted in battle, the goddess appears calm and exceedingly beautiful, suggesting powers so great that they far exceed the threat. Here, her quiet grace signifies that boundless strength. Her round breasts and belly push forth from beneath her skin, indicating the distinctly feminine force behind her awesome capacities. Durga 18th century Copper Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel and Dr. and Mrs. Steven J. Figiel, 1981/2.59 The rituals surrounding goddess worship in India vary widely. At temples in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, an image of the goddess receives an orthodox form of Hindu worship: each morning, she is bathed and adorned, offered rice and lentils, and honored by waving lamps, lighting , and singing devotional hymns. This small bronze figure of Durga was probably made for worship in a home shrine, where it would have been honored in a less formalized manner. Her breasts have been polished to a shine by devotees, who probably also anointed the figure with butter and aromatic pastes. Dvarapala India, Kerala 15th century Wood Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Leo S. Figiel and Dr. and Mrs. Steven J. Figiel, 1980/2.290 Sculpted figures envelop the walls of the , representing a singular cosmological reality. This animated guardian figure was displayed alongside gods, celestial musicians, semi- divine loving couples, and other protective divinities that support the main deity within the temple’s sanctum. This guardian figure and its mate (exhibited to the right) stood at either side of the temple entrance, while other dvarapala (protectors of the directions) occupied buttresses on the temple’s corners, defending it against the chaos outside.