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Home , Ent, Faramir, Vala (Middle-earth)

Analysis The History of Middle-earth: from a Mythology for England to a Recovery of the Real Earth Christopher Garbowski

ne of J.R.R. Tolkien's great Parallels with the pro­ joined with the fortunes and mis­ Oambitions was to have The fortunes of the , in their Lord of the Rings and The Silmar- cess of creation combined struggle with , illion published together. This in found in the work of for the remainder of the Second fact delayed the publication of the contemporary philoso­ Age. After their costly self- former, since Allen & Unwin, satisfaction with apparent victory, who had originally instigated the phers the struggle resumes for the full trilogy and were willing to risk extent of the Third Age, wherein the publication of this unusual are set The and The Lord book, were not surprisingly un­ conflagration with are o f the Rings. The former was prepared for the additional publi­ rewarded with an Eden-like is­ independently conceived, but cation of what seemed to be an land residence set between the turned out to be essential in the altogether obscure work. In an “uttermost West” - , the history of Middle-earth: undated letter (probably from late residence of the Valar - and As the high Legends o f the begin­ 1951) to Milton Waldman, a dif­ Middle-earth, while the elves ning are supposed to look at ferent potential publisher, the au­ who do not leave Middle-earth things through Elvish minds, so thor presented a vision of his exercise a kind of ‘antiquarian the middle tale o f the mythology. custodian function’ in the lands takes a virtually human point o f Tolkien starts by stating his orig­ they control. Meanwhile the for­ view - and the last tale binds inal motivation of creating a large mer vassal of Morgoth, Sauron, them. 3 mythology dedicated to England, grows in power, finding ways of The vision Tolkien cogently set which he felt to be missing in the undermining first the strength of out in the letter is basically the tradition of his beloved country. the elves in Middle-earth and fi­ story that readers of The Silmaril­ The cosmogonical myth, he con­ nally the nearly invincible men of lion, and the trilogy tinues, introduces God and the the West. Tempting them with will recognize. For those who Valar, the latter as “beings of the immortality Sauron convinces the take this as the whole story, there same order of beauty, power and Numenoreans to break the ban of is a major flaw: the former was majesty as the ‘gods’ of higher the Valar and the latter tragically and remained to the end of the mythology.”1 The cycle then pro­ assault Valinor, the forbidden author’s life a great, unfulfilled ceeds to the history of the elves, realm. Numenor is destroyed by project. As is fairly well known. “or proper,” and direct intervention of Iluvatar, the The Silmarillion as it was pub­ the latter’s great accomplish­ one God (aside from the original lished constituted an edited com­ ments and travails. Slowly men creation of the world and the sub­ pilation from different versions of arc introduced in the First Age of sequent creation of his children, the of the ‘Elder Days’ (as the Sun, wherein ‘history’, as the Elves and Humans, this is the they came to be known upon the such, or a regular chronology be­ only such miracle in the mythol­ publication of LOTR. Moreover, gins, and together through the ogy) who changes the shape of the letter gives the false impres­ agency of Earendil, who repre­ the world to a globe and sion that each phase has been sents both ‘races’, they induce the “(thereafter there is no visible given equal treatment in the leg- assistance of the Valar to cast out dwelling of the divine or immor­ endarium. the fallen Morgoth, the per­ tal on earth. Valinor (i.e. par­ Following the publication of The petrator of the major woes of both adise) and even Eressea are re­ History o f Middle-earth series by races, into the Void. moved, remaining only in the , we have a The next cycle, or ‘Second Age,’ memory of the earth.”2 A few detailed record of the creative deals with the history of the castaway Numenoreans make process by which this mythical ‘Atlantis’ isle of Numenore their way to Middle-earth, setting world arose. Since there is no where the men who helped in the up kingdoms, and their history is definitive version of the mythol­

21 Mallorn XXXVII

ogy of Middle-earth, in a sense respondingly - were never actu­ ‘foresaw’ was that a person each part belongs to the corpus, ally completed and fizzle out to­ would achieve nothing upon with all its strengths and weak­ ward an earlier poetic core. gaining, access to Aman since his nesses. It might also be argued Around 1931 a major narrative own mortality would not be that for many the sum is worth change took place in the Silmaril- changed, indeed more than the total of the literary lion mythology. While ‘Tales’, he would become filled with envy, merit of its parts. Especially if we are oral, ‘Quenta Noldoriwa’ - deeming himself a victim, denied look at the question from a the only complete version of the the graces given to all other Franklian perspective. According Silmarillion mythology - is rather things. (...) He would not escape to Viktor E. Frank!4, “each is like a medieval chronicle. As an the fear and sorrow o f his swift questioned by life; and he can immediate consequence, the mortality that is his lot upon only answer to life, by answering mythology acquires the - Earth, in Arda Marred, but would for his own life.” centred perspective Tolkien be burdened by it unbearably to A major part of the artist’s re­ refers to, as opposed to tales re­ the loss o f all delight.1 sponse to life is his creativity. counted to a human listener con- Hardly the best place for Frodo The passion with which Tolkien tempory with Arthur. Conceptu­ and eventually Sam, who make responded to his creative need ally, this is a move away from - their way there at the conclusion and the perfection he demanded though not a complete sundering of the trilogy, to have gained a of himself demonstrates to what with ‘a mythology for England.’ rest from their psychological bur­ a great extent he “answered for Jósef Lichanski suggests it is not dens as Ring bearers. his life” through his art. Indeed, a coincidence that the author had Out of the welter of texts - often the author5 claimed of his major more or less simultaneously com- fragmentary and of very mixed effort The Lord o f the Rings, “[i]t literary worth - arises at once an is written in my life-blood, such alternative world and one that is as it is, thick or thin; and I can no '... for many the sum is very much our own. A new or other.” worth more than the total o f revised geography and imaginary The earlest version of the Silmar- the literary merit o f its history grows with practically each version. Over the years illion mythology - started shortly parts. ’ after the author’s experiences in Middle-earth undergoes a growth the trenches of the First World in almost all fields of human War arose from a number of ker­ pleted the first version of thought and perception: geo­ nel stories which were originally Mythopceia, Tolkien's philosophi­ graphical, historical, philosophi­ loosely sutured together. The ear­ cal poem concerning the “sub- cal and aesthetic At the very least, liest component story itself per­ creative” urge of humanity. In with the number of genres that mitted such a construction; a other words, the author becomes are explored to convey it (novel, mortal sailor named Eriol - more interested in the cosmologi­ verse, fictional essay, etc., with a roughly from Beowulfian times - cal aspect of his mythology;6 ap­ children's story to boot!), to the reaches an enchanted island of proximately a movement from the chagrin of the traditional literary elves (which in one of the au­ particular (national), to the uni­ critic, this world has broken out thor's conceptions is eventually versal. of the convention of the closed to become England), where Almost at the very end of his text. through a succession of tales re­ creative life, Tolkien wrote fic­ Lichanski gives the writing of counted to him he learns the com­ tional essays that in theory were as the turning point plicated history of Middle-earth. to help him rewrite the entire in the development of Silmaril­ Thus the history, eventually pub­ opus. Sometimes these reflections lion mythology. A serious exami­ lished in two volumes as The if taken seriously change the nation of Middle-earth must in­ Book of Lost Tales grows out of sense of completed works. Con­ clude a look at the author’s con­ an oral tradition which naturally sider the nature of Aman (the cept of myth. Maria Kuteeva ob­ enough focuses on certain high geographical location of Valinor) serves of Tolkien’s thinking as to points, or ‘tales’. The Tales, how­ where the immortal Valar and the origin of myth, that “he gener­ ever, although worked upon ex­ Eldar, or high elves, live: Tolkien ally relates it to the origins of tensively, as each new tale re­ reflected on what a mortal would language and the human mind,” quired some integration into the feel if he happened to live in this which brings him into line with whole and affected the latter cor­ blessed realm. The problem he some of Ernst Cassirer’s ideas,

22 The History of Middle-earth ... for whom... most interesting is his creative his elegant concerning Language and myth stand in an use of inheritance at virtually ev­ the poet and the latter's indissoluble correlation with one ery step of its creation: e.g. elves, use of older traditions to create a another, from which both emerge dwarves, etc. , who ‘tower’. “[F]rom the top of that but gradually as independent ele­ has done the most significant re­ tower,” Tolkien informs us, “the ments. They are two diverse search on this facet of the au­ man had been able to look out shoots from the same parent thor’s work, says14 in regard to upon the sea.”16 stem, the same impulse o f sym­ the elves of Middle-earth, “the The question arises - what did bolic formation, springing from strong point in Tolkien’s ‘re­ Tolkien see from the top of his the same mental activity, a con­ creations’ [is] that they take in all tower? We might start by consid­ centration and heightening o f available evidence, trying to ex­ ering in turn the higher and lower simple sensory experience.8 plain both good and bad sides of aspects of myth for the author. As Tolkien9 phrases it, “The in­ popular story; the sense of in­ There is something of Keats’ carnate mind, the tongue, and the quiry, prejudice, heresay and con­ “Beauty is truth, truth is beauty” tale are in our world coeval.” flicting opinion often give,the in Tolkien’s thinking. Recognis­ Thus if you have a habit of creat­ elves (and other races) depth." ing that beauty gave no guarantee ing languages, one of the earliest There is, however, a hierarchy of truth, he nonetheless felt it to passions of this author, naturally the elements. Tolkien stresses be “concommitent of truth.”17 Al­ enough “your language construc­ that diffusion (borrowing in though he knew beauty could be tion will breed a mythology.”10 space) and inheritance connected with evil, he also Tolkien’s dominant artistic con­ (borrowing in time) are in the end stated,18 rather enigmatically, that cept, which he largely inherited dependent on invention. Inven­ presently “goodness is itself from the Romantic tradition, is tion is largely dependant on the bereft rather of its proper beauty.” that which he called sub-creation. imagination. For Tolkien the One aspect of his mature art that According to the concept the reli­ imagination of the artist is only he felt was an expression of gious artist imitates his Creator different in degree to that of an­ beauty aiming at truth was the by imagining his own world. Ac­ other person; it is the faculty of , or ‘eucatastrophe’. cording to the author" “God is imagination in itself that is really Eucatastrophe is indicative of a the Lord, of , and of Men desire for the ‘good’, which is - and of elves" i.e. of the author's itself a fact even if it proves art. Thus at one level the act of ‘... it is the faculty o f imagi­ unattainable. Much as Tolkien creating is an invitation to an nation in itself that is really writes19 concerning ‘inward I-Thou relationship with the most amazing. ’ peace’ to his son during world enriching Other. war II: ‘If you cannot achieve Hardly surprising in this process inward peace, and it is given to is the modem mentality clashing few to do so (least of all to me) in in the artist with cultural tradi­ amazing. Not many clues are tribulation, do not forget that the tion. For instance, by his own given as to how imagination inspiration it is not a vanity, but a admission12 he describes the tran­ works. Among the few hints that concrete act.’ sition from a flat world to a globe he gives, it seems that for the At the of lower level, myth gains in his mythology, as “an in­ author “the invention of the ad­ relevance by f acing the question evitable transition, I suppose to a jective was a great step in the of the “”, connected inti­ modern ‘myth-maker’ with a evolution of mythical grammar.”8 mately, although not solely, to the mind subjected to the same In Tolkien’s words15, “The mind problem of evil. Surprisingly af­ ‘appearances’ as ancient men, that thought of light, heavy, grey, ter the experiences of Auschwitz and partly fed on their myths, but yellow, swift, also conceived of and the Gulag Archipalago, evil taught that the Earth was round magic that would make heavy is not rarely rationalized and from the earliest years.” things light and able to fly, turn treated as if it were a human In Tolkien’s analysis, the major grey lead into yellow gold, and invention or construct, the subse­ elements which go into the cre­ the still rock into a swift water”. quent intellectual attitude being: ation of stories are indepen­ Yet in practice the three elements ‘ are made, not given. dent invention, inheritance and are not simply separated, but are And if monsters are made, they diffusion.13 Although diffusion is combined for a specific purpose. can be unmade, too.’20 Nor was not absent in his Middle-earth, Tolkien pointedly argues this in Tolkien free of this temptation; in

23 Mallorn XXXVII

Farmer Giles o f Ham the presence to the worm; and he alas, everyone the poorer, many is finally tamed by Giles. The laughed aloud22 bereaved or maimed and millions story tends towards a rather typi­ Although nothing in the descrip­ dead, and only one thing tri­ cal contemporary children’s story tion goes against mythic sources, umphant: the Machines. where the monster is eventually the two main elements here could In LOR itself ancient literary mollified. almost be taken as a stenographic sources merge with modem expe­ Obviously Tolkien does not offer short-hand from memories or per­ rience. For instance, an echo of a solution to the problem of evil, haps nightmares of the war re­ Beowulf can be surmised in a a task beyond the scope of any cently experienced, the defoliated particular incident from the siege art. The point is in his not rela- wasteland and the panic caused of Minis Tirith where the enemy tivising it. Although identifying by a gas attack. These elements flings captured heads over the the monster in Middle-earth is not are expanded in reworkings of walls of the besieged city in order that simple, undoubtedly a vital the Turin story. Here, shortly af­ to dishearten its defenders: element is the evil of war. One of ter the fact, it is almost as if the They were grim to look on (...). the few personal experiences trauma they remind him of is too But marred and dishonoured as Tolkien admitted to having af­ close to be treated in greater de­ they were, it often chanced that fected his most important work tail. The theme of the story of thus a man would see again the was the horror of the First World Turin likewise matches the in­ face o f someone that he had War. Not without reason Brian ternecine nature and moral ambi­ known, who had walked proudly Rosebury21 claims of the trilogy guity of the first world war. once in arms, or tilled the fields, that “[i]t might indeed be seen in ‘The Fall of Gondolin’ presents or ridden upon a holiday from the certain respects as the last work a different aspect of the war. On green vales in the hills24 of first world War literature, pub­ the one hand, quite against the In the Anglo-Saxon epic25 the lished almost forty years after the of trench warfare, we have company with Beowulf on the war ended.” trail of Grendel’s mother comes Moreover, Tolkien never forgot across a grisly sight on a sea-cliff what he called the ‘animal horror’ ‘ The theme o f the story o f “Of slaughtered Aischere’s sev­ of trench warfare. A number of Turin likewise matches the ered head.” The source seems the Lost Tales were written internecine nature and clear enough, yet the differences shortly after his experiences on moral ambiguity o f the first are striking. I’he head from the the front and seem to bear the world war. ’ epic is Hrothgar’s good friend, an freshest traces of his impressions. identifiable person of high status. One of the key scenes in The twentieth century novel pre­ “Turambar and the Foaloke” human bravery brought to the sents numerous all but anony­ (later Turin Turambar) portrays fore (cf. Shippey), on the other mous disfigured visages which the confrontation of a select band hand, a sophisticated war ma­ have met their postmortem fate of warrior elves, together with chine appears. In retrospect the through mechanical means. The Turin's mother and sister, with episode seems almost like a resultant effects from the cata­ the dragon Foaloke. Some of the nightmarish prophesy of world pults of the ores require little passages, although brief, are quite war II. Some of the weapons in­ imagination to transform into the telling: “Now was the band volved are reminiscent of tanks, shrapnel or any number of maul­ aghast as they looked upon the which is quite interesting since ing tools of total warfare. region from afar, yet they pre­ tanks were actually used by the Where is the embodiment of the pared for battle.” The dragon Allies in WWI: proof that the war monster in Tolkien’s mature comes out to meet the attackers, horror of war had greater impact art? Although there are many ter­ but instead of doing battle an­ on the sensitive artist than being ror inspiring creatures in The other tactic is used: on the right side. This is con­ Lord o f the Rings, the ones most Straightway great fog and firmed in a letter to his son during suitable for such a role in the steams leapt up and and a WWII, one that casts a good deal ‘War of the Machines’ of modem stench was mingled therein, so of light on The Lord o f the Rings, warfare are the more mundane that that band was whelmed in where Tolkien23 writes: ores. Rather than some impres­ vapours and well-nigh stifled, Well, the War o f the Machines sive creature, the ores represent and they crying to one another seems to be drawing to its final the horde, or collective monster in the mist displayed their inconclusive chapter - leaving, of total warfare; wielders of the

24 The History of Middle-earth ... catapults, they themselves were from introducing the hobbits, the for sending ‘hobbits’ - a vision of cogs in the machine. Critics have book changed the tone of the a simple and calculable people in pointed to the ores as the weak mythology; it seems Tolkien had simple and long-settled circum­ point of Tolkien's mythology and gained enough inner strength to stances - on a journey far from the author himself toiled over ra­ listen to the child within. This settled home into strange lands tionalizing their existence in contributed to his overcoming his and dangers." Middle-earth, but if the elves are longstanding artistic pessimism. There is an axiological signifi­ the embodiment of certain posi­ Artistic optimism requires exis­ cance to the unexplored vistas tive human characteristics, ores tential support to avoid sentimen­ which the prose of the trilogy are symbolic of the process of tality. At the very core of our constantly suggests. Different dehumanization - dehumaniza­ existence we feel the unique qual­ vistas suggest that whichever way tion in the direction of the Ma­ ity of our own life. Frankl4 ac- you go, there are subsequently chine. knowleges this intuition, stress­ many roads you will not take, Rosebury21 * has written fairly ac­ ing its task-oriented nature. many things you will not see. The curately of The Silmarillion that “Everyone has his own specific problem arises: which road do “[t]he earlier mythical writings vocation or mission in life; every­ you take? have (...) an insistent, almost pa­ one must carry out a concrete The gravity of the decision is all gan, pessimism, and a surpris­ assignment that demands fulfill­ the more important in that the ingly grim level of violence, ment. Therein he cannot be re­ journey thus understood suggests which darken, indeed come close placed, nor can his life be re­ the course of self- transcendence. to undermining, the affirmative peated.” says of the that theistic universe they postulate.” However that may be, much in they “are more like Elves: less Many factors, biographical and our own experience tends to deny interested in themselves then otherwise, may have contributed the feeling of this exceptional Men are, and better at getting to such a tone in his earlier work. inside other things.”29 Simi­ Tolkien was, after all, orphaned larly, self-transcendence is pro­ early in life. Nonetheless the ‘...the earlier mythical writ­ pelled less by greater self- mark of the war experience, still awareness than by more profound ings have an insistent, al­ evident in the trilogy so many external-awareness. Too much most pagan, pessimism, and years after the event, seems un- self-awareness can even be a hin­ mistakeable. a surprisingly grim level o f drance; according to Frankl30 the Yet if the malice of war is one of violence... ’ self should be like an eye, an the primary monsters of the organ that is only aware of itself Middle-earth mythology, it is not when suffering a visual defect necessarily the main concern. characteristic of life. For in­ and “[t]he more the eye sees it­ Moreover, as mentioned, a differ­ stance, people in known circum­ self, the less the world and its concept makes itself felt in- stances are often (though not al­ objects are visible to it.” LOR - eucatastrophe, “the sudden ways) all too predictable. W. H. This is one of the reasons joyous turn”26 rescues optimism Auden27 similarly claims that Tolkien’s heroes seem so simple from an undercurrent of pes­ most lives are usually static: (although they are more complex simism in the novel. If I (...) try to look at the world as than meets the eye). The hobbits, The concept is introduced theo­ if I were the lens o f a camera, I for instance, display a number of retically in the lecture of 1939 On observe that the vast majority o f characteristics, such as curiosity, Fairy Stories. No doubt there is a people have to earn their living in which help them get “inside other connection - suggested already by a fixed place, and that journeys things” From the Franklian per­ Rosebury - between the theory are confined to people on holiday spective one might risk saying and the earlier practice in The or with independent means. these heroes are not traditional Hobbit, which was written with Certainly people are more mo­ pre-, but rather post-psych­ children in mind. What marks this bile now than when Auden wrote oanalytical characters. The pro- story off from other children’s his observation, but the gist of the foundest meaning of can stories Tolkien had written earlier argument remains valid. It is in only be understood by relating it was its greater inclusion of ele­ response to just this criticism that to the individual protagonist. Ac­ ments of the Silmarillion mythol­ Tolkien28 himself plausibly cording to Frankl,31 the prime ogy. The story reciprocated: aside replied: “That is another reason motivation a person possesses.

25 Mallorn XXXVII above that of his instincts or a power, i.e. to the factor that anni­ will not be the same. 1 am desire to control his/her environ­ hilates their individuality and wounded with knife, sting, and ment, is the will to meaning. And makes them uniform; even Frodo tooth, and a long burden. Where in finding meaning “we are per­ eventially calls the Ring shall 1 find rest?"M ceiving a possibility embedded in 'precious’. , to whom the question reality.” Tolkien’s protagonists Conversely, Sam serves his mas­ was addressed, does not answer demonstrate three major roads to ter even when he ostensibly be­ because he seems to realize that discovering sense: purposeful ac­ trays him. , to whom this no one else can provide the sense tion, service, and suffering, em­ ‘betrayal’ was made, comforts the in suffering for you: you must bodied primarily by , servant: “Your heart is shrewd as find your own sense. Eventually Sam Gamgee and Frodo. well as faithful, and saw clearer Frodo does find meaning in his In his active quest Aragom than your eyes.”33 This way he suffering. He realizes the sacri­ demonstrates that freedom means wins him unlooked for, but cru­ fice of his personal happiness has accepting responsibility. He ac­ cial assistance. Ultimately, helped others, moreover, he de­ cepts ’s task in regard to Sam’s deep empathy with his votes his time to writing (perhaps his love, a task ureason- master allows him to get inside an autobiographical element can able at one level, yet which ulti­ the other, and thus enlarge him­ be detected here). mately requires him to become self. Of the three roads to meaning, fully himself. Throughout his has been called Frodo’s suffering provides the greatest quest Aragorn shows the differ­ alter ego; more accurately, the challenge. Nonetheless, if it is not ent qualities of emotional intelli­ possible to attain, then meaning is gence needed to do what is hu­ ‘Myth is not entertainment, lost in the other roads as well. manly possible under the circum­ but rather the crystalliza­ Frankl35 validates the meaning stances. tion o f experience, and far Frodo has found for himself: The Jane Nitzche32 suggestively com­ from being escapist litera­ way in which a man accepts his pares the ‘gold’ of Bilbo’s poem fate and all the suffering it en­ ture, is an intensifi­ - i.e. Aragom - to the false gold of tails, the way in which he takes up cation o f reality ’. the Ring. Throughout the trilogy his cross, gives him ample oppor­ Sauron is never in possession of tunity - even under the most diffi­ the Ring while Aragom has it characters illustrate the difference cult circumstances - to add a within his reach for lengthy peri­ between suffering which eventu­ deeper meaning to his life. ods; Aragom becomes the true ally leads to meaning and the The arguments presented to this Lord of the Ring by rejecting it. existential vacuum which denies point have hopefully given some Through what Frankl calls para­ it. There are roughly three major credence to Alan Gamer’s36 as­ doxical intention, he becomes phases to Frodo’s suffering. The sertion, that “the elements of ‘true’ gold. first is after experiencing the myth work deeply and are power­ There is a relatively clear rela­ wound on Weathertop, when he ful tools. Myth is not entertain­ tionship between service and self suffers in the manner of those ment, but rather the crystalliza­ -transcendence. Needless to say, with an illness. Further on, when tion of experience, and far from service must be voluntary. The Frodo enters and his bur­ being escapist literature, fantasy glaring contrast of Sam’s service den is heaviest, his road is largely is an intensification of reality”. with that of Gollum’s illustrates patterned on the Via Dolorosa This intensification of reality is this: the latter also enters Frodo’s (Sam takes the part of Simon the more than a little related to its service, but on the basis of an Cyrenean at times). The last defamiliarization; the alternative oath. This particular oath de­ phase of his suffering, where any world reflects back on the well pended on power. Gollum swears semblance of a quest is gone, is known one. “The elvishness of by the Ring, the embodiment of more subtle: after his traumatic the elves,” Tom Shippey37 so power in the trilogy. Frodo and experiences Frodo realizes that he aptly phrases it, “is meant to re­ Gollum have an uncanny under­ can never be like other people. flect back on the humanity of standing of each other; this un­ On his return journey he com­ man.” derstanding is partially positive plains: Tolkien’s art, however, differs (both have suffered on account of “There is no real going back. from the avante-garde artist’s the Ring) yet primarily based on Though I may come to , concept of making the their common relationship to it will not seem the same, for I strange, since the latter tends to The History of Middle-earth view reality as a construct, words “If I take man as he is, I cold, the thought pierced him that whereas Tolkien is inclined to make him worse; if I take him as in the end the Shadow was only a treat the world as real. The author he ought to be, I make him be­ small and passing thing: there makes the point in On Fairy Sto­ come what he can be.”40 was light and high beauty for ries that fantasy, which for him is Tolkien’s concept, however, is ever beyond its reach. virtually synonomous with art, not purely anthropocentric, so At this juncture fantasy and con­ depends on the reader’s possess­ that it includes implications for centration camp literature briefly ing a clear cognition of the differ­ ecological awareness. meet. The above passage is remi­ ence between the created and the Much of my analysis of niscent of those in Frankl’s mem­ real world. Tolkien's fantasy has been based oirs “Experiences in a Concentra­ Yet this ‘real’ world must be on concepts taken from Viktor E. tion Camp” (in his Man’s Search seen for the amazing creation it Frankl’s existential analysis. Per­ for Meaning) where he speaks of is. A sceptic of says to haps it is more than a coincidence the hope prisoners gained from Aragom: “Do we walk in legends that some of the ideas of the latter the beauty of the sunset, the or on the green earth in the day­ resonate so strongly in the art of sound of a bird singing or the light?” To which the Ranger the former: if The Lord o f the memory of a loved one. What’s replies: “( ... ) The green earth, Rings is virtually the last work of more, at some level, at least, one say you? That is a mighty matter world war I literature, Frankl’s detects a commonality of experi­ of legend, though you tread it psychology has emerged from the ence here in what Tolkien must under the light of day.”38 crucible of his years spent in WW have similarly felt during the Tolkien39 called this aim of art II concentration camps. nightmare of trench warfare. In ‘recovery’. That basically means In Tolkien’s trilogy there is a the art of one and the psychology not simply assisting in ‘seeing passage41 where in the depths of of the other simple truths are things as they are’, but rather in Mordor Sam sights a star and wrested from the cataclysms of ‘seeing things as we are (or were) The beauty o f it smote his heart, the twentieth century. It would be meant to see them.’ There is then as he looked up out o f the for­ a pity if these truths were lost on a dynamic aspect to recovery: we saken land, and hope returned to those of us not so profoundly do well to remember Goethe’s him. For like a shaft clear and tried.

References 1,2,3,5,12,17,19,23,28. JRR Tolkien. 1981 (1995) . The Letters of JRR Tolkien edited by with the assistance of Christopher Tolkien. London: HarperCollins. pp 146, 156, 145, 122, 197, 109, 66, 111, 240. 4,35. Frankl, V.E. 1973. Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy. New York: Pocket Book, ppl 72,106. 6. Lichanski, Jakub Z. 1996. “Quenta Silmarillion - ksztaltowanie mitu” in J. R. R. Tolkien: recepcja polska. edited by Jakub Z. Lichanski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytet Warszawski: pp 159-179. 7. JRR Tolkien. 1993. Morgoth's Ring edited by Christopher Tolkien. London: HarperCollins. p 97. 8. Kuteeva, Maria. Scholarship and Mythopoeia: Language and Myth in the Works of Barfield, Tolkien and Lewis. PhD Dissertation submitted at the University of Manchester at the end of 1998. 9,11,13,15,18,26,39. JRR Tolkien. 1966. On Fairy-Stories, in The Tolkien Reader. New York: Ballentine. pp 48, 89, 47, 48. 83, 86, 77. 10,16. JRR Tolkien. 1983 (1997). The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays edited by Christopher Tolkien. London: HarperCollins. pp 211, 8. 14, 37. Shippey, Tom. The Road to Middle-earth. 2nd edition. London: Grafton, 1992. pp 55, 211. 20. 36. Curry, P. 1997. Defending Middle-Earth: Tolkien, Myth and Modernity. Edinburgh: Floris Books. pplOl, 133. 21. Rosebury, Brian. Tolkien: A Critical Assessment. New York. St. Martin's Press, 1992. p 126. 22. JRR Tolkien. 1985 (1992). II edited by Christopher Tolkien. London: Grafton, p 97. 24,34,41. JRR Tolkien. 1955 (1965). Part Three: . New York: Ballentine. pP105-6, 299. 220. 25. Beowulf: The Oldest English Epic. 1940 (1978) Frans, into alliterative verse with a critical introduction by Charles W Kennedy. Oxford: Oxford UP. p 46 27. Auden, W. H. 1968. The Quest , in Tolkien and the Critics edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame and London: University of Notre Dame. p45 29,33,38. JRR Tolkien. 1954 (1965). The Lord of the Rings Bart Two: . New York: Ballantine. pp 84. 342, 43-44. 30. Frankl, V. E. 1971. Psychotherapy and Existentialism: Selected Papers on Logotherapy. London: Souvenir Press. p50 31. Frankl, V. E. 1979. The Unheard Cry for Meaning: Psychotherapy and Humanism. London: Hodder and Stoughton. p38. 32. Nitzshe, . 1979. Tolkien’s Art: A Mythology for England. London: Macmillan./? 100. 40. Frankl, Viktor E. 1997. Man's Search for Ultimate Meaning. New York and London: Plenum Books./? 88.

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