From 'Sweet Mamas' to 'Bodacious' Hillbillies: Billy Debeck's

Western Kentucky University TopSCHOLAR®

History Faculty Publications History

2006 From ‘Sweet Mamas’ to ‘Bodacious’ Hillbillies: Billy DeBeck’s Impact on American Culture Anthony Harkins Western Kentucky University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/history_fac_pubs Part of the American Popular Culture Commons, Appalachian Studies Commons, Social History Commons, and the United States History Commons

Recommended Citation Anthony Harkins, “From ‘Sweet Mamas’ to ‘Bodacious’ Hillbillies: Billy DeBeck’s Impact on American Culture,” Studies in American Humor (New series 3, No. 14, 2006), 55-72.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FromFrom "Sweet "Sweet Mamas" Mamas" toto "Bodacious""Bodacious" Hillbillies: BillyBilly DeBeck's DeBeck's ImpactImpact on AmericanAmerican CultureCulture

byby Anthony Anthony Harkins Harkins

Who'sWho's the most importantimportant manman thisthis countrycountry ever ever knew? knew? Who'sWho's thethe manman our our Presidents Presidents tell tell all all their their troubles troubles to? to? NoNo itit isn'tisn't MisterMister BryanBryan andand itit isn't isn't Mister Mister Hughes Hughes I'mI'm mightymighty proudproud thatthat I'm I'm allowedallowed a chance toto introduceintroduce BarneyBarney Google Google withwith his his goo-goo-googly goo-goo-googly eyes. eyes. (Rose) (Rose)

AsAs thethe creatorcreator ofof the the inspiration inspiration for for the the hit-song hit-song "Barney "Barney Google" Google" ofof 1923 1923 whosewhose refrainrefrain is is still still widely widely known known today, today, Billy Billy (William (William Morgan) Morgan) DeBeck'sDeBeck's prominentprominent placeplace among American cartoonists has long been assured.assured. InIn thethe 1920s1920s and 1930s1930s hehe gainedgained international international recognitionrecognition for hishis strikingstriking drawing drawing style, style, panoramic panoramic layouts,layouts, innovativeinnovative continuities, and numerousnumerous contributionscontributions to to the the American American lexicon lexicon including including phrases phrases such such as as "sweet"sweet marna,"mama," "heebie jeebies,"j eebies," "hotsy "hotsy totsy," totsy," "balls "balls o' 0'fire," fire," and and "times "times a'a' wastin'."wastin'." The NationalNational CartoonistCartoonist SocietySociety prizeprize forfor CartoonistCartoonist ofof thethe YearYear waswas originallyoriginally namednamed thethe "Billy"Billy DeBeckDeBeck Award" Award" (it (it was was renamed renamed the the ReubenReuben AwardAward forfor Rube Rube GoldbergGoldberg in 1954),1954), andand hehe isis among thethe elite twenty cartoonistscartoonists to to be be included included in in the the Postal Postal Service's Service's 1995 1995 "Comic "Comic Strip Strip Classics" Classics" 1 stamp stamp series series celebratingcelebrating AmericanAmerican comic stripsstrips and theirtheir creators.creators.1 Yet Yet DeBeckDeBeck isis importantimportant for moremore thanthan just just his his enormously enormously creative creative use use ofof languagelanguage or his mastery ofof bothboth thethe daily daily gaggag andand thethe suspensefullysuspensefully developed developed story line.line. AlthoughAlthough notnot oneone of thethe pioneerspioneers of thethe comiccomic strip such such asas RichardRichard Outcault, JimmyJimmy Swinnerton,Swinnerton, or WinsorWinsor McCay, hehe waswas a a centralcentral figure figure in in the the medium's medium's rise rise from from an an occasional occasional pleasurepleasure inin aa fewfew bigbig citycity newspapers newspapers toto aa mainstaymainstay ofof AmericanAmerican culturalcultural life.life. InIn thethe nearlynearly 23 23 yearsyears thatthat he he produced produced hishis famousfamous stripstrip Barney Barney GoogleGoogle (later renamed BarneyBarney Google and and Snuffy Snuffy SmithSmith andand finallyfinally just Snuffy Smith)Smith )he he continuously continuously reinvented reinvented his his creation creation to to a adegree degree unmatched unmatched byby any any of of his his contemporaries, contemporaries, adding adding newnew characterscharacters and remaking hishis comiccomic strip strip inin aa wayway that that captured thethe radically radically differentdifferent zeitgeists Zeitgeists of of three three distinct distinct eras eras - the- the "Roaring "Roaring Twenties," Twenties," the the Great Great Depression, Depression, andand thethe WorldWorld WarWar IIII years. Nor is his significancesignificance limited limited only only to to the the funny funny pages. pages. As As the the United United States States became became anan everever moremore commercialized commercialized and consumerist-orientedconsumerist-oriented society,society, thethe dramaticdramatic riserise ofof the the scope, scope, influence,influence, andand legitimacylegitimacy ofof the the mass mass media media ledled toto thethe breakdown breakdown ofof formerly formerly unquestioned unquestioned cultural cultural "brow "brow level" level" distinctions. distinctions. DeBeck's DeBeck's personalpersonal

55 55

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 56 56

,r /' -.L----

BillyBilly DeDe Beck, sketchsketch ofof Snuffy SmithSmith insideinside backback covercover onon endpaper,endpaper, GeorgeGeorge Washington Harris, Sut LovingoodLovingood Yarns (1867),(1867), DeDe Beck Beck library. library. CourtesyCourtesy JamesJames Branch Branch Cabell Cabell Library,Library, VirginiaVirginia CommonwealthCommonwealth

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 5757

shiftshift from from an an aspiring aspiring "fine "fine arts" arts" painter painter to to a a"debased" "debased" yetyet financially highlyhighly successfulsuccessful cartoonist perfectly reflectedreflected thisthis broaderbroader transformation.transformation. BornBorn inin Chicago Chicago inin 1890,1890, DeBeckDeBeck initiallyinitially dreamed of becomingbecoming aa seriousserious painterpainter andand attendedattended thethe ChicagoChicago Academy ofof FineFine ArtsArts afterafter graduatinggraduating high high school school inin 1908. 1908. YetYet hehe had had always always beenbeen drawndrawn toto cartooning,cartooning, copyingcopying thethe styles styles of of Chicago Chicago Tribune Tribune editorial editorial cartoonist cartoonist John John McCutcheon, McCutcheon, "When"When aa FellerFeller Needs aa Friend"Friend" creator creator ClareClare Briggs, Briggs, and and illustrator illustrator CharlesCharles DanaDana Gibson (Walker (Walker 9).2 9).2 AlthoughAlthough he he later later advised advised students students of of his his correspondencecorrespondence course on cartooning "First learn how to draw-thendraw - then gogo toto aa goodgood art schoolschool andand get get a a firm firm foundationfoundation in in the the arts," arts," his his coursework coursework at atthe the ChicagoChicago AcademyAcademy endedended after after only twotwo yearsyears onceonce hehe sawsaw howhow bigbig anan impactimpact his his caricatures caricatures of of models models hadhad onon hishis fellowfellow artart studentsstudents (Sheridan (Sheridan 36,36, 37).37). DeBeckDeBeck thusthus made the fatefulfateful decision decision toto become become aa newspapernewspaper illustrator andand cartoonist,cartoonist, but but success success camecame only afterafter years years ofof slowly slowly developingdeveloping his craft. HeHe gotgot hishis firstfirst professional professional jobjob as aa staffstaff artist withwith thethe Chicago Chicago ShowShow World World theatrical theatrical weekly,weekly, thenthen aa positionposition with the YoungstownYoungs town (PA)(PA) TelegramTelegram (1910- (1910- 1912) 1912) as a politicalpolitical andand sportssports illustrator,illustrator, and finally aa politicalpolitical cartoonist jobjob withwith thethe Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Gazette-Times Gazette-Times thatthat hehe heldheld untiluntil 1914.1914. Returning toto Chicago,Chicago, hehe beganbegan toto teachteach cartooningcartooning throughthrough a acorrespondence correspondence coursecourse andand atat nights nights at at the the Fine Fine Arts Arts Academy. Academy. In In these these same same years, years, he he produced produced several several short-livedshort-lived cartoon cartoon series series including including Finn Finn an' an Haddie'Haddie forfor the the Adams Adams Syndicate Syndicate andand MarriedMarried LifeLife forfor the the Chicago Chicago HeraldHerald (1915-1918), the the latter latter featuring featuring a themetheme to to which which he he would would repeatedly repeatedly tum:turn: a ahenpecked, henpecked, diminutivediminutive husbandhusband desperatelydesperately tryingtrying to to escape escape thethe clutchesclutches ofof hishis controllingcontrolling wife.wife. DeBeckDeBeck replacedreplaced MarriedMarried Life forfor a shortshort time with a new strip,strip, OOlie lie Moses andand oO 'Mara 'Mara Inc.,Inc., aboutabout clothingclothing salesmen salesmen who who relocate relocate to to glamorous glamorous Hollywood. Hollywood. Finally,Finally, inin 1919,1919, hehe launchedlaunched inin thethe Chicago Herald Herald & Examiner& Examiner the thestrip strip that that wouldwould makemake him him famous famous and and wealthy wealthy - - TakeTake Barney Barney Google Google F'rinstance F'rinstance (soon(soon thereafter renamed renamed simplysimply BarneyBarney GoogleGoogle) ) thatthat ran forfor severalseveral years onon the the sports sports pages pages before before moving moving to to the the "funnies "funnies page" page" in in most most newspapers newspapers (Walker(Walker 10).10). CulturalCultural historianshistorians havehave longlong arguedargued that thethe era era between between thethe world world warswars markedmarked aa fundamental transformationtransformation in American culture,culture, oneone that that sawsaw thethe rise rise of of mass mass (or (or proto-mass) proto-mass) culturalcultural formsforms suchsuch asas motionmotion pictures,pictures, radioradio programsprograms andand syndicatedsyndicated newspapersnewspapers andand aa discerniblediscernible shift shift fromfrom a citizenrycitizenry that that saw saw itselfitself primarilyprimarily asas producersproducers (whether(whether farmers,farmers, factoryfactory workers,workers, or or bankers) bankers) toto oneone increasinglyincreasingly self-identified asas consumers (including(including of of the the media) media) (Kammen, (Kämmen, Susman, Susman, Dumenil). Dumenil). Olie Olie Moses Moses andand O'Mara,O 'Mara, Inc.Inc. and the various incarnationsincarnations of Barney Google reflectedreflected DeBeck'sDeBeck's innateinnate understandingunderstanding ofof the expanding placeplace ofof commercialized commercialized

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 58 58

JustinJustin Howard, Howard, "Sut "Sut Lovingood's Lovingood's Daddy Acting Acting Horse,"Horse," SutSut LovingoodLovingood Yarns by GeorgeGeorge Washington HarrisHarris (New (New York: York: Dick Dick & & Fitzgerald,Fitzgerald, 1867). 1867).

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 59 59 entertainment entertainment and and the the culture culture of of celebrity celebrity worship worship in in America. America. TheThe former strip, strip, after after all, all, explicitly explicitly showed showed this transformation, asas the two clothingclothing proprietor proprietor protagonists protagonists suddenly suddenly relocate relocate to to Hollywood Hollywood andand movemove intointo thethe motion motion picture picture industry, industry, with with cameos cameos by by stars stars such such as asCharlie Charlie Chaplin, Chaplin, Mary Mary Pickford, Pickford, and and Douglas Douglas Fairbanks. Fairbanks. Similarly,Similarly, Take Take Barney Barney Google Google F'rinstanceF 'rinstance initially initially centered centered on on the the title title character's character's desire desire to to escape escape his his wife wife and and watch watch the the Jess Jess Willard-Jack Willard-Jack Dempsey Dempsey trainingtraining sessionssessions for theirtheir big big boxing boxing match. match. Countless Countless laterlater episodes episodes alsoalso featured boxingboxing matches,matches, horsehorse races,races, andand celebrity celebrity sightings sightings (Walker (Walker 10,10, 20). 20). BarneyBarney Google Google (as(as itit was was soon soon renamed) renamed) quickly quickly became became a a successful successful strip strip and and King King FeaturesFeatures Syndicate, with with typicaltypical hyperbole, hyperbole, trumpeted trumpeted the the new new creation creation in in 1920: 1920: "There"There are seven wonders ofof the world"world" the advertisementadvertisement boasted,boasted, "-and " - and 'Barney'Barney Google'"Google'" (Walker,(Walker, 24).24). It It was, was, however,however, DeBeck'sDeBeck's July July 17, 1 7, 1922 1 922 introduction introduction of of Spark Spark Plug, Plug, aa bow-leggedbow-legged nag nag given given to to Barney Barney byby a a gratefulgrateful manman afterafter Barney Barney breaksbreaks hishis fallfall outout aa window,window, that that marked marked the the beginningbeginning ofDeBeck'sof DeBeck's riserise toto fame andand fortune.fortune. Though Though nearlynearly thethe complete complete opposite opposite ofof what what a arace race horse horse should should look look like like - - sagging and scruffy instead instead of of svelte, svelte, and and covered covered by by a a ragged ragged horse horse blanket blanket emblazoned emblazoned with hishis namename thatthat it itwears wears even even when when racing racing - -Spark Spark Plug Plug improbably improbably wins wins the the Abadaba Abadaba StakesStakes racerace andand its its $50,000 $50,000 prize.prize. The The relationshiprelationship between between Barney Barney and and Spark Spark PlugPlug waswas oftenoften aa contentiouscontentious oneone -- BarneyBarney freely freely kicked kicked his his horse horse in in the the rearrear when when hehe disappointeddisappointed him him oror hiredhired himhim outout toto raise moneymoney and and "Sparky" "Sparky" (as(as BarneyBarney fondlyfondly called called him)him) lostlost more more races races than than he he won. won. But But DeBeck DeBeck alsoalso waswas ableable to establish a genuinegenuine emotionalemotional bond bond between between the the two two and and this this mixturemixture of of pathos, pathos, adventure, adventure, and and "main "main chance" chance" schemes mademade the the stripstrip a majormajor successsuccess withwith allall walkswalks ofofAmerican American lifelife (Walker, (Walker, 35, 35, 45; 45; GoulartGoulart 21).21). AA reporterreporter sent sent to to interview interview JudgeJudge Elbert Gary, thethe Chairman of of United United States States Steel,Steel, forfor example, example, waswas amazedamazed whenwhen GaryGary openedopened the the sessionsession by by asking, asking, "Will"Will BarneyBarney Google'sGoogle's SparkSpark Plug Plug win win the the InternationalInternational Derby?" GaryGary wentwent onon toto inform inform the the astonished astonished newsman that that the the questionquestion had had arisen arisen at ata recenta recent BoardBoard ofof DirectorsDirectors meetingmeeting becausebecause everyone onon thethe Board readread thethe comics ("Funny("Funny Strips"Strips" 18).18). AsAs BrianBrian WalkerWalker notes, notes, DeBeck's DeBeck's creation ofof SparkSpark Plug Plug also also provedproved toto be be a a "merchandising "merchandising bonanza" bonanza" as as DeBeckDeBeck and his syndicate authorizedauthorized allall mannermanner ofof commercialcommercial productsproducts fromfrom toystoys andand gamesgames to knick knacksknacks toto popularpopular songssongs fromfrom thethe eponymous eponymous smashsmash hit toto thethe farfar less less successfulsuccessful tunestunes "Come "Come OnOn SparkSpark Plug!"Plug!" and "So II tooktook thethe $50,000" (Walker (Walker 35, 35, 85).85). DeBeckDeBeck himself himself in in 1 1924 924 notednoted in in amazementamazement that that "[a]ll "[a]ll over over the the United United States States youyou findfind stuffed stuffed Spark Spark Plugs Plugs and and SparkSpark PlugPlug gamesgames andand SparkSpark Plug Plug drums drums

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6060

andand SparkSpark PlugPlug balloonsballoons and Spark Plug tintin pails.pails. AndAnd therethere is a Spark Plug playplay onon thethe road. road. TheThe onlyonly thingthing that that is is lacking lacking is is a aSpark Spark Plug Plug grand grand opera" opera" (Walker(Walker 35).35). SparkSpark PlugPlug waswas so popularpopular and becamebecame soso synonymoussynonymous with thethe SundaySunday funnies,funnies, that, that, according according to to one one scholar, scholar, his his name name became became a a common common nicknamenickname for childrenchildren who were comiccomic strip strip devotees devotees - -mostmost famously famously in inthe the casecase ofof Charles Charles "Sparky" "Sparky" SchulzSchulz ofof PeanutsPeanuts famefame (Markstein).(Markstein). Clearly,Clearly, SparkSpark Plug'sPlug's merchandising was anan important important antecedentantecedent toto futurefuture promotional productproduct streamsstreams of games,games, toys,toys, songs,songs, and and films films tiedtied to to cartooncartoon or or animation animation characterscharacters fromfrom Schulz'sSchulz 's own Snoopy Snoopy to to Garfield Garfieldto to the the Powerpuff PowerpuffGirls Girls and and SpongeSponge BobBob Square PantsPants ofof today. SparkSpark Plug's Plug's popularpopular successsuccess ledled DeBeck to to transform transform thethe previously previously lowerlower middle-class middle-class BarneyBarney GoogleGoogle (reminiscent(reminiscent ofof Chaplin's Chaplin's "Little"Little Tramp" Tramp" persona)persona) into an almost-respectable representative representative of ofthe the nouveau nouveau riche. riche. With With hishis silksilk top top hat hat and and tails tails and and expensive expensive cigars,cigars, GoogleGoogle now epitomized thethe stereotypicalstereotypical freewheeling freewheeling lifestyle lifestyle of of "the "the Roaring Roaring Twenties." Twenties." DeBeck's DeBeck's plotplot lineslines exploitedexploited popular fadsfads ofof the the dayday fromfrom flagpoleflagpole sittingsitting toto swimmingswimming thethe English English Channel Channel (Spark(Spark PlugPlug matched Gertrude Ederle'sEderle's 19261926 feat feat thatthat samesame year)year) (Walker(Walker 96).96). Unlike his comic strip contemporariescontemporaries WaltWalt Wallet Wallet ofof Gasoline Gasoline AlleyAlley andand Andy Andy Gump Gump of of The The Gumps Gumps whose whose typical typical middle middle class class lives lives focusfocus on familyfamily and home, BarneyBarney skirts skirts ProhibitionProhibition restrictions, restrictions, chases chases flappers,flappers, hangs hangs out out in in disreputable disreputable locales locales suchsuch asas sportssports barsbars andand racetracks,racetracks, andand pursuespursues countlesscountless "get"get richrich quick"quick" schemes,schemes, although usually withwith little success.success. Indeed,Indeed, much of Barney'sBarney's appeal stemsstems fromfrom his avoidance, ifif not outrightoutright repudiation, repudiation, of thethe traditionaltraditional commitment to to family,family, marriage,marriage, and and slowslow butbut steadysteady economiceconomic advancement. As GilbertGilbert SeldesSeldes simultaneously simultaneously lamentedlamented and and boasted boasted inin his his 1924 1 924 essay, essay, "The "The 'Vulgar' 'Vulgar' ComicComic Strip," BarneyBarney GoogleGoogle (along(along with with Mutt Mutt of of Mutt Mutt and and Jeff, Jeff, Jiggs Jiggs of of Bringing Bringing up up Father, Father, and and thethe title title character character in in Abie Abie the the Agent,) Agent,) "ha[ "ha[s] s] so littlelittle respectrespect for law,law, order,order, thethe rightsrights ofof property, property, the the sanctitysanctity ofof money,money, the romance of of marriage, marriage, and and allall thethe otherother foundationsfoundations ofof American American life, life, that that if if they they were were put put into into fiction fiction the the Society Society forfor thethe Suppression Suppression of of Everything Everything would would hale hale them them incontinently incontinently toto court court and and our our morals morals would would be be saved saved again" again" (201).(201). DeBeck'sDeBeck's socialsocial portrait portrait inin BarneyBarney Google,Google, it it hardly hardly needs needs saying, saying, represented represented almost almost exclusivelyexclusively thethe perspectiveperspective of urbanurban whitewhite male male America America (a(a viewview exhibited in nearly allall the comiccomic strips of thatthat era). era). BarneyBarney notnot onlyonly hangshangs outout at at long-established long-established malemale bastionsbastions such as boxing rings, racetracks,racetracks, fraternalfraternal lodges, lodges, and and saloons, saloons, he he lives lives a a bachelor bachelor existenceexistence despitedespite remainingremaining married married toto hishis wife.wife. AfterAfter the the first first few few months months of of the the strip, strip, he he "escapes" "escapes" fromfrom herher (she (she isis described described inin thethe song song "Barney "Barney Google"Google" as as beingbeing "three "three times times hishis size"size" andand DeBeckDeBeck often often depicted depicted her her bearing bearing a a rolling-pin rolling-pin as as a a potential potential cudgel) cudgel)

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 61 61

andand pursues pursues anan endlessendless streamstream ofof flapper-like flapper-like "sweet "sweet mamas." mamas." Furthermore,Furthermore, though though Google Google is at timestimes thethe buttbutt of of jokes jokes forfor his his squat squat sizesize and bulging eyes, eyes, hehe isis alwaysalways in a position ofof control overover thethe minority characterscharacters that occasionally occasionally appearedappeared in in thethe strip,strip, alwaysalways as servantsservants oror hirelings of whites.whites. DeBeckDeBeck mademade hishis raciallyracially superior superior status status mostmost explicit explicit in in his his relationship relationship with with his his pint-sized pint-sized andand simple-mindedsimple-minded butbut ever-loyal jockey, jockey, Sunshine, Sunshine, whose whose favorite favorite expression, expression, "You "You shosho amam aa smahtsmaht man,man, mistah mistah Google," Google," sums up thethe subservientsubservient comic comic foilfoil rolerole hehe playedplayed inin thethe strip strip (Walker (Walker 86- 86-7).37V Despite, Despite, oror perhapsperhaps because because of,of, hishis refusalrefusal to to abide abide by by social social conventions conventions and and responsibilities, responsibilities, Barney Barney Google Google became became oneone ofof thethe era's era's leadingleading stripsstrips andand DeBeckDeBeck oneone of of the the busiestbusiest and and wealthiest wealthiest practitioners practitioners ofof his his craft. craft.44 A A1933 1933 Fortune Fortune articlearticle on on thethe comics comics businessbusiness estimatedestimated thatthat DeBeck DeBeck was thenthen earning $1200 aa weekweek at at the the heartheart ofof thethe Depression and and aa 1940 articlearticle reportedreported that his strip waswas carried by 210 paperspapers with with a a combinedcombined circulationcirculation of of ten ten million million ("The ("The FunnyFunny Papers" Papers" 49;49; "Barney"Barney Google's Google's Birthday"Birthday" 60). HisHis lifestyle lifestyle ofof a sports-crazedsports-crazed bonbon vivantvivant reflectedreflected his his newfoundnewfound wealthwealth andand quasi-celebrityquasi-celebrity status. He rubbedrubbed shouldersshoulders and and playedplayed golfgolf withwith the the likes likes of of Babe Babe Ruth,Ruth, Jack Jack Dempsey, Dempsey, and and GeneGene TunneyTunney as as wellwell asas sports writerswriters DamonDamon Runyon andand GrantlandGrantland Rice.Rice. He He married married and and divorceddivorced andand remarriedremarried (once(once to the samesame woman), winteredwintered inin aa 14-14- room room estateestate in in Florida, Florida, andand livedlived inin ParisParis inin thethe latelate 1920s1920s (Walker 77-81, 83;83; "Barney"Barney Google'sGoogle's Birthday," 60;60; Hartzell). And he waswas notnot alonealone amongamong cartoonists. cartoonists. ThoughThough theirtheir tonetone was was oftenoften oneone ofof incredulity,incredulity, numerous numerous press press accounts accounts reportedreported on on the the astounding astounding wealth wealth of of these these daily daily "pen "pen and and pencil pencil humorists" humorists" and and the the incredible incredible influence influence they they seemed seemed to to hold hold over over all all classes classes ofthe of the American American public public ("Sprightly ("Sprightly Comics"). Comics"). InIn 11933, 933, Fortune listedlisted fifteen cartoonistscartoonists who· who made made $1000$1000 or more a week forfor their artart ("The("The Funny Papers"). Papers"). That same year,year, writer WilliamWilliam Berchtold marveled thatthat the entireentire universeuniverse of syndicatedsyndicated cartoonistscartoonists could could fit fit into into the the chamber chamber of of the the House House of of RepresentativesRepresentatives butbut wouldwould tumturn upup theirtheir noses noses atat thethe Congressmen'sCongressmen's paltrypaltry $15,000 $15,000 annualannual salary oror eveneven thethe President's President's $75,000$75,000 (35). TenTen yearsyears later,later, inin "Everybody "Everybody Reads Reads thethe Comics,"Comics," EsquireEsquire notednoted with aa slightlyslightly disdainfuldisdainful edgeedge thatthat "[f]our "[f]our out out of of every every five five of of the the 70,000,000 70,000,000 peoplepeople who read thethe paperspapers atat all all today,today, shamelessly shamelessly and and regularly regularly read read the the comics" comics" (Rodell). (Rodell). ThoughThough not thethe wealthiestwealthiest (that(that statusstatus wentwent to to HamHam Fisher Fisher with with his his far far inferior inferior strip strip Joe Joe Palooka), Palooka), DeBeck certainly certainly was was among among the the industry industry leadersleaders and and socializedsocialized accordingly. AsAs thethe 1920s1 920s gave gave wayway toto thethe 1930s,1 930s, and and thethe seemingly seemingly endlessendless wealth and and prosperityprosperity of of the the previous previous decadedecade vanishedvanished intointo thethe worstworst economiceconomic

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 62 62

downturn downturn ofof the the century, century, DeBeck DeBeck abruptly shifted thethe directiondirection ofof hishis stripstrip onceonce more.more. HisHis readersreaders hadhad becomebecome accustomed toto his constantly changingchanging exoticexotic adventureadventure continuitiescontinuities setset everywhereeverywhere fromfrom FloridaFlorida toto ParisParis to the fabledfabled Sultanate Sultanate ofof Sulu Sulu (in(in the the Ooby Ooby Jooby Jooby Sea!) Sea!) (Walker(Walker 74).74). Thus, when thethe audience audience learnedlearned inin thethe June June 14, 14, 1934 1934 episodeepisode thatthat BarneyBarney GoogleGoogle had beenbeen namednamed byby "a"a hill-billyhill-billy byby thethe name name ofof Google" Google" the solesole heir toto anan estateestate in in the the North North Carolina Carolina mountains,mountains, littlelittle did they realizerealize thatthat thisthis storylinestoryline wouldwould continue continue forfor the the next next decade decade or or that that Barney Barney would would eventually eventually be be supplanted supplanted almost almost entirelyentirely by by the the even even more more outrageous outrageous charactercharacter Snuffy Smith.Smith. InIn thethe process,process, DeBeckDeBeck would would fundamentally fundamentally reinvent reinvent his his strip strip in in a a way way that that capturedcaptured the the new new cultural cultural ethos ethos ofof the the Depression Depression years.5years.5 FarFar fromfrom merely merely anan attemptattempt toto cashcash inin on the current crazecraze for allall things things mountain, mountain, the the change change in in the the strip's strip's plot plot and and setting setting revealed revealed DeBeck's DeBeck's passionatepassionate andand abiding abiding interest interest in in literary literary portrayalsportrayals of of the the people and and culture culture ofof the the Southern Southern mountains. mountains. Unlike Unlike hishis fellow fellow cartoonistscartoonists ofof hillbillies, hillbillies, PaulPaul Webb Webb (creator(creator ofof The The Mountain Mountain BoysBoys cartooncartoon inin Esquire) Esquire ) andand Al Al Capp Capp (who(who beganbegan LiLi '/ 7 Abner Abner the the same same year year DeBeck DeBeck introducedintroduced Smith), Smith), DeBeck DeBeck readread dozensdozens of nineteenth- andand twentieth-centurytwentieth-century novels novels andand nonfictionnonfiction books books about about thethe hill hill folk folk and and his his debt debt to to earlier earlier fabricators fabricators of of southern southern Appalachia Appalachia and and thethe mountaineer mountaineer is is obvious. obvious. HeHe was stronglystrongly influencedinfluenced by the worksworks of of Mary Mary Murfree Murfree and and George George WashingtonWashington Harris,Harris, andand hishis copycopy ofof Harris'sHarris's SutSut Lovingood Lovingood is heavily annotatedannotated andand includesincludes his his preliminary preliminary sketchessketches ofof Snuffy Snuffy Smith. Smith. He He also also drewdrew heavily heavily onon thethe language language andand spellingsspellings used byby HarrisHarris andand other southwestern humorists, freely mixing, as diddid they,they, genuinegenuine locallocal expressionsexpressions with onesones hehe invented.invented. AlthoughAlthough DeBeckDeBeck traveled traveled through through the the mountains mountains ofofVirginia Virginia andand KentuckyKentucky and conversed with with the the local local inhabitants, inhabitants, hishis fancifulfanciful plotsplots andand colorful phrasings show show that that he, he, likelike Webb, Webb, clearlyclearly basedbased his imagery and humor primarily onon these literary accountsaccounts ratherrather than than on on the the people people and and conditions conditions themselves themselves (lnge(Inge 74-5). DeBeck DeBeck alsoalso relied relied on on many many of of the the samesame tropes tropes and and themes themes as as his his literary literary predecessors. predecessors. In thethe early monthsmonths ofof thethe mountainmountain episodes,episodes, he he portrayedportrayed the the mountaineers mountaineers as as impoverished impoverished (Google's (Google's "estate" isis nothing butbut aa run run down down shack shack similar similar to to other other domiciles domiciles in in the the region); region); ignorant ignorant (Google (Google expressesexpresses shockshock thatthat therethere isis nono schoolschool or kindergarten); andand culturally isolated isolated (in(in aa stripstrip titledtitled "Catching "Catching UpUp withwith History!,"History!," aa mountainmountain womanwoman who who servesserves asas Barney'sBarney's maid has never seen a movie butbut has heard that D.D.W. W. GriffithGriffith is isplanning planning to to direct direct the the new new film film Birth Birth of of a Nation).a Nation). In his most dramaticdramatic panels,panels, hehe presentspresents hishis mountainmountain man as anan almostalmost supernatural supernatural primitiveprimitive force force of of potential potential violenceviolence that emergesemerges spontaneously from from thethe

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6363 surrounding surrounding woods. woods.66 Snuffy Snuffy Smith, Smith, the the stocky stocky and and ornery ornery mountaineer mountaineer who who would would soonsoon dominatedominate thethe strip, strip, epitomizes epitomizes the the qualities qualities long long associated associated inin popular popular cultureculture withwith Southern Southern mountaineers. mountaineers. IgnorantIgnorant of of all all thingsthings modem, modern, he he makes makes hishis meager meager livingliving byby moonshiningmoonshining and stealingstealing chickens chickens and and horses, horses, and and responds responds to to all all comers comers withwith thethe threatthreat of of his his omnipresent omnipresent squirrelsquirrel rifle. HeHe so threatensthreatens socialsocial decorumdecorum and stability thatthat he he is is feared feared and and despised despised eveneven byby his his fellow fellow mountaineers mountaineers ofof Hoot Hootin' in' HollerHoller who,who, DeBeckDeBeck informs informs his readers, tarredtarred and and featheredfeathered him him the the last last time time he he made made an an appearance. appearance. Smith isis clearly drawn fromfrom earlier earlier fictional fictional and and actual actual personages personages such such as as DavyDavy Crockett, SutSut Lovingood,Lovingood, andand "Devil"Devil Anse" Hatfield. Hatfield. Warns his wife,wife, Lowizie: Lowizie: "'twixt [his] drink drink an' an' deviltry, deviltry, mos' mos' folkses folkses hevhev beenbeen keerfulkeerful terter give give himhim plentyplenty elbow elbow roomroom ...... " ." To thisthis image ofof anan insular,insular, trigger-happytrigger-happy primitive,primitive, DeBeck DeBeck addedadded thethe WebbianWebbian vision ofof absolute laziness. laziness. Snuffy Snuffy is is constantly constantly seen seen prone prone or or asleep, asleep, hishis whiskywhisky jug jug clearlyclearly suggestingsuggesting hishis constantconstant statestate ofof inebriation. inebriation. Like Like Webb's,Webb's, DeBeck'sDeBeck's jokes jokes often often revolve revolve around around Snufify's Snuffy's sleepingsleeping forfor days days atat a a time, time, despite despite the the constant constant activity activity and and noise noise aroundaround him.7him.7 SnuffySnuffy Smith Smith maymay bebe immoral,immoral, violent, lazy,lazy, andand abusive, abusive, but but he he also also representsrepresents thethe anti-elite anti-elite attitudes, attitudes, rugged rugged independence, independence, andand physical physical prowess prowess ofof the the mythic mythic frontiersmen frontiersmen epitomized epitomized by by Davy Davy Crockett Crockett and and Daniel Daniel Boone. Boone. DeBeck DeBeck oftenoften portrayed SnuffySnuffy as as aa symbol symbol ofof the the common common man man who who rejectsrejects any any pretensions pretensions ofof cultural cultural refinement refinement and and taste. taste. On On aa visitvisit toto Chicago,Chicago, he refuses refuses toto stay stay in in the the "Hotel "Hotel Aristocrat" Aristocrat" on on the the basis basis ofof its its name name alone. alone. Instead,Instead, hehe goesgoes toto aa flophouseflophouse byby thethe stockyards,stockyards, butbut still still accuses accuses thethe landladylandlady of running running a a"ristercrat "ristercrat hotel" hotel" because because sheshe triestries toto changechange the sheetssheets after twotwo weeks.weeks. ClearlyClearly thesethese episodesepisodes areare overlaid withwith conceptions ofof mountaineer mountaineer filth, filth, but but the the theme theme of of rebellion rebellion against against class class pretensionpretension isis unmistakable.unmistakable. AsAs aa symbolsymbol andand defender of frontierfrontier democracy, democracy, SnuffySnuffy refuses refuses to to kowtow kowtow toto judges, judges, militarymilitary officers,officers, and and other other authority authority figures figures and and prizes prizes personal personal independence independence and cultural tradition overover money.money. HisHis consistent flaunting ofof socialsocial rulesrules alsoalso makes him something of aa sexsex symbolsymbol toto femalefemale characterscharacters who who thrillthrill at at his his coarse coarse individuality.individuality. "I"I dream of you every night," writes one one femalefemale admireradmirer in in the the strip, strip, "your "your mountain mountain ruggedness ruggedness - - youryour forcefulforceful personality-yourpersonality - your scorn scorn of ofsociety."8 society."8 In In short, short, Snuffy Snuffy is is cut cut in in the the mold mold of of the the AmericanAmerican folkfolk hero,hero, a a point point clearly clearly understood understood byby at at least least one one contemporary contemporary writer, writer, Lovell Lo veil Thompson, Thompson, who who in in 1937 1937 called called himhim "a"a herohero withwith all all of of a ahero's hero's trappings." trappings." AlthoughAlthough forfor SnuffySnuffy these these trappings trappings are are "a "a broken-down broken-down KentuckyKentucky Colonel Colonel hat, a corn-cobcom-cob pipe,pipe, andand aa rifle rifle borrowedborrowed from from JamesJames FenimoreFenimore Cooper"Cooper" rather thanthan "the"the owlowl andand shield ofof Minerva," ThompsonThompson argued, argued,

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6464

their their meaning meaning isis neverthelessnevertheless "Greek"Greek inin theirtheir profundity andand rigidity"rigidity" (4).(4). SimultaneouslySimultaneously whimsicalwhimsical and serious, Thompson's description description of of Snuffy Snuffy asas mythicmythic hero hero recognizes recognizes how how DeBeckDeBeck constantlyconstantly played upon andand undercutundercut thethe mountaineer mountaineer myth, fullyfully realizingrealizing thethe comic possibilities possibilities in inthe the mutually mutually supporting supporting duality duality of of noble noble mountaineer mountaineer and and semi-savagesemi-savage hillbilly. A A finalfinal componentcomponent ofof Snuffy Snuffy's 's personification of of the the mythic mythic frontier frontier folk folk hero hero is is his his unquestioned unquestioned Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon or, atat least,least, NorthernNorthern European European racialracial lineage.lineage. AsAs hehe hadhad inin Barney'sBarney's relationshiprelationship with with Sunshine, Sunshine, DeBeck DeBeck continuedcontinued his long-standinglong-standing practicepractice (mirroring (mirroring that that ofof many early-twentieth-early-twentieth century century cartoonists) cartoonists) ofof showingshowing black characterscharacters as as servants servants of of white white America America and and even,even, inin SnuffySnuffy Smith, Smith, of of humble humble mountain mountain folk.folk. Whereas Whereas numerousnumerous characters characters inin positionspositions of status and authority (businessmen, bankers, bankers, judges, judges, lawyers) lawyers) commonlycommonly referrefer to to Snuffy Snufïy and and his his kin kin as as "hill-billies," "hill-billies," "yokey(s)," "yokey(s)," and, and, even even onon oneone occasion,occasion, "back-woods trash,"trash," black characterscharacters almost nevernever callcall himhim anythinganything other other than than "suh" "suh" or or "boss." "boss." AsAs had been thethe case withwith his his portrayal portrayal of of Barney Barney Google, Google, DeBeck's DeBeck's unequivocalunequivocal assertion of Snuffy'sSnuffy's whitenesswhiteness throughthrough hishis dominationdomination over African-African-American American figures mitigatesmitigates the the degrading degrading aspects aspects ofof hishis charactercharacter and and reinforcesreinforces Smith's Smith's rolerole asas mythicmythic hero. hero. AlthoughAlthough DeBeck'sDeBeck's workwork partiallypartially reflectedreflected thethe "Benighted"Benighted South" visionvision ofH.L.of H.L. MenckenMencken and Erskine Caldwell in in thethe 11920s 920s andand 1930s,1 930s, aa view view ofof a a society society characterized characterized byby a a degradeddegraded culture,culture, oppressiveoppressive economiceconomic and politicalpolitical institutions,institutions, staggeringstaggering inequality, and widespread poverty, poverty, it it perhapsperhaps betterbetter represented represented a a moremore upbeatupbeat counter vision ofof ruralrural Southerners,Southerners, andand mountaineers mountaineers in particular, that celebratedcelebrated theirtheir independence and and traditional traditional ways ways oflife.of life.99 This This viewpoint viewpoint waswas advancedadvanced byby a diverse group of observersobservers who who questionedquestioned the consequencesconsequences ofof anan increasinglyincreasingly mechanized,mechanized, pre-pre fabricated,fabricated, and and centralized centralized modemmodern America.America. To these intellectuals, writers, artists,artists, and and even even governmentgovernment administratorsadministrators - - characterizedcharacterized collectively collectively asas RegionalistsRegionalists - recoveryrecovery of of the the original original promise promise of of America America required required the the rediscoveryrediscovery andand celebration ofof "the"the folk."folk." WhetherWhether defined defined as as nineteenth- nineteenth centurycentury pioneers pioneers who who "broke"broke thethe Plains"Plains" oror present day American Indians,Indians, ex-slavesex-slaves or Midwestern-farmers,Midwestern- farmers, to to the the Regionalists, Regionalists, "the "the folk," folk," embodied embodied the the cultural cultural values values andand thethe simple simple butbut honest honest lifeways lifeways essentialessential toto savingsaving thethe nation nation from from what what Walter Walter Lippmann Lippmann called called "the"the acidsacids of modernity"modernity" (qtd.(qtd. inin DormanDormán 24).24).10 10 MountaineersMountaineers played aa centralcentral rolerole inin thisthis culturalcultural movementmovement thatthat emphasized emphasized the importanceimportance of oneness withwith the land and escapeescape from from thethe confinementsconfinements of of industrializedindustrialized andand urbanized life.life. WritingWriting forfor an urbaneurbane middle-class middle-class readership inin 1924,1924, playwright PercyPercy MacKayeMacKaye articulated articulated thisthis

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 65 65 conception conception ofof thethe promise promise ofof mountain mountain society:society:

Over Over therethere inin the the mountains mountains areare menmen whowho do not livelive in cages; a a million million Americans, Americans, whowho dodo notnot chase chase thethe dollar,dollar, who who do do notnot time-serve time-serve machines,machines, whowho do notnot learnlearn theirtheir manners fromfrom the the movies movies oror their their culture culture from from the the beauty beauty parlors. parlors. Shall Shall we we not not then, then, hasten hasten to to civilize civilize themthem -- convertconvert their their dirtydirty log-log cabins cabins intointo clean clean cement cement cages? cages? Or shall we inquireinquire whether they they may may have have somethingsomething to contribute to our brand-newbrand-new civilization- civilization - somethingsomething whichwhich ofof old we cherishedcherished butbut now perhaps perhaps have have forgotten?forgotten? (327). (327).

Indeed, Indeed, in anan era of resurgent nativism and and immigration immigration restriction, restriction, the the idea idea of of the the uniqueness uniqueness andand importanceimportance ofof mountainmountain societysociety andand cultureculture extendedextended well well beyondbeyond thethe Regionalist Regionalist movement. movement. EndlesslyEndlessly trumpetedtrumpeted asas "100"100 percentpercent Americans"Americans" ofof "pure"pure Anglo-SaxonAnglo-Saxon stock"stock" whowho continuedcontinued to to livelive asas hadhad theirtheir ancestors ancestors centuriescenturies earlier, thethe peoplepeople ofof the mountains werewere presented presented across across the the cultural cultural spectrum spectrum as as a a sortsort of of "Ur-folk." "Ur-folk." Yet, Yet, although although allall thesethese culturalcultural formatsformats purported purported to to present present the the "real "real mountaineers," mountaineers," nearlynearly allall portrayedportrayed theirtheir subjects subjects as as romantic romantic primitives primitives utterly utterly isolated isolated from from broader broader economic economic andand socialsocial forces.forces. ToTo better definedefine their their subject subject as as a a people people caughtcaught foreverforever inin thethe past, past, they they underplayed underplayed or, or, more more often, often, simply simply ignored ignored the the racial, racial, social, social, andand economiceconomic heterogeneity of the regionregion andand the impactimpact of marketmarket forcesforces onon present-day present-day mountain mountain folk folk (Shapiro; (Shapiro; Batteau; Batteau; Harkins). Harkins). DeBeck'sDeBeck's art art reflectedreflected this samesame mix of celebrationcelebration and distortion ofof mountaineersmountaineers andand mountainmountain culture.culture. OnOn the oneone hand, he portrayed aa more full-bodiedfull-bodied andand naturalisticnaturalistic visionvision of mountain societysociety thanthan diddid anyany ofof his his peers.peers. UnlikeUnlike WebbWebb and Capp, who basedbased their their texts onon standardstandard stereotypesstereotypes ofof Southern Southern (as (as opposedopposed toto mountain) dialectdialect fromfrom vaudeville andand motion motion pictures,pictures, DeBeck DeBeck usedused dozens ofof mountain expressions such as "plime-"plime blank"blank" (meaning(meaning "exactly") "exactly") andand "a"a lavishlavish of'of' (meaning "a lotlot of') inin hishis work.work. HeHe eveneven introducedintroduced his audienceaudience toto unfamiliar mountain expressions byby incorporatingincorporating briefbrief definitionsdefinitions of of the the terms terms in in the the text text itself. itself. He He waswas farfar from from a astickler stickler for for absolute absolute accuracyaccuracy inin thethe useuse ofof dialectdialect andand freelyfreely blendedblended his own expressionsexpressions withwith authenticauthentic mountainmountain sayings, sayings, inventing inventing suchsuch famousfamous neologisms neologisms asas "discombooberated""discombooberated" (which(which hashas evolved intointo "discombobulated")"discombobulated"), " "time's-a-wastin'""time's-a-wastin'," "a"a leetleleetle tetchedtetched inin thethe haid,"haid ," "bodacious,""bodacious," and "balls o'0' fire"fire" (Inge(Inge 75). Nonetheless,Nonetheless, eveneven thethe phrases hehe coinedcoined had thethe ring of truthtruth to to many many readers readers who who couldcould notnot distinguishdistinguish

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6666

betweenbetween thethe actualactual and inventedinvented phrases.phrases. AA reporterreporter inin 1940,1940, forfor example,example, introducedintroduced a listlist ofof DeDeBeck'sBeck's famous famous phrases phrases from from the the strip strip as as "hillbilly "hillbilly lingo lingo (authentic(authentic and and otherwise)" otherwise)" ("Barney("Barney Google's Birthday" Birthday" 60). 60). DeBeck'sDeBeck's depictions depictions of of mountain mountain societysociety were also somewhatsomewhat moremore accurateaccurate andand sympathetic than either of his cartoonist peers. HisHis cabins, cabins, spinningspinning wheels,wheels, and costumes were were based based on on photographs photographs and and descriptions descriptions in in textstexts on on the the southern southern mountains mountains andand werewere designeddesigned primarily primarily toto be illustrativeillustrative ofof aa plain plain butbut honorable honorable lifestyle rather thanthan distorteddistorted toto presentpresent aa demeaningdemeaning portraitportrait of of a asavage savage society.society. InIn starkstark contrastcontrast to to Webb, Webb, whose whose figuresfigures barelybarely communicate,communicate, DeBeck's DeBeck's panelspanels overflowoverflow with colorful dialoguedialogue and his characterscharacters seemseem toto bebe genuinelygenuinely listening to one another rather thanthan merelymerely deliveringdelivering gaggag lines.lines. Further,Further, DeBeck DeBeck conveysconveys genuinegenuine emotionemotion andand pathospathos inin thethe budding budding relationshipsrelationships between hishis teenageteenage mountain mountain sweethearts, sweethearts, between between SnuffySnuffy and and Barney, Barney, and and even even between between SnuffySnuffy and and Lowizie. Lowizie. YetYet thethe verisimilitudeverisimilitude ofof hishis visionvision of mountainmountain life shouldshould not be overstated. overstated. DeBeck's DeBeck's primaryprimary focus as a cartoonist waswas always amusementamusement ratherrather than than cultural cultural edification edification and and he he played played aa leadingleading role in constructing aa broad-basedbroad-based public conception of of Southern Southern hillhill folkfolk as cartoonish figures.figures. He He alsoalso waswas instrumental inin freelyfreely blending blending Ozark Ozark and and Appalachian Appalachian settingssettings into into a a single single mythicalmythical geographicgeographic location. AlthoughAlthough thethe stripstrip was initiallyinitially set set in in the the North North Carolina Carolina mountains,mountains, characterscharacters inin anan earlyearly episodeepisode referrefer to ordering ordering store-bought store-bought clothes clothes from from the the nearby nearby big big city city of of"Little "Little Rock" Rock" - - inin reality, reality, 600 600 plus plus miles miles toto the the west. west. Such Such geographicgeographic confusion suggestssuggests thethe willingness willingness ofof bothboth DeBeck DeBeck (and(and otherother creators of thethe hillbillyhillbilly image)image) andand his his reading reading public public toto acceptaccept thethe conflationconflation ofof hundreds hundreds of of miles miles of of distance distance and and twotwo diversediverse culturescultures intointo a a homogenoushomogenous fantasy mountainmountain SouthSouth -- a a process process thatthat would would onlyonly accelerateaccelerate inin the work of AlAl Capp.1ICapp.11 Nor Nor did did DeBeck DeBeck ever eveneven hinthint at at the the large-scale large-scale economic economic and and social social changes changes in in actual actual mountaineers' mountaineers' lives. lives. Like Like Webb's Webb's and and Capp's Capp's hillbillies,hillbillies, DeBeck's DeBeck's characterscharacters remained largely outside of thethe larger larger economic economic nexus nexus beyond beyond thethe immediate immediate bordersborders of of their their "hollers." "hollers." He He diddid notnot acknowledgeacknowledge the the presence presence ofof extractiveextractive industries suchsuch as as coal coal mining mining or or lumbering lumbering or orthe the rise rise of of textile textile mills mills that that collectively collectively were were displacing displacing thousands thousands of ofpeople people and and radically radically transformingtransforming the lives ofof men andand women women throughout throughout the the southern southern mountains. mountains. NorNor wouldwould thethe strip's readers gain any sense of of the the wave of of wildcat strikes strikes that that were were spreading spreading throughout throughout the the region's region's mill mill towns towns in in the the 1930s. 1930s. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, unlikeunlike hishis peers,peers, hehe did present (at least initially)initially) anan atat leastleast plausible plausible mountainmountain communitycommunity wherewhere bothboth menmen andand womenwomen work the land,land, raise raise families, families, and and areare sociallysocially andand economically attached attached to to one one another.12 another.12

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6767

DeBeck'sDeBeck's moremore fullyfully developed portrayalportrayal of Southern mountainmountain lifelife and and society,society, however,however, did not translate into increased popularitypopularity withwith audiences.audiences. ToTo thethe contrary,contrary, his employer,employer, King Features Features Syndicate, Syndicate, urged urged that that thethe "atmosphere "atmosphere [he[he portrayed]portrayed] so so faithfully faithfully be be 'toned 'toned down'" down'" (Scheinfeld(Scheinfeld 142-3). 1 42-3). Fred Fred Lasswell, Lasswell, whowho assistedassisted DeBeckDeBeck beginning beginning inin 11934 934 andand replacedreplaced him him after after his his death death from from cancer cancer on on November November 11,111, 1942,942, recalled recalled later later that that the the "authentic "authentic mountainmountain dialect"dialect" was "rather"rather difficultdifficult forfor the the average average flatlanderflatlander toto readread andand understand."understand." EvenEven thoughthough DeBeck made made concerted concerted efforts efforts to to movemove awayaway fromfrom mountain mountain settings settings and and dialect, dialect, having having both both Barney Barney Google Google andand SnuffySnuffy Smith Smith join join thethe armedarmed forcesforces (Navy and and Army, Army, respectively)respectively) at at the the startstart of of the the United United States' States' involvementinvolvement inin World WarWar II,II, thethe strip'sstrip's popularity popularity continuedcontinued toto decline. decline. WhenWhen LasswellLasswell took took over over the the stripstrip in thethe earlyearly 1940s,1940s, JoeJoe Connolly, Connolly, head head ofof the the King King Features Features Syndicate, Syndicate, toldtold him:him: "Billy "Billy lostlost aa lotlot ofof client client papers papers and and if if the the trend trend continues, continues, we'll we'll have have to to drop drop it." it." Connolly Connolly urgedurged Lasswell Lasswell to "[k]eep"[kJeep thethe samesame general general look look and and flavor" flavor" initially initially and and thenthen "gradually "gradually inject inject your your own own ideas ideas and and your your own own characters." characters." Lasswell Lasswell did did justjust this,this, dropping dropping Barney Barney Google Google almostalmost entirelyentirely and and adding adding new new membersmembers ofof Snuffy's Snuffy 'sfamily family and and community. community. He He also also abandoned abandoned thethe authentic authentic dialect, dialect, insteadinstead workingworking toto broaden broaden hishis audienceaudience by following thethe dictum: "keep"keep it it folksy, folksy, with with a countrya country twang" twang" (Lasswell (Lasswell 17,17, 21).21). AndAnd he largely gavegave up on long-runninglong-running stories stories in in favor favor of of daily daily sight sight gags gags and and one-liners.one-liners. Ironically,Ironically, althoughalthough thethe stripstrip increasingly increasingly focused focused onon SnuffySnuffy SmithSmith andand hishis mountainmountain environs,environs, it it said said lessless andand less aboutabout thethe hillbillyhillbilly andand hishis placeplace in in society, society, becomingbecoming insteadinstead aa homespun vision ofof generic rusticrustic America.America. WhatWhat then then is is DeBeck's DeBeck's lastinglasting legacy?legacy? Certainly hehe waswas anan inspirationinspiration toto a a generation generation ofof cartoonistscartoonists whowho devoured his his workwork and and named named their their highest highest honorhonor inin hishis memory.memory. Barney Google Google and and Snuffy Snuffy Smith Smith, , too, too, thrived thrived for for the the halfhalf century century after after his his death death as asFred Fred Lasswell Lasswell rebuilt rebuilt a asubstantial substantial circulation circulation forfor Snuffy Snuffy Smith Smith over over the the following following decades decades (from(from 206206 newspapersnewspapers in in 1 1946 946 to to 542542 inin 19641964 toto 900900 inin 21 21 countriescountries by by 1989) 1989) (Walker(Walker 167). At the samesame time,time, though,though, alongalong withwith LiLi 'I'I Abner, Abner, thethe strip strip became became thethe focusfocus ofof muchmuch opposition,opposition, especiallyespecially withinwithin thethe southern mountains.mountains. Country Country music music star star Roy Roy Acuff, Acuff, for for instance,instance, refusedrefused toto participate participate inin thethe 1940 1940 HollywoodHollywood film film GrandGrand Ole Ole Opry Opry if if thethe studio studio "put "put in in a 'Snuffya 'Snuffy Smith-sloshwocker' Smith - sloshwocker' background" background" - - aa conditioncondition thethe studio studio eventuallyeventually acceptedaccepted ("Roy("Roy Acuff Acuff "). "). Although Although many many Southern Southern mountaineersmountaineers took the strip's characters asas clearlyclearly fictional fictional caricatures caricatures meant meant toto satirize satirize human,human, notnot regional,regional, foibles,foibles, toto othersothers thethe namename Snuffy Snuffy Smith Smith was was synonymoussynonymous withwith aa demeaningdemeaning portraitportrait ofof hillhill folksfolks forfor thethe amusement amusement ofof urbanites.urbanités. Regardless Regardless ofofhow how the the strip strip was was received, received, DeBeck, DeBeck, along along with with Capp Capp

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 68 68

and and Webb, Webb, solidifiedsolidified anan instantlyinstantly recognizable recognizable graphicgraphic imageimage of thethe hillbillyhillbilly that that has has survivedsurvived intointo thethe twenty-firsttwenty-first century,century, oneone that that unified unified derogatory derogatory conceptions conceptions ofof backwardness,backwardness, ignorance,ignorance, and savagery and positive ideas ofof ruggedness, ruggedness, independence,independence, and devotion toto familyfamily and home. More More broadlybroadly significant, perhaps,perhaps, isis thethe wayway DeBeck'sDeBeck's creativity creativity and and artistryartistry helped helped notnot justjust popularizepopularize butbut alsoalso culturally culturally legitimate legitimate the the American American comiccomic strip.strip. As As SeldesSeldes famously wrote inin 1924 inin "The 'Vulgar''Vulgar' Comic Comic Strip," "of"of all all thethe livelylively arts arts thethe ComicComic Strip Strip is is the the most most despised, despised, and and with with the the exception exception of of the the movies movies it it is isthe the most most popular." popular." Seldes's Seldes's defensedefense ofof the the medium medium againstagainst criticscritics whowho deemeddeemed it asas "a symptom of crass vulgarity, of of dulness dulness [sic],[sic], and, for allall I know,know, of defeated andand inhibitedinhibited lives"lives" was was almost almost uniqueunique for itsits time time and and an an opening opening salvosalvo in thethe breakingbreaking downdown of thethe notion notion of of distinct distinct hierarchically hierarchically constructed constructed levels levels of of culture culture (213). (213). Yet Yet such such distinctions distinctions fadedfaded to such aa degreedegree that that byby thethe 11960s 960s comiccomic strips strips themselves themselves could could bebe thethe subjectsubject andand inspiration for artistsartists in in the the previously previously categorized categorized "high "high art"art" field field of of painting, painting, including including Andy Andy Warhol, Warhol, RoyRoy LichtensteinLichtenstein and othersothers of of the the "Pop "Pop Art" Art" school school (Kammen,American (Kämmen, American CultureCulture 121-122).121-1 22). SuchSuch aa dramaticdramatic transformationtransformation was was rootedrooted inin largerlarger socialsocial and culturalcultural changes includingincluding thethe riserise ofof aa "middle"middle class" consumeristconsumerist society society and and the the steady steady declinedecline inin thethe distinction distinction betweenbetween advertised commercecommerce and and art, art, but but itit was also aa responseresponse to thethe growthgrowth ofof comicscomics (and mass mass culture culture in in general) general) into into a amulti- multi millionmillion dollardollar industry thatthat deeplydeeply penetrated all aspectsaspects of of AmericanAmerican society. society. WithWith his his move move fromfrom beaux-arts beaux-arts painterpainter toto cartoonist,cartoonist, pioneeringpioneering foraysforays intointo thethe commodification commodification ofof hishis characters,characters, innovativeinnovative wordplay,wordplay, andand constant reinventionreinvention of of his his work work to to match match the the changing changing social social and and cultural cultural landscape, landscape, BillyBilly DeBeckDeBeck was was certainly certainly an an instrumental instrumental playerplayer inin thisthis process.

NotesNotes

1DeBeck 'DeBeck alsoalso coinedcoined such such once once popular popular but but now now largely largely forgottenforgotten expressionsexpressions asas "So"So II took the $50,000,"$50,000," "the"the guyguy with thethe greengreen gloves," gloves," andand "OKMNX""OKMNX" (the (the last, last, a atake take off off on on thethe jokejoke about about an an immigrant immigrant dinerdiner who sayssays toto his his waiter waiter with with a athick thick accent accent "okay, "okay, ham ham and and eggs.") eggs.") (Walker(Walker 90).

2Walker's2Walker's bookbook offersoffers the the best best concise concise biographicalbiographical overviewoverview ofof DeBeck.DeBeck.

3For3For a a fullerfuller discussion discussion ofof thethe naturenature andand rolerole ofof African-AmericanAfrican-American stereotypesstereotypes inin comic comic stripsstrips andand AmericanAmerican and Western popular culture,culture, see Jones,Jones, Lott, Lott, and and Pieterse. Pieterse.

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 6969

4In4In the the same same years years DeBeck DeBeck was producingproducing BarneyBarney Google Google, , hehe alsoalso developeddeveloped two otherother strips,strips, the the short-lived short-lived Bughouse Bughouse Fables Fables andand thethe Sunday Sunday toppertopper cartoon cartoon (that (that was was printed printed above above hishis regularregular comiccomic strip)strip) Parlor,Parlor, BedroomBedroom andand Sink thatthat he he later later renamed renamed Bunky. Bunky. DeBeck DeBeck producedproduced the the latterlatter from from 1926 1926 to to 1942, 1942, andand itit was was continuedcontinued byby newnew artistartist Fred Fred Lasswell Lasswell untiluntil 1948 1948 (Walker,(Walker, 65).65).

5S5 nuSnuffyffy's usurpation's usurpation was was so so completecomplete thatthat even thethe title of thethe comiccomic stripstrip changed changed from from Barney Barney Google Google toto BarneyBarney Google andand Snuffy Snuffy Smith (on(on 24 24 OctoberOctober 1938) toto SnuffySnuffy SmithSmith (on(on 11 May 1942).1942). Currently, Currently, the the strip strip is is entitledentitled Barney Barney GoogleGoogle andand Snuffy Snuffy Smith although the former charactercharacter almostalmost nevernever appears.appears. All referencesreferences toto thethe texttext and artwork of thisthis comiccomic stripstrip come come from from the the episodes episodes published published six six days days a a week week inin the the Capital Capital TimesTimes (Madison,(Madison, Wisconsin) betweenbetween 11 JuneJune 1934 andand 11 FebruaryFebruary 1946.1946.

6Barney6Barney Google, Google, 1717 JuneJune 1934:1934: n.p.;n.p.; "Beyond hishis Knowledge!,"Knowledge!," 21 21 JuneJune 1934: 1934: 17;17; "Catching"Catching Up with History!,"History!," 2323 JulyJuly 1934:1934: 11.

7In7In a a 19401940 interview,interview, DeBeck DeBeck described his character asas a "moonshining,"moonshining, horsehorse-and and chicken-thievingchicken-thieving illiterate illiterate who who does does whatwhat hehe damndamn pleases,"pleases," but added, "you can'tcan't help help liking liking thethe littlelittle cuss" ("Barney("Barney Google'sGoogle's Birthday," 59-60; 59-60; BarneyBarney Google,Google, "An"An UnpleasantUnpleasant Encounter!,"Encounter!," 2828 Nov. Nov. 1934: 1934: 13).13).

8Barney%Barney Google, Google, "Snuffy "Snuffy Loses Loses Count!," Count!," 2626 Nov.Nov. 1935: 17;17; "Under"Under HisHis OwnOwn Steam!,"Steam!," 1616 Dec.Dec. 1935:1935: 13;13; "Too "Too Close Close for for Comfort," Comfort," 1212 Apr.Apr. 1938: 1938: 15.

9The9The term term "benighted "benighted South" South" comes comes from from Tindall. Tindall. See See also also Hobson, Hobson, Jr.Jr. A A representative representative sample sample of of Mencken's Mencken's viewpointviewpoint isis hishis "The"The Sahara ofof thethe Bozart."Bozart."

lODorman's10Dorman's bookbook offers thethe bestbest overviewoverview of thethe entireentire movement.movement. ForFor anan analysisanalysis ofof thethe competingcompeting approachesapproaches ofof advocatesadvocates of of a a regionally regionally distinctdistinct folk folk culture culture and and those those touting touting a a unified unified national national culture,culture, seesee Kammen,Kämmen, MysticMystic ChordsChords ofofMemory, Memory, ch.ch. 13.13.

IlBarneynBarney Google, Google, "Surprise "Surprise Packages!," Packages!," 88 Aug. Aug. 1934: 1934: 13.13.

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 7070

12For12For overviews overviews ofofthe the dramatic dramatic changes changes inin Appalachia Appalachia in in thethe twentieth century,century, see see Eller Eller and and Williams. Williams.

WorksWorks CitedCited

"Barney"Barney Google'sGoogle's Birthday: Birthday: He'sHe's 2 21 1 Now but but Sadly EclipsedEclipsed by by the the Toughie SnuffySnuffy Smith." Smith." Newsweek Newsweek 14 14 October October 1940:1940: 60.60.

Batteau,Batteau, Alan.Alan. TheThe InventionInvention ofofAppalachia. Appalachia. Tucson: UU ofof Arizona P,P, 1990.

Berchtold,Berchtold, William William E.E. "Men"Men of Comics." New New Outlook Outlook April April 1935:1935: 34-40. 34-40.

Dorman,Dormán, RobertRobert L.L. Revolt of thethe Provinces:Provinces: TheThe RegionalistRegionalist Movement Movement inin America.America. ChapelChapel Hill: UU ofof North North Carolina P,P, 1993.

Dumenil,Dumenil, Lynn.Lynn. TheThe ModernModern Temper: AmericanAmerican Culture and Society in the 1920s.1920s. NewNew York: Farrar, StrausStraus andand Giroux,Giroux, 1995.1995.

Eller, Eller, Ronald Ronald D.D. Miners, Millhands andand Mountaineers: Mountaineers: The The Modernization Modernization ofof the the Appalachian Appalachian South, South, 1880-1930. 1880-1930. Knoxville: UU of of Tennessee Tennessee P, P, 1981. 1981.

"The "The FunnyFunny Papers." Papers." Fortune Fortune April April 1933: 1933: 44-49. 44-49.

"Funny"Funny Strips:Strips: Cartoon-Drawing Cartoon-Drawing isis BigBig Business;Business; EffectsEffects on Children Debated." Debated." LiteraryLiterary Digest Digest 12 12 December December 1936: 1936: 18-19.18-19.

Goulart, Goulart, Ron. Ron. "Barney "Barney Google." Google." EncyclopediaEncyclopedia of American American Comics.Comics. NewNew York: York: Facts Facts onon File,File, 1990.21.1990. 21.

Harkins, Harkins, Anthony. Anthony. Hillbilly: Hillbilly: A A Cultural Cultural History History of ofan an American American Icon. Icon. New New York: York: OxfordOxford U U P,P, 2004. 2004.

Hartzell, Hartzell, ScottScott Taylor.Taylor. "Cartoonist"Cartoonist had more Fame than than mostmost havehave' 'ever ever seed'." seed' ." St. St. Petersburg Petersburg Times Times 22 22 November November 2000.2000.

News/112200/SouthPinellas/Cartoonist News/1 12200/SouthPinellas/Cartoonist_had_more_f.shtml>-- had more- f.shtml>

Hobson, Hobson, Jr.,Jr., Fred Fred C. C. Serpent Serpent in in Eden: Eden: HL. H.L. MenckenMencken andand thethe South.South. ChapelChapel Hill: Hill: UU ofof NorthNorth Carolina Carolina P,P, 1974. 1974.

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 7171

Inge,Inge, M.M. Thomas.Thomas. "Sut Lovingood and and Snuffy Snuffy Smith."Smith." ComicsComics as as Culture. Culture. Jackson:Jackson: UP U P of of Mississippi, Mississippi, 1990.69-77.1990. 69-77.

Jones,Jones, Steven Steven Loring. Loring. "From "From 'Under 'Under Cork' Cork' to to Overcoming: Overcoming: Black Black Images Images inin thethe Comics." Comics." EthnicEthnic ImagesImages inin the Comics.Comics. Ed.Ed. CharlesCharles Hardy Hardy and and GailGail F.F. Stern.Stern. Philadelphia:Philadelphia: The BalchBalch Institute Institute forfor Ethnic Studies, 1986.21-30. 1986. 21-30.

Kammen,Kämmen, Michael.Michael. American Culture AmericanAmerican Tastes:Tastes: Social Change Change and and th thethe 20 20thCentury. Century. New New York: York: Alfred Alfred A. A. Knopf, Knopf, 1999. 1999.

-. - . Mystic ChordsChords of Memory.Memory. New New York:York: Vintage,Vintage, 1991.1991.

Lasswell, Lasswell, Fred.Fred. "Billy,"Billy, Barney,Barney, SnuffySnuffy & & Me." Me." CartoonistCartoonist PROfilesPROfiles JuneJune 1994: 1994:10-21. 10-21.

Lott,Lott, Eric. Eric. LoveLove andand Theft -- BlackfaceBlacliface Minstrelsy Minstrelsy and and the the American American Working Working Class.Class. New York: Oxford U P, 1993.

MacKaye, MacKaye, Percy.Percy. "Untamed"Untamed America:America: AA CommentComment onon aa SojournSojourn in thethe KentuckyKentucky Mountains,"Mountains," SurveySurvey 5151 (1(1 January 1924):1924): 327;327; quoted quoted in in Shapiro.Shapiro.

Markstein,Markstein, Don. Don. "Barney"Barney Google."Google." Toonopedia.Toonopedia. 12 12 January January 2006. 2006.

Mencken,Mencken, H.L.H.L. "The"The Sahara of thethe Bozart." Bozart." Prejudices:Prejudices: SecondSecond Series. Series. New New York:York: Octagon Octagon Books, Books, 1920. 1920. 136-54.136-54.

Pieterse,Pieterse, Jan Jan Nederveen. Nederveen. White White on on Black Black - - ImagesImages ofof Africa Africa andand BlacksBlacks in Western Western Popular Popular Culture. Culture. New New Haven:Haven: Yale UU P,P, 1992.

Rodell,Rodell, Fred.Fred. "Everybody "Everybody Reads Reads the the Comics." Comics." Esquire Esquire March March 1945:1945: 50-50- 51.51.

Rose,Rose, Billy.Billy. "Barney"Barney Google."Google." NewNew York: York: RemickRemick Music Music Corporation, Corporation, 1923. 1923.

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 72 72

"Roy "Roy AcuffAcuff Not Not a aHillbilly Hillbilly Singer." Singer." Columbus Columbus (Georgia)(Georgia) Ledger,Ledger, 2020 July 1950. 1 950. Arthur Arthur Satherly Satherly Papers, Papers, Country Country Music Music Foundation, Foundation, Nashville, Nashville, Tennessee.Tennessee.

Scheinfeld, Scheinfeld, Amram. Amram. "A"A PortraitPortrait in in Zowie!" Zowie!" Esquire NovemberNovember 1935: 1935: 142- 142- 3. 3.

Seldes,Seldes, Gilbert.Gilbert. "The "The 'Vulgar''Vulgar' Comic Strip."Strip." TheThe Seven Lively Arts.Arts. NewNew York: York: HarperHarper & & BrothersBrothers Publishers,Publishers, 1924.1924.

Shapiro,Shapiro, Henry Henry D. D. Appalachia Appalachia on OurOur MindMind -- TheThe SouthernSouthern Mountains and MountaineersMountaineers inin the the American American Consciousness, Consciousness, 1870-1920. 1870-1920. ChapelChapel Hill: Hill: UniversityUniversity of of North North Carolina Carolina Press, Press, 1978. 1978.

Sheridan, Sheridan, Martin. Martin. Comics Comics and and their their Creators. Creators. Boston: Boston: Hale, Hale, CushmanCushman && Flint, Flint, 1942.1942.

"Sprightly "Sprightly Comics Comics ReallyReally Middle-Aged."Middle- Aged." EditorEditor andand PublisherPublisher 21 JulyJuly 1934: 1934: 306.306.

Susman, Susman, Warren.Warren. "Culture "Culture and and Civilization: Civilization: The TheNineteen-Twenties." Nineteen-Twenties." Culture as as History.History. New New York,York, Pantheon,Pantheon, 1984.1984.

Thompson,Thompson, Lovell.Lovell. "America's Day-Dream." Day-Dream." Saturday Saturday Review Review of of LiteratureLiterature 13 13 November November 1937:1937: 3-4, 16.

Tindall, Tindall, George George B. B. "The"The Benighted South:South: OriginsOrigins ofof aa ModemModern Image."Image." Virginia Virginia Quarterly Quarterly Review Review 40 40 (1964): (1964): 281-94.

Walker,Walker, Brian. Brian. BarneyBarney GoogleGoogle andand Snuffy SnuJlj; SmithSmith -- 7575 YearsYears ofofAn An American American Legend.Legend. WiltonWilton CT: CT: ComicanaComicana Books andand OhioOhio StateState UniversityUniversity Libraries, Libraries, 1994.1994.

Williams, Williams, JohnJohn Alexander. Alexander. Appalachia: Appalachia: A History. Chapel Hill:Hill: UU of of North North CarolinaCarolina P,P, 2002.2002.

This content downloaded from 128.239.122.246 on Tue, 28 Jun 2016 16:26:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms