Vol. 31, No. 1 January 2007

Movements, Missiometrics, and World

ach January since 1985, the International Bulletin of he was advised by the bishop of to “abandon science EMissionary Research has featured an annual statistical and mathematics now and stick to Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and table on global mission and world Christianity. Since this table systematic theology.” Accordingly, Barrett returned to Ridley is possibly the most anticipated and without doubt the most Hall, Cambridge, to study theology. He was ordained to ministry frequently cited of our regular offerings, we felt it would be ap- Continued next page propriate this year to provide readers with some background on who and what lie behind these statistics. Born in August 1927 in Llandudno, Wales, David B. Barrett has arguably done more than any other single person to help On Page us see world Christianity in all of its complex permutations as 3 The Witness of the Student Christian Movement a global movement. The question of how one man’s publications Robin Boyd can so far have elicited some 800 book reviews and 1,600 articles, 8 Spreading Fires: The Globalization of headline stories, or feature stories across the international gamut Pentecostalism in the Twentieth Century of journals and newspapers must be the subject one day of his Allan Anderson biographer. For now, a shorter account must suffice. 15 Ecumenical Theological Education in Latin Barrett was converted to Christ in 1946 while studying America, 1916−2005 mathematics at the University of Cambridge. With two degrees Sherron Kay George in aeronautical engineering, in 1948 he was appointed as Scien- tific Officer (Aeronautics) in Britain’s Civil Service and for the 21 My Pilgrimage in Mission next four years took part in strictly classified high-speed wind Michael Amaladoss, S.J. tunnel and flight testing. During this time, he began Mission- 25 Missiometrics 2007: Creating Your Own ary Notes, a publication that applied scientific and aeronautical Analysis of Global Data methodologies to mission, utilizing Britain’s first operational David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. computer, the electromechanical Colossus with its 18,000 vacuum Crossing tubes and covering some 2,000 square feet of floor space. This 33 Contextualizing Universal Values: A Method for publication, which Barrett produced from 1946 to 1960, was a Christian Mission harbinger of the subsequently immense outpouring of data, text, Frances S. Adeney and analyses that would culminate in his groundbreaking 1982 publication World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Study of 38 The Legacy of Rudolf Christian Friedrich Churches and Religions in the Modern World, A.D. 1900–2000 (Ox- Lechler ford Univ. Press), a massive 1,010-page compendium of detailed Jessie G. Lutz information on the state of Christianity in every country in the 40 Noteworthy world. Its second edition, compiled with the assistance of Todd 44 Book Reviews M. Johnson and George T. Kurian, was published in 2001 in three 45 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2006 for Mission substantial volumes crammed with 2,633 pages of information. Studies But I am getting ahead of myself. When Barrett offered himself as a missionary to the Church 54 Dissertation Notices Missionary Society (CMS) in 1951 for a possible scientific post, 56 Book Notes in the Church of in 1954 and then served for two years ity across West Africa—an assignment that took him not only to as curate and chaplain at Bradford Cathedral, Yorkshire, and as every country in Africa but later to Asia, Oceania, Latin America, a counselor in Billy Graham’s 1954 and 1955 United Kingdom and Europe as well. The most immediate tangible result was his crusades. groundbreaking book Schism and Renewal in Africa: An Analysis In 1957 the CMS appointed him to work with Luo clergy in of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements (Oxford Univ. the vicinity of Lake Victoria, Kenya. He was surprised when the Press, 1968). missionary archdeacon who welcomed him announced that a Barrett is quick to point out that without scores of colleagues, massive ecclesiastical schism was underway, with some 500,000 two of whom worked with him to produce this issue’s eight-page African Anglicans—including the seven key clergy with whom report, any attempt to track the world Christian movement would he was to have worked—seceding from the communion. The be futile. Todd M. Johnson is director of the Center for the Study young Barrett was instructed by his missionary bishop to have of Global Christianity at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, nothing to do with the excommunicated secessionists. At the researching the status of Christianity and world religions in every same time, encouraged by CMS London as he was learning the people, language, city, and country (see www.worldchristian- Luo and Swahili languages, his natural curiosity as a researcher database.org). Peter F. Crossing is an Australian missiologist, a drew him to the conflict. Denied access to pertinent documents in database programmer, and an editorial associate for the second the mission office, Barrett went directly to the schismatics (called edition of the World Christian Encyclopedia referred to above. As the Church of Christ in Africa), who eagerly shared all that they missions information coordinator at the Sydney Centre for World had. While remaining resolutely nonpartisan in the conflict, he Mission (see www.pastornet.net.au/scwm), Crossing interprets carried with him a huge quantity of unanalyzed data when he and disseminates the results of missiological research to churches returned to Britain in 1962. and mission agencies and consults with church mission commit- Barrett then joined the international ecumenical studies tees and agencies on crucial aspects of the spread of the Gospel. program at Union Theological Seminary in New York, where, He also provides database consulting for the National Church studying with the likes of Henry Pitney Van Dusen and Kenneth Life Survey and data analysis with MapInfo Australia. Scott Latourette, he began to analyze his Africa materials, refining The editors of the International Bulletin of Missionary and focusing his already considerable intellectual skills for what Research are honored to be associated with these three men, would become his life’s work. To his amazement, he discovered without whose prodigious efforts all of us would know much, that the Anglican schism in Kenya—typically dismissed as a local much less about the most extraordinary phenomenon of which ecclesiastical aberration (“a bunch of disgruntled nut cases”)—had we are at once participant and observer—Christianity as a world 6,000 close parallels throughout Africa. movement. And we take special pleasure in making their extraor- Following graduation in 1965 with a Ph.D. from a joint dinarily useful statistics and analysis available to missionaries, program between Union Theological Seminary and Columbia church leaders, and scholars around the world. University, Barrett spearheaded a six-month survey of Christian- —Jonathan J. Bonk

INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary Research in 1977. Renamed INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH in 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by the OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. (203) 624-6672 • Fax (203) 865-2857 • [email protected] • www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html Editor Jonathan J. Bonk Contributing Editors Catalino G. Arévalo, S.J. Paul G. Hiebert Gary B. McGee Brian Stanley Associate Editor David B. Barrett Daniel Jeyaraj Mary Motte, F.M.M. Charles R. Taber Dwight P. Baker Daniel H. Bays Jan A. B. Jongeneel C. René Padilla Tite Tiénou Assistant Editor Stephen B. Bevans, S.V.D. Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. James M. Phillips Ruth A. Tucker Craig A. Noll Samuel Escobar David A. Kerr Dana L. Robert Desmond Tutu John F. Gorski, M.M. Graham Kings Andrew F. Walls Managing Editor Lamin Sanneh Darrell L. Guder Anne-Marie Kool Anastasios Yannoulatos Daniel J. Nicholas Wilbert R. Shenk Senior Contributing Editors Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied Gerald H. Anderson by a self-addressed, stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. Opinions expressed in the IBMR Robert T. Coote are those of the authors and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. The articles in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Bibliografia Missionaria, Book Review Index, Christian Periodical Circulation Index, Guide to People in Periodical Literature, Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature, IBR (International Angela Scipio Bibliography of Book Reviews), IBZ (International Bibliography of Periodical Literature), Missionalia, Religious and [email protected] Theological Abstracts, and Religion Index One: Periodicals. (203) 624-6672, ext. 309 SUBSCRIPTIONS: Subscribe, renew, or change an address at www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html or write INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. Address correspondence concerning subscriptions and Advertising missing issues to: Circulation Coordinator, [email protected]. Single copy price: $8. Subscription rate worldwide: one year (4 Ruth E. Taylor issues) $32. Foreign subscribers must pay with U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, Visa, MasterCard, or International Money 11 Graffam Road Order. Airmail delivery $16 per year extra. The IBMR is available in print and e-journal editions. So. Portland, ME 04106 ONLINE ACCESS: Use the subscriber number and postal code from the mailing envelope for online access to the (207) 799-4387 journal. Visit www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html for details. Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases provided by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and University Microfilms. Back issues may be Copyright © 2007 purchased from OMSC or read on ATLAS, www.ATLA.com. Consult InfoTrac database at academic and public libraries. Overseas Ministries Study Center POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, All rights reserved New Jersey 07834-3000. Periodicals postage paid at New Haven, CT. (ISSN 0272-6122)

 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 The Witness of the Student Christian Movement Robin Boyd

s we approach the centenary of the 1910 Edinburgh The centrality of Christ. In the stormy days of 1971 Martin Con- AMissionary Conference, so often characterized as the way drew up a list of the marks of what the SCM tradition has beginning of the modern ecumenical movement, it is well to always sought to do. The first is “to have, as its central thrust, recall that the primary goal of Edinburgh was not the unity of the purpose of testing out the truth of Jesus Christ and of his call- Christians but the evangelization of the world. Christian unity was ing.”8 This mark ensured a decisive emphasis on the , and certainly seen as important, and indeed a great deal of practical also on academic integrity, Paul’s “service of the mind” (logike interchurch cooperation in mission had already been achieved latreia, Rom. 12:1). through the practice of “comity” in countries like ,1 but it was always “unity-for-mission.” And the primary initiators of The Bible. Bible study was basic to the movement from the start. Edinburgh 1910 were the young leaders of the Student Christian In the early days the Bible was studied devotionally, but by the Movement (SCM).2 Edinburgh 1910—and all that flowed from 1920s the emphasis was more on an optimistic “Kingdom-build- it—would not have happened without the SCM. ing.” By the beginning of World War II in 1939, the mood had changed, mainly through the German church’s struggle against Young People Together for Mission the absolute claims of the Nazi state. In 1933, in the WSCF’s quarterly journal, Student World,9 Hanns Lilje, general secretary The early history of the Christian student movement is well docu- of the German SCM, openly affirmed the Christian’s duty to mented.3 Young people began it: like Samuel Mills and his friends protest against the absolutization of nation and state. When the at Williams College (Williamstown, Mass.) in 1808. Its history state decided to force the movement to apply the “Aryan Para- continues through the foundation of the YMCA (London, 1844), graph” to its members—meaning the exclusion of all non-Aryans D. L. Moody’s evangelistic campaigns in the 1870s and 1880s, the (i.e., Jews) from its activities—Lilje and Reinhold Von Thadden “,” Grace and Robert Wilder’s work from 1883, (chairperson) decided that they must step down as officers. The and the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM) of 1888. Especially SCM courageously reinstated them, with the result that in August significant is the contribution of Scotland’s Henry Drummond 1938 the government banned the movement. (1851–97).4 The more recent history of the movement, through This German story was gradually unveiled to students re- the tempestuous 1960s and 1970s, is covered by Risto Lehtonen’s turning from war service to the universities of Europe in 1945 and Story of a Storm and is continued up to the 1995 centenary of the was a challenge to Bible study in the SCM. The most significant foundation of the World’s Student Christian Federation (WSCF) figure in this area is Suzanne de Diétrich, friend and colleague of by Philip Potter and Thomas Wieser’s Seeking and Serving the Karl Barth and Willem Visser ’t Hooft. Her book The Rediscovery Truth (1997). The present article, based mainly on the British of the Bible encouraged students, in a phrase attributed to Barth, SCM, attempts topically rather than chronologically to identify to study with the Bible in one hand and the newspaper in the those features of the life and witness of the movement—and of other. In the British SCM, through study secretaries like Alan those molded by it—that have justified its description as “the Richardson and Davis McCaughey, and with Ronald Gregor church ahead of the church.”5 Smith at the SCM Press, a stream of study outlines backed up by The SCM was, and is, a movement of young people. In its commentaries from leading biblical scholars made Bible study a “golden age” in the 1950s it provided a remarkable symbiosis mind-stretching experience. of students in their late teens and early twenties, facilitated but not directed by a group of traveling secretaries a few years older, The service of the mind. The SCM’s tradition of academic integ- and with a headquarters staff of whom not more than one or two rity went back to Henry Drummond. In his evangelistic work were out of their thirties. The headquarters staff in turn had close with Moody in 1873, Drummond had not yet wrestled with the links with young lecturers in university faculties, who were in theological issues raised by critical biblical scholarship and evo- touch with the leading scholars in the land, not just in theology, lutionary science. By 1884, however, he had come to accept, and but across the whole range of academia. They also had easy to advocate, an attitude of openness, and it was largely because access to the churches, whose leaders trusted the SCM, though of his perceived honesty in this regard that university students occasionally with qualms about the risk of “poisoning the student all over the world flocked to hear him. Moody also always sup- mind.”6 The movement’s policy on any issue was decided by a ported him. Drummond’s legacy to the SCM was the freedom general committee that always had a student majority. It was a to ask awkward questions: about critical biblical scholarship, true community, a koinonia of students who wanted to “under- evolution, cosmology, or anything else. But it was a freedom that stand the Christian faith and live the Christian life.”7 insisted on finding out the best sources of information and had no use for do-it-yourself theories or for authoritative teaching Marks of the Movement handed down from above without allowing questions. John R. Mott and J. H. Oldham impressively demonstrated this approach A number of closely intertwined emphases have been distinctive in the methodology of Edinburgh 1910, and William Temple of the movement throughout its history. (1881–1944), “a prophet in close and constant touch with expert advisers,”10 further developed the approach, helping it to become Robin Boyd served on the staff of the British SCM (1951–53), was a missionary normative for the SCM. and taught theology in India (1954–74), and was director of the Irish School of Ecumenics (1980–87). He has recently written The Witness of the Student Mission. The SCM’s roots were in the cross-cultural mission of Christian Movement: Church Ahead of the Church (SPCK, 2007). the church, and in its earliest days it was almost exclusively a

January 2007  recruiting agency for overseas missions. Gradually, however, the WCC of people like Visser ’t Hooft, William Paton, Lesslie the understanding of the scope of mission was enlarged. At first Newbigin, Oliver Tomkins, and Philip Potter led to the jibe that Mott had deliberately steered the movement away from political the WCC was simply “the SCM in long trousers.” issues. But at the vast 1921 Glasgow Quadrennial, a motion was Prayer was also a strong feature of the movement’s begin- passed repudiating the 1919 massacre of unarmed Indian civil- nings, mainly in the form of personal devotional prayer and ians in Amritsar and sympathizing with the Indian movement’s shared intercession rather than through the liturgical worship aspirations for Indian self-government.11 It was the first political of the church. In 1915 A Book of Prayers for Students was issued, message sent by the SCM to another movement. Temple main- which was much used for many years. In 1925 Oldham pub- tained that the important political work of the 1924 Conference lished A Devotional Diary, and in 1950 SCM Press brought out on Christian Politics, Economics, and Citizenship (COPEC) was Student Prayer. the direct result of a 1909 SCM conference on Christianity and Already in 1924 Suzanne Bidgrain of France had provided the social problems. The postwar movement had entered the field of student world with the multilingual hymnbook Cantate Domino,12 political and social affairs, and there it would remain. containing hymns from all the major traditions, including the But the particular pays de mission of the SCM is the university, French “Thine Be the Glory,” by Edmond Louis Budry, which and gradually its leaders came to realize that it was not enough in effect became the anthem of the federation. The third edition to evangelize individual students—the university itself must be (1951) was even more representative of the worldwide church, and for fifty years this hymnbook—the WSCF’s most widely used publication—was the hymnbook of the ecumenical movement. The SCM was taking the In 1934 Venite Adoremus I, a collection of non-Eucharistic ser- vices from five church traditions, was printed in English, French, church seriously, somewhat and German. The second edition (1951) marked a significant to the consternation of both change of policy by printing four services of Holy Communion: Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and Orthodox. The preface evangelicals and liberals. indicates the thinking behind this new departure: “The Federa- tion is not the Church nor a church. . . . The General Committee considers the Holy Communion to be of central importance in brought into the context of the Gospel. A major effort to define the Christian faith and life. Consequently, in Federation meetings Christian mission in the university, perhaps the most thorough opportunity should be provided for participation in Holy Com- since John Henry Newman’s Idea of a University (1852), was made munion by all present.” The federation was not the church, but it by the SCM in the 1940s and 1950s through the work of writers was “church,” sharing the church’s life, working for mission and like David Paton, Arnold Nash, Walter Moberly, and John Cole- unity, and in its own koinonia, anticipating the joy of Christians man. The theme “Christian Obedience in the University” (also fully united in Christ. the title of Davis McCaughey’s 1958 book) was an integral part of the SCM’s mission. International relief work. Four years after Edinburgh 1910 came the appalling carnage of World War I. The WSCF took a leading Church, unity, and worship. In its earliest days the SCM was frankly role in the relief of suffering among students. In the postwar nondenominational—a tradition still largely continued in the reconstruction of university and student life, the most significant International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES), whose name is that of Ruth Rouse of England, who with her American parent organization, InterVarsity Fellowship (IVF), separated colleague Conrad Hoffmann developed a vast and effective from the SCM in 1927. When Mott, Oldham, and Tissington organization to this end called European Student Relief. It was Tatlow, secretary of the British movement, were setting up the the pioneer of all later international Christian relief organizations Edinburgh 1910 conference, they realized the need to secure the like Christian Aid and Tearfund. cooperation of churches as well as missionary societies, of the Anglo-Catholic Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) Women’s ministry. Women were part of the movement from the as well as the evangelical Church Missionary Society (CMS). beginning, and their contribution gradually became an equal Through the ready advocacy of Archbishop Randall Davidson of partnership. Ruth Rouse and John R. Mott formed what Suzanne Canterbury they managed to gain this support. And Mott went de Diétrich calls “a magnificent alliance . . . inspired by the same on immediately, in 1911, to win the blessing of the ecumenical faith and the same vision of the world,”13 and Rouse went on to patriarch of the Orthodox Church when the WSCF held a great become the historian of both the federation and the ecumenical conference in Constantinople (now Istanbul). The SCM was movement. Tissington Tatlow would never have been able to taking the church (and the churches) seriously, somewhat to the achieve what he did without Zoë Fairfield, whom colleagues consternation of both evangelicals and liberals. Meantime the called the brain behind the movement, while “T squared” was follow-up of Edinburgh gave rise not only to the International the brilliant administrator. Missionary Council but also to the Life and Work Movement Some churches, notably the Congregational churches in both and, more surprisingly (since many were saying that “doctrine the and Great Britain, had had women ministers divides but service unites”), to Faith and Order. In South India since the 1920s, and the Reverend Gwenyth Hubble of the Baptist negotiations for a union of churches across the Anglican/Re- Church was assistant general secretary of the British SCM from formed/Methodist divide began in 1919, negotiations in which 1939 to 1946. But it was the exigencies of wartime the SCM’s Lesslie Newbigin would later play a vital role. The that provided the occasion, in 1944, for the first of a modern ecumenical movement was under way, and in 1948 the woman, Florence Li, to the priesthood in the Anglican communion. streams of Life and Work and Faith and Order combined to form The bishop who took the courageous step of ordaining her was the World Council of Churches (WCC). In all of this the SCM R. O. Hall, and the first people he reported to were Tissington tradition played a notable part, and the successive service at Tatlow and Billy Greer (then bishop of Manchester),14 all three of

 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 them SCM people prepared to risk acting as “the church ahead sympathetic interpreter of Hinduism. In 1918 he visited and greatly of the church.” influenced SCM conferences in both Britain and Australia. The general, churchwide movement for women’s ordina- Not until about 1960, however, did the word “dialogue” tion, however, did not really take off until the 1960s. When it begin to be used in the context of interfaith relations. One of the did, many of those who became well known as leaders—such first people to use the term in that sense was Paul Devanandan, as Mary Lusk (Levison),15 chief wrestler in the struggle with a friend of the Indian SCM, whose book The Gospel and Renascent the Church of Scotland on this issue, and Margaret Falconer Hinduism appeared from the SCM Press in 1959 and was followed (Webster), 16 founding general secretary (1979−86) of the Church in 1964 by Preparation for Dialogue. Later, the distinguished In- of England’s Movement for the (MOW)— dian lay theologian and activist M. M. Thomas, who had served had come through the SCM. with both the Indian SCM and the federation, joined the staff of the WCC, where over the years he worked, against consider- Race. The federation tackled the issue of racial discrimination in able odds, to introduce interfaith dialogue as an integral part the United States as early as 1897, two years after its founding. of the council’s program. For Thomas and for his fellow Indian Christian unions had been formed in both white and black Ameri- successor Stanley Samartha, dialogue was not an alternative to can colleges, but the movements had not been able to arrange for evangelism; rather, it was the living out and speaking out of the black students to be present at white conferences or vice versa. Gospel in the context of friendship. A WSCF conference at Williamstown, Massachusetts, in 1897 included people from many races, making it possible for African- Two Crises American students to attend.17 A principle had been established; racial issues would still be high on the agenda, but only because In writing about the SCM, it is impossible not to deal, at least the whole movement was fighting against discrimination. briefly, with two major crises: first, the split with the IVF; second, Over the years, many of the federation’s most outstanding “the Storm,” the near collapse of the movement in a number of leaders have come from a non-European background. And in Western countries in the late 1960s. places where battles had to be fought against racist governments, some of the leading fighters for justice came from the SCM: The parting of the ways. As far back as the founding of the YMCA people like Bishop Ambrose Reeves of South Africa, expelled in 1844, students had been divided by an intellectual conflict by the government in 1962 for his anti-apartheid views, and between religious orthodoxy and a liberalism that sought accom- Sir Ronald Wilson, the Australian judge who, together with the modation with the claims of natural science. The movement’s Aboriginal leader Mick Dodson, led the national inquiry into the earlier days, influenced by Drummond, were strongly evangelical, forced removal of Aboriginal children from their families and but they were not conservative in the sense of being unwilling communities. Wilson and Dodson also coauthored the devastat- to face the implications of biblical criticism or of insisting on a ing 1997 report Bringing Them Home. particular interpretation of Christian doctrine. The Cambridge Intercollegiate Christian Union (CICCU) was an older organiza- Lay leadership. From the beginning the SCM was largely led by tion than the SCM; it had affiliated with the movement in 1893 laypeople. Mott was a layman, so was Robert E. Speer of the SVM, but disaffiliated in 1910, the year of the Edinburgh conference. Joe Oldham, M. M. Thomas of India, Martin Conway of England, This separation, which led to the formation of the IVF in 1927, and nearly all of the women who served the movement in the was not triggered by any sudden radical move but rather by days when ordination was not an option for them. In Martin Conway’s words, the SCM “sought to insist on the lay leadership of students and teachers, with chaplains and other ecclesiastics With globalization the at best serving and provoking others to play a larger part.”18 task of reconciliation has Political and social issues. The movement’s commitment to politi- become more difficult. cal and social justice as an integral part of the church’s mission can be seen in what has already been said about racial justice, about William Temple and COPEC, Joe Oldham and Life and a call to stand still by the more conservative members of the Work, the German church struggle, and women’s ministry. This movement, who were afraid of where the SCM’s type of open- commitment can also be seen in such areas as the work of the minded biblical interpretation might take them. It was a sad British movement’s industrial department and its outcome in the division, quite as grave as any between the churches. Efforts to Sheffield Industrial Mission (1944), and in the pioneering work heal the breach were made in 1919, mainly through the initia- of Christian social ethicists like Ronald Preston. Even the story tive of the SCM, and again in 1950, when the leaders of the two of the politicization of the movement in “the Storm,” the crisis movements met for a whole day in London but were unable discussed in the next section, can be seen as an attempt to “risk to find any way of cooperation, even in shared Bible study or Christ for Christ’s sake.”19 prayer. With the later globalization of the two movements—the SCM through the growth of the ecumenical movement and the Interfaith dialogue. In 1913 J. N. Farquhar, a young Scottish sec- IVF through the worldwide spread of the tradition of the 1974 retary of the Indian YMCA (closely associated with the SCM), Lausanne Covenant—the task of reconciliation has become both published The Crown of Hinduism, which, though assuming that more difficult and more urgent. the Christian faith was the highest in a hierarchy of faiths, never- theless manifested a gentle, scholarly, and nonaggressive attitude “The Storm.” The decade from about 1965 to 1975 was a time of toward Hinduism. A few years later the Anglican missionary revolutionary student unrest. The civil rights movement in the C. F. Andrews became a close friend of Mahatma Gandhi; Andrews United States was parallelled in places like South Africa and also became a staunch supporter of Indian independence and a Northern Ireland; in Latin America there were base communi-

January 2007  ties and the activism of liberation theology; and the Vietnam and well, having borne much fruit. We have seen some major War provoked antiwar protests. Students were looking for examples of the SCM tradition in the World Council of Churches “liberation from paternalism and authoritarian and hierarchical and in united and uniting churches. Then there are the great structures.”20 Christian relief organizations, such as Christian Aid and Tearfund. The most critical year was 1968, with the murder of Martin There are ecumenical centers like that of the WCC at Bossey in Luther King, Jr., the “Prague Spring” in Czechoslovakia, and the Switzerland. Another historically linked ecumenical enterprise “May Revolution” in France. It was also a critical year for the is the Taizé Community, whose SCM roots are often forgotten. federation. At a WSCF conference at Turku, Finland, the carefully In April 1940 the French-speaking Swiss SCM held a retreat that prepared program, which seemed radical enough to the orga- led to a movement of students who wanted to pray for peace. Its organizer was Roger Schutz, a young Swiss SCM leader and in the Reformed Church, who later that year founded the To work for reconciliation Taizé Community, today perhaps the world’s best-known center of ecumenical worship.25 the best place to begin The SCM tradition can also be observed in the German could well be in a shared Kirchentag, which was first held in Berlin in 1949 by Reinold von Thadden and brought together 2,000 laypeople from both turning to the Bible and parts of a divided country. In June 2003 the Kirchentag met in a its interpretation. reunited Berlin, and for the first time the Roman Catholics, who had previously held their own separate Katholikentag, shared in the event—a gathering of more than 200,000 laypeople, with nizers, was jettisoned by the students. What was described as the blessing of both traditions. Years earlier von Thadden had “pure” or “transcendentalist” theology was repudiated as “part told Visser ’t Hooft that through the Kirchentag he “wanted to of the ideological system which justifies oppression.”21 There was bring into the life of every congregation what he had learned opposition also to the planned worship, much to the confusion and received in the SCM, the WSCF and the WCC about a of the African delegates. Richard Shaull, chairman of the federa- radical, world-transforming Christianity with an ecumenical tion, with experience in Latin America, found much that was perspective.”26 In the field of Christian publication the SCM Press encouraging “on the road to a new theology, a new university, continues to flourish, though it is now an independent concern authentic politics of social reconstruction.”22 Lehtonen, however, (SCM/Canterbury Press). These are only a few examples of the by then general secretary, sought the advice of the national SCMs SCM’s numerous and healthy progeny. and some senior friends. It was a choice, he said, between global revolution on the one hand, in which Christian students would Conclusion join forces with the working class, and, on the other, a movement seen primarily as “an expression of the Christian community—the I offer four observations by way of conclusion. Church—in the academic world.”23 The response of the veteran First, the SCM has been a major Christian movement, whose French SCM leader André Dumas is a classic expression of the full significance for the mission and unity of the worldwide SCM tradition: “In my opinion, there are certain irreplaceable church has not yet been fully recorded, let alone assessed. Its contributions which cannot be made without the Christian faith: methods of organization and conferencing are still a significant its witness to God makes the worship of an ideology impossible, feature of Christian public life. It pioneered a method of Bible . . . its practice of justification by faith makes impossible sectarian study—an ecumenical hermeneutic leading to action—that is of self-justification. Finally, in seeking reconciliation, which is the continuing effectiveness. opposite of separation, Christian faith brings freedom from the Second, the 1920s division between the SCM tradition and negativism of terrorists.”24 that of the IFES has damaged Christian witness and service. The But the majority of student leaders in the European and time is ripe for people on both sides of what is now a global divide American movements were reluctant to listen to the counsel of to work for reconciliation, and the best place to begin could well senior friends, however distinguished or radical. The SCM had be in a shared turning to the Bible and its interpretation. become focused on a single issue—the very fault for which it had Third, while the SCM tradition continues to flourish in many criticized the IVF—but its single issue was purely political, and countries, its decline in the West is acutely felt in the place where the movement’s traditional and essential links with Bible, theol- it matters most: the university. The virtual absence of its strong ogy, church, and mission were weakened. The movement lost a and lively presence for more than thirty years has deprived the great deal of support from the churches and went into a steep universities of an intentional ecumenical koinonia directed toward decline, and its characteristic radical, biblical, and ecumenical mission and unity, and it has deprived the church of a steady witness largely disappeared from the university, where it was so inflow of qualified young women and men committed not only badly needed. It did not entirely disappear, however, and today, to mission (in its widest sense) and Christian unity but also to a both nationally and internationally, it is showing many signs of never-ceasing quest for academic integrity applied to faith. new and authentic life. Fourth, the ecumenical, eschatological vision of Christian life and mission is more than ever vital for the church. The SCM is Children of the SCM still a lively, if diminished, presence in the university—aware of, inspired by, and wary of its past. If it should regain its strength It is my earnest hope that the SCM may be renewed and trans- or be transformed or replaced by something even better, there formed and become once again “the church ahead of the church.” would be joy in heaven! But whatever happens to the SCM itself, But even if that should not happen, the SCM tradition is alive the church, as well as the world, still needs the tradition.

 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 January 2007  Notes 1. The series of decennial missionary conferences in India, beginning 10. F. A. Iremonger, William Temple, Archbishop of Canterbury: His Life and in 1872, foreshadowed Edinburgh 1910. Letters, abridged edition, ed. D. C. Somervell (London: Oxford Univ. 2. Of the three main organizers, Mott was 45, Oldham 36, and Tatlow Press, 1963), p. 227. 34. The earlier British College Christian Union officially adopted the 11. Tatlow, Story of the SCM, pp. 696–97. name “Student Christian Movement” in 1905. In the period leading 12. Rouse, WSCF, p. 301. See also her account of Suzanne Bidgrain’s up to Edinburgh, the YMCA, YWCA, SVM (Student Volunteer work in Ruth Rouse and Stephen C. Neill, eds., A History of the Movement), and SCM acted as virtually one fellowship. Ecumenical Movement, vol. 1 (Geneva: WCC Publishing,1954; repr., 3. For example, Tissington Tatlow, The Story of the SCM of Great Britain 2004), p. 632. and Ireland (London: SCM Press, 1933); Ruth Rouse, The WSCF: 13. De Diétrich, Fifty Years of History, p. 36. A History of the First Thirty Years (London: SCM Press, 1948); Clar- 14. For an account of Florence Li’s ordination, see Margaret Webster, ence P. Shedd, Two Centuries of Student Christian Movements, Their A New Strength, a New Song: The Journey to Women’s Priesthood (Lon- Origin and Intercollegiate Life (New York: Association Press, 1934); don: Mowbray, 1994), pp. 68–77. Suzanne de Diétrich, Fifty Years of History: The World Student Christian 15. Mary Levison, Wrestling with the Church: One Woman’s Experience Federation (1895−1945) (Geneva: World Student Christian Federation, (London: Arthur James, 1992). 1993; orig. pub. in French, 1946); Eric Fenn, Learning Wisdom: Fifty 16. Webster, New Strength. Years of the Student Christian Movement (London: SCM Press, 1939); 17. Rouse, WSCF, pp. 68, 174. Davis McCaughey, Christian Obedience in the University (London: 18. Conway, Christian Enterprise, p. 47. SCM Press, 1958); and David L. Edwards, Movements into Tomorrow: 19. Note the title of M. M. Thomas’s book Risking Christ for Christ’s A Sketch of the British SCM (London: SCM Press, 1960). Sake: Towards an Ecumenical Theology of Pluralism (Geneva: WCC 4. Rouse, WSCF, p. 32; D. S. Cairns, David Cairns: An Autobiography Publications, 1987). (London: SCM Press, 1950), pp. 112–16. 20. Lehtonen, Story of a Storm, p. 58. 5. The phrase is used by Charles West in a letter to Risto Lehtonen, 21. Ibid., p. 74. quoted in Lehtonen, Story of a Storm: The Ecumenical Student Movement 22. Potter and Wieser, Seeking and Serving the Truth, p. 231. in the Turmoil of Revolution, 1968 to 1973 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 23. Lehtonen, Story of a Storm, p. 161. 1998), p. 186. 24. Ibid., p. 167. 6. “Poisoning the student mind” was the chorus of an ad hoc song 25. Potter and Wieser, Seeking and Serving the Truth, p. 145. It is tragic that popular at SCM conferences. so many years after his SCM days Brother Roger in 2005 became the 7. From the 1919 Aim and Basis, text printed in Tatlow, Story of the SCM, victim of an assassin as he led prayers at Taizé. See Kathryn Spink, p. 628. A Universal Heart: The Life and Vision of Brother Roger of Taizé, rev. ed. 8. Martin Conway, The Christian Enterprise in Higher Education (London: (London: SPCK, 2006). Board of Education, 1971), p. 47. 26. W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs (London: SCM Press, 1973), pp. 224, 9. Philip Potter and Thomas Wieser, Seeking and Serving the Truth 330. (Geneva: WCC Publications, 1997), p. 106.

Spreading Fires: The Globalization of Pentecostalism in the Twentieth Century Allan Anderson

he rapidly spreading “fires” that characterized the growth that their experience of Spirit baptism was a “fire” that would Tof global Pentecostalism are directly attributable to the spread all over the world, a last-days universal revival to precede efforts and visions of its pioneers, who were by no means always the return of Jesus Christ. This conviction was part and parcel of Westerners. The early years of Pentecostalism represent more the prevalent premillennialism that pervaded the radical fringes than just its infancy—this period was also the decisive heart of Protestantism—a belief in the imminent return of Christ to set of the movement, the formative time when precedents were up a thousand-year reign on earth. Not only were those from set for posterity. Whatever happened later was because of the the English-speaking world motivated by “Great Commission” founders who blazed the way. This article considers five of the texts in the King James Version of the Bible like Matthew 28:19 main features of global Pentecostalism, illustrated by historical (“Go ye therefore, and teach all nations”) and Mark 16:15 (“Go narrative from its early years. ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature”), but they were even more often fired up by the eschatological The Role of Premillennialism text of Matthew 24:14 (“This gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world for a witness unto all nations; and then The first feature of global Pentecostalism is the role of premillen- shall the end come”). These texts were both the motivation and nial eschatology. One of the convictions of early Pentecostals was the justification for their evangelistic activities. The newsletters from Pentecostal missionaries in the periodicals were filled with Allan Anderson, former Pentecostal minister in South Africa, is now Professor one overriding concern: to evangelize the nations of the world of Global Pentecostal Studies at the University of , Birmingham, before the imminent return of Christ. This focus permeated the England. This article forms the substance of his inaugural lecture given on activities of the missionaries and their converts almost to the March 2, 2006, and is amplified in his forthcoming bookSpreading Fires: The exclusion of all other activities. Missionary Nature of Early Pentecostalism (SCM Press, 2007). Although this “second coming” did not materialize during

 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 their lifetime, the Pentecostals were not altogether wrong about also facilitated Pentecostalism’s remarkable expansion across the global fires. By 1960 these Spirit manifestations were spread- the globe. The mission and purpose of this new movement was ing to the older Protestant and Anglican churches, and by 1967 clear: to stand for “the restoration of Apostolic faith, power and to the Catholic Church itself. By 1980 what had become known practice, Christian unity, the evangelization of the whole world as the charismatic movement in almost all forms of Christianity preparatory to the Lord’s return, and for all of the unfolding will was well established, and new forms of independent charismatic and word of God.” The followers of this new movement were churches were beginning to emerge, now proliferating all over convinced that they had “the simple but effective Scriptural Plan the world. By the end of the twentieth century, Pentecostal and for evangelizing the world.”4 The going out from Azusa Street charismatic Christianity in all its diversity had expanded into was immediate, in ever-widening circles. almost every country on earth. It had become an extremely sig- Azusa Street was a place of pilgrimage for returning mis- nificant movement within global Christianity, affecting Catholics, sionaries as word spread about the revival there. Frank Bartle- Anglicans, Protestants, evangelicals, and especially the indepen- man recollected that “it seemed that everybody had to go to dent churches in , India, Africa, and Latin America. It is ‘Azusa.’” He recorded that “missionaries were gathered there probably the fastest expanding religious movement in the world from Africa, India, and the islands of the sea . . . an irresistible ever, certainly the fastest within Christianity. drawing to Los Angeles.”5 By October 1906 there were eight mis- sionaries from Azusa Street going out to “the foreign field,” and Intercultural Origins thirty workers to various parts of the United States. A party of missionaries to Africa met up with Norwegian Methodist T. B. A second main feature of global Pentecostalism is that it, by all Barrett in New York and helped lead him into Spirit baptism. accounts, had interracial and intercultural beginnings. The first He then traveled on the same ship with them to Liverpool in decade of the twentieth century was one of unprecedented re- December 1906 and began the Pentecostal movement in Europe. vival activity in the evangelical world. One century ago, in April He pastored a large congregation in Christiania (now Oslo) and 1906, one of these revivals broke out in a ramshackle church on gave oversight to the establishment of Pentecostal centers in Azusa Street in inner-city Los Angeles. Several manifestations many parts of Europe, including Sunderland, England, where he of ecstasy came upon a group of African-Americans at the time introduced Pentecostalism to Anglican vicar Alexander Boddy in the Holiness, Methodist, and Baptist churches. But the most and his All Saints’ Church. Some of the Azusa Street missionar- ies sailed from Liverpool to Monrovia, Liberia, while others left on another ship bound for Benguela, Angola, but the latter were Pentecostalism is probably never heard of again. Contemporaneously in western India, a similar revival was the fastest expanding taking place in the Mukti Mission in Kedgaon, near Pune. Led religious movement ever. by the famous social reformer Pandita Sarasvati Ramabai (1858– 1922) and commencing in 1905, a year before the events in Los Angeles, hundreds of young Indian women said to be “baptized unusual and distinctive sign of this religious enthusiasm was an by the Spirit” in prayer meetings saw visions, fell into trances, experience called baptism in the Spirit, usually accompanied by and spoke in tongues. The Mukti revival was as much a center speaking in tongues. Led by William Seymour (1870–1922), a son of pilgrimage for propagating the Pentecostal doctrine of Spirit of former slaves, the Azusa Street revival became a catalyst in the baptism as Azusa Street was. It resulted in 1,100 baptisms and emergence of a new kind of Christianity that would transform the the going out of some 700 young women into the surrounding global religious landscape in the twentieth century. The revival areas, about 100 going out daily, sometimes for as long as a month movement’s monthly periodical, the Apostolic Faith, declared six at a time. Ramabai formed what she called a Bible school of 200 months later that “the fire is spreading” and that they “expected girls to pray in groups called praying bands and to be trained in to see a wave of salvation go over this world.”1 witnessing to their faith. These praying bands spread the revival The racial integration in the Azusa Street meetings was unique wherever they went. Minnie Abrams indicated that Mukti oper- for that time, and people from ethnic minorities discovered “the ated as a center for the spread of Pentecostalism—much as Los sense of dignity and community denied them in the larger urban Angeles or Oslo did in the United States and in Europe. She said culture.”2 The Apostolic Faith exulted: that many Indians had “received the Pentecostal blessing with tongues and other gifts of the Spirit” and that visitors from all We prayed that the Pentecost might come to the city of Los An- over India had come to Mukti and had “received this Baptism geles. We wanted it to start in the First Methodist Church, but of the Holy Ghost and Fire.”6 God did not start it there. I bless God that it did not start in any Both the Mukti and Azusa Street revivals had far-reaching church in this city, but out in the barn, so that we might all come consequences for global Christianity in the twentieth century. and take part in it. If it had started in a fine church, poor colored Pentecostals from all over the world came to Mukti, and its mis- people and Spanish people would not have got it, but praise God sionaries were directly involved in evangelistic efforts that cre- it started here. God Almighty says He will pour out of His Spirit upon all flesh. This is just what is happening here. . . . Tell the ated churches in several parts of India. Missionaries from Azusa people wherever you go that Pentecost has come to Los Angeles. Street were circling the globe by 1907 with their new message . . . It is noticeable how free all nationalities feel. . . . No instrument of spiritual power. It has been estimated that this revival move- that God can use is rejected on account of color or dress or lack of ment reached twenty-five nations within two years. Seymour education. This is why God has so built up the work.3 and the writers of the Apostolic Faith saw the Indian revival, like the Welsh Revival of 1904–5, as a precedent to what happened Back in those days of enforced segregation and Jim Crow at Azusa Street, a sort of prototypical, earlier Pentecostal revival laws, the Azusa Street Mission saw its interracial and intercul- that they thought became full-grown in Los Angeles. But it is tural nature as one of the reasons for its success. This feature more likely that these were simultaneous rather than sequential

January 2007  events in a general period of revival in the evangelical world at Pentecostalism was the general expectation of revival accompa- the turn of the century. nied by manifestations of the coming of the Spirit that pervaded Women played a prominent role in the Mukti and Azusa radical evangelical circles at the beginning of the twentieth cen- Street revivals, bucking the trend that excluded women from tury—especially among their missionaries, their most devoted church leadership at that time. African-Americans Lucy Farrow, servants. By 1910 it was said that revivals called “outpourings of Julia Hutchins, and Jenny Moore Seymour (and other Azusa lead- the Holy Spirit” had occurred in several countries. The revivals ers Florence Crawford and Clara Lum) were leaders in both the were sometimes (but not always) connected, and in all cases they Azusa Street revival and the missionary movement that issued were accompanied by unusual and ecstatic manifestations held from it. And in India, Ramabai resisted both patriarchal oppres- to be the work of the Spirit. From its beginnings, Pentecostalism sion and Western domination in Christianity, being attracted to placed emphasis on missions as a result of the experience of Spirit what a recent biographer called “the gender-egalitarian impulse baptism. People came to Pentecostal centers from other countries of Christianity.”7 The Mukti revival was preeminently a revival and went back with the baptism. From Azusa Street and other among young women and led by women, motivating and em- centers (including those on other continents), “apostolic faith” powering those who had really been marginalized and cast out missionaries were sent out to places as far away and diverse as by society. Pentecostalism’s ability to empower the marginalized China, India, Japan, Argentina, Brazil, Palestine, Egypt, Somalil- and oppressed for service and to bestow dignity on disadvan- and, Liberia, Angola, and South Africa—all within two years.10 taged women was evidence of its early social activism, despite This was no mean achievement and was the beginning of what its otherworldly orientation. The Mukti revival resulted in an is arguably the most significant global expansion of a Christian unprecedented missionary outreach of Indian Christians into sur- movement in the entire history of Christianity. rounding areas and further abroad. As one periodical observed, In some cases these early missionaries had no fixed plans Ramabai’s praying bands of young women were going “in every for their arrival—for they were led to their destinations by the direction to scatter the fire that has filled their own souls.” The Spirit, and the Spirit would show them what to do when they result, it declared, was that “many parts of India are hearing of got there. As one of them put it, speaking of her team in Hong the true and living God.”8 Kong: “Three young women, and one of mature years, left their Ramabai’s assistant, the former American Methodist Minnie homes of wealth, and comfort . . . and their beautiful native State Abrams, wrote the first theological defense of Spirit baptism and of Washington, for dark S. China.”11 Two of these three young influenced the commencement of Pentecostalism in Chile through women died there soon after from tropical diseases—and this her contact with Methodist missionaries in Valparaiso, Willis and was the tragic fate of many of these unprepared missionaries, Mary Louise Hoover. Abrams’s report of the Mukti revival caused who refused to take medicines, not wanting to show lack of faith the Methodist churches in Valparaiso and Santiago to expect and in divine healing. Some of them went to these faraway places pray for a similar revival, which began in 1909. Many ecstatic leaving behind their wives, husbands, and in a few cases their manifestations occurred. There was a hostile reaction from the children, and sometimes they took their families with them only authorities, the local press, and eventually the Methodist Church for them to perish from smallpox or malaria soon after arriving. itself. In 1910 the Methodist Conference, which met in Hoover’s The sacrifices made by these missionaries were, in some cases, own Valparaiso church building and in the presence of his mem- quite startling. G. S. Brelsford’s account of his departure was not bers, charged Hoover with conduct that was “scandalous” and atypical: “We bade the children good-bye with tears streaming down our faces, and a week later we sailed for Egypt. We did as well as we could for the children, divided what was on hand, Pentecostalism’s ability to and went third-class over to Egypt, but I cannot recommend that way of traveling.”12 empower and to bestow The Brelsfords arrived in Alexandria with two dollars in dignity on disadvantaged their pockets and were able to continue only with the help of two Egyptian Christians and a twenty-dollar donation from home women was evidence of its that arrived soon afterward. Such was the plight of many of these early social activism. faith missionaries. Many of them were independent, without financial or organizational backing, and they related only loosely to fledgling Pentecostal congregations in their home country. After “imprudent,” and with propagating teachings that were “false and all, the Spirit had set them free from human ecclesiastical insti- anti-Methodist . . . contrary to the Scriptures and irrational.” The tutions. Pentecostal pioneer in South Africa John G. Lake wrote manifestations of this revival were derided as being “offensive an exasperated letter home in 1909 about sending missionaries to decency and morals” and involving “hypnotism.”9 Inevitably, without funds, for one of them had arrived in Cape Town without Willis Hoover was forced to resign, and he became the leader of the necessary minimum of a hundred dollars and a guarantee of the new Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal, today the largest Protestant support. To get him through to Johannesburg had cost them “a church in Chile. Chilean Pentecostalism thus has its roots in the great deal of trouble and expense,” Lake complained.13 Indian revival rather than in the North American one. The various The rapid scattering of missionaries to all points of the international revival movements were the soil in which a locally compass occurred because the first American Pentecostals were contextual Pentecostalism was able to grow and thrive. convinced that they had been given “missionary tongues” through the baptism of the Spirit, and that when they reached their des- Spirit-Centered Mission tinations they would be able to speak miraculously to the local people without having to undergo the arduous task of language The third feature of the mission that proceeded out of Pentecostal learning. Apart from some instances in which it was claimed that revival movements is that it was based on the common experi- such a had actually happened, most admitted that they ence of the Spirit. One of the reasons for the rapid spread of were unable to speak in the tongues of the nations they traveled

10 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 to, and they persevered to learn these languages, although some Hong Kong about thirty people met regularly at Mok Lai Chi’s returned to the United States disillusioned. school building, known as the Morrison English School. In 1908 The early twentieth-century migrants who carried the the Garrs lost both their domestic helper and their three-year-old Pentecostal message all over the world were most often poor, daughter to smallpox. After this tragedy they returned to North untrained, and unprepared for what awaited them. Many did not America for fifteen months, where they did itinerant ministry on return, having died on the field. Some missionaries went out “by behalf of the Chinese church. They returned to Hong Kong in late faith,” without any income, which was sometimes referred to as 1909 to open a missionary home, and apart from nine months “on the faith line”—going out with very little and trusting God spent in India in 1910, they remained in Hong Kong until 1912, to supply the necessary finances, usually through home contacts when they returned permanently to the United States to pastor and the support of the periodicals. In return, the missionaries a church. The Garrs lived together with other workers in their provided long and regular newsletters that were reproduced in mission, and they did not learn Chinese or any other language order to raise funds back in the homeland. during the time they spent in Asia. These Pentecostal migrants needed to remain in regular contact with their home countries and sending churches for their Personal Inflexibility and Adaptability own survival. Letters went back and forth between missionaries and home churches, the latter producing periodicals that were The fourth characteristic feature of Pentecostal mission is that, often issued free of charge to these missionaries, keeping them like other foreign missions, it was not always conducted with abreast of the developing movement both at home and around much sensitivity to the local people. Recent movement toward the world. Often their only link with any form of organization a postcolonial reading of Pentecostal history places questions of was through these periodicals, which served a threefold function: identity and representation at the top of the agenda and helps us to act as home bases for missionaries, to disseminate information see the history of Pentecostalism in its proper perspective. The bias about them, and to raise funds for their support. Many of the periodicals saw the promotion of Pentecostal missions as one of the main reasons for their existence. The periodicals were also important vehicles for internationalizing and creating norms for Many early Pentecostals Pentecostal beliefs and values. They were perceived by the mis- focused on reaching sionaries as being the primary sources of both their own identity missionaries with their and that of their converts. Alfred G. and Lillian Garr, in a Holiness church, message. were baptized in the Spirit at Azusa Street and were reported to have received “the gift of tongues, especially the language of India and dialects.” The Garrs were both supposedly able to present in much of contemporary Pentecostal historiography is speak Bengali, and Lillian also Tibetan and Chinese. They left due partly to the exoticization and marginalization of “the other” Los Angeles in July 1906 for India, arriving in Calcutta in De- that has been so prevalent in Western literature. The marginaliza- cember 1906 with an African-American domestic helper named tion of women and national workers took place because most Maria Gardener and their baby daughter, Virginia. Although of the sources used in the writing of these histories (the early disillusioned with their language abilities, they persevered and periodicals, reports of missionaries, and missionary letters) were were invited to conduct services in William Carey’s old Baptist originally written for home consumption and fund-raising. If church. Lillian Garr wrote her first report to Azusa Street in March national workers were mentioned, it was usually as anonymous 1907, saying that thirteen or fourteen “missionaries and other “native workers” or “Bible women.” These documents were usu- workers” had received Spirit baptism.14 The Garrs continued to ally loaded with information that would bolster financial and work in the Indian subcontinent amid controversy arising from prayer support in North America and Europe. They were also their dogmatic stance on Spirit baptism, and by September 1907 full of assumptions of power and privilege. So the reports mostly they were in Colombo, Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The focus of their talked about the activities of the missionaries themselves and not ministry was on reaching missionaries with their message. This those of their so-called native workers. The reports were, at best, was a strategy for many of the expatriate Pentecostals in foreign fragments of information given in a very different era and con- countries who could not speak local languages, and it resulted text, and so we do not know the whole story and cannot retrieve in a rapidly developing network of interconnected missionaries all of it now. But formulation of a fully postcolonial reading of who spread their message throughout the world with astonish- Pentecostal history calls for turning attention again to primary ing rapidity. Most of these missionaries came from evangelical sources and for much further painstaking research. I have con- faith missions like the Christian and Missionary Alliance and sistently sought to distance myself from a theory of Pentecostal the China Inland Mission, but sometimes missionaries from the origins and identity that is centered on the Western missionary, older denominational missions were also affected. because unless we revise this approach by widening our sources The controversial Garrs continued their journey from Ceylon, we will fail to represent Pentecostalism adequately. arriving in Hong Kong in October 1907. They began services in The Western missionaries saw themselves as called by God the American Board (Congregational) mission with the aid of to their work, and I do not intend to cast aspersions on their a capable Chinese interpreter, Mok Lai Chi, an English teacher motives and integrity. That being said, there is little doubt that and former government interpreter. Here, the Apostolic Faith many of the secessions that took place among converts early in reported, “a glorious revival” broke out.15 The first Pentecostal Western Pentecostal mission efforts in Africa, China, India, and services were attended by between 400 and 700 people, but op- elsewhere were at least partly the result of cultural and social position from other missionaries mounted, and the Garrs were insensitivities on the part of the missionaries and, in some cases, ejected from the American Board building. Within six months blatant racism and ethical failure. It is true that missionaries some 100 people in South China had become Pentecostal. In may not have been sensitized to these issues in the ways that we

January 2007 11 are today, and equally true that we now have the hindsight of no, I cannot afford to waste the time and money that way. My history. Nevertheless, early Pentecostal missionaries were often work is here till Jesus comes or I am called home. I never shall obsessed with a campaigning mentality that saw their task as see the home land again till I see it from the clouds.”18 Thomas bringing “light” to “darkness”; they frequently referred in their Junk probably died in China soon after these words were written, newsletters to the subjects of their mission as “the heathen,” and for we do not hear of him again. they were often slow to recognize national leadership when it arose with creative alternatives to Western forms. Missionary Responsive to Local Contexts paternalism was widely practiced, perhaps universally so. In country after country, white Pentecostals followed the example The fifth and perhaps most significant feature of Pentecostal of other expatriate missionaries and kept tight control of churches mission is that it was inherently flexible, responding creatively and their national founders, especially of the finances they raised to different religio-cultural contexts. Ramabai understood the in western Europe and North America. Most wrote home as if Mukti revival to be the means by which the Holy Spirit was creating a contextual form of Indian Christianity. She penned these significant words in 1905: “Let the revival come to Indians so as to suit their nature and feelings, [as] God has made them. This revival took the power He knows their nature, and He will work out His purpose in and control out of the them in a way which may not conform with the ways of West- hands of the privileged ern people and their lifelong training. Let the English and other Western Missionaries begin to study the Indian nature, I mean the Western missionaries. religious inclinations, the emotional side of the Indian mind. Let them not try to conduct revival meetings and devotional exercises altogether in Western ways and conform with Western etiquette. they were mainly (if not solely) responsible for the progress of If our Western teachers and foreignised Indian leaders want the the work in the countries to which they had gone. These actions work of God to be carried on among us in their own way, they were often prompted by an unconsciously imperialist culture are sure to stop or spoil it.”19 This movement both absorbed and that believed in the innate superiority of European and Euro- transformed the religio-cultural context wherever it went. American “civilization.” The truth was often that the national To some extent these revivalists represented the democrati- churches grew in spite of, and not because of, these missionaries, zation of Christianity. Their “full gospel” was not preached by who were actually denying their converts’ gifts of leadership. and to an educated elite who had been to mission schools and But the Holy Spirit was anointing ordinary people to “spread colleges, but instead the Spirit came upon ordinary, poor, and the fire” to their friends, relatives, and neighbors, and even to disadvantaged women and men, who thereby received empow- other communities, peoples, and nations. erment for ministry and leadership. Their only qualification There were, of course, many exceptions to these insensitivi- was that the Spirit had come and had called them for service. In ties. One was Thomas Junk, a German early convert of Azusa effect, this revival took the power and control out of the hands Street, and his wife, Helen, who went to Tsao-Hsien, Shantung, of the privileged Western missionaries and functionary clerics China, in July 1908. There they discovered poverty of such di- and passed it on to ordinary local people. These early Pentecostal mensions that they were determined to do something about it. missions were rather chaotic.20 Based on the whims of the Spirit, Junk wrote of the “self-righteous” missionaries who lived “in fine early Pentecostal missionaries scattered themselves within a houses with every comfort, but allow no Chinese around them remarkably short space of time to spread their “fires” wherever but their servants.”16 After less than six months, Helen Junk died, they went, and these fires were somewhat unpredictable, out- and Thomas continued alone. An elderly Chinese preacher, Lee of-control wildfires. When human organizations attempted to Wang, worked with Junk at his mission and appears to have done quench the flames, as they often did, more often than not this most of the preaching. They operated a home where children futile effort resulted in new fires breaking out in other places and were rescued from starvation, and by October 1910 it had fifty- the further proliferation of new churches. five residents, of which twenty-five were children, whom Junk Although little or no memory survives of the national work- personally cared for. Fascinating letters from Junk describe his ers in the Majority World, it is important to attempt to correct the ability to identify with the people, to “be a Chinaman,” as he put biases of historiography. This is made more difficult by Pente- it, and not conform to common “missionary” behavior. His letters costalism’s greater dependence on national workers than other sometimes contain searing criticisms, as he wrote, for example, missions at the time, which can be explained by its emphasis on of the disadvantages of several missionaries “flocking” together the empowering ability of the Spirit to equip ordinary believers (in mission homes), “having what they call a good time together, for missionary service without requiring prior academic quali- but caring very little for the Chinese.”17 He also reported remark- fications. Because of the emphasis in the periodicals about the able healings and casting out of demons. He began ministry in missionaries going out from the North Atlantic to other parts of prisons three times a week, where he described the most awful the world, we do not read much in them of how the Pentecostal and dehumanizing, life-threatening conditions meted out to men message spread to the thousands of local people through these whose crimes were sometimes very petty. In one of his reports so-called native workers. Now and then, however, we do get a from 1910, he mentioned preaching visits to fifty-two different glimpse, even in the rather chaotic beginnings. towns and villages, and all but seven of these places had never As an example, Mok Lai Chi, until his illness in 1923, led the heard the Christian message. The measure of this missionary’s Hong Kong Pentecostal Mission, the first Pentecostal church in commitment to China is poignantly expressed in these words from China and a thriving church that still exists today. Mok published a letter he wrote in 1910: “One brother asked if I would not come the first Pentecostal periodical outside the Western world, a four- over to the home land and tell personally of the work and the page Chinese broadsheet with the back page in English, the first need here if he, the brother, paid the expenses. No, dear brother, issue appearing in January 1908. Mok’s influence and that of his

12 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 William Carey Library

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*3 or more of the same title. Prices do not include shipping. Prices are subject to change without notice. January 2007 13 periodical extended far beyond the borders of Hong Kong, and unprecedented opportunity for Christian mission in the wake of he was instrumental in laying the foundations for many of the rampant colonization by European powers. Mass conversions to Chinese “old three-self” independent churches that emerged Christianity in the 1910s and 1920s under the ministries of African before the Communist revolution. preachers William Wadé Harris in Côte d’Ivoire, Garrick Sokari Albert Norton, Ramabai’s coworker in Dhond, India, wrote Braide in Nigeria, Simon Kimbangu in the Congo, Alfayo Mango of some young Indian men and women who had been rescued in Kenya, Engenas Lekganyane in South Africa, and many others from famine seven years previously and who were now “filled resulted in the formation of what became enormous, independent with the Holy Spirit, and being greatly used in the extension African churches. There, Pentecostalism was the catalyst for the of Christ’s kingdom.”21 Both Norton and Ramabai made the emergence of hundreds of these new “churches of the Spirit,” training of Indian Christian workers one of the chief objectives which exhibited a sensitivity to African religious and cultural of their missions. In 1910 there were 125 young women training values unmatched by the older European-founded missions. in the Mukti Bible school to become Christian workers. Norton These are just a few examples of the pulse of missionary describes the young men at his mission, who had all married fervor that followed the beginnings of Pentecostalism. There were other missionaries in many parts of the world, unnamed and unremembered, perhaps because they were not supported In Africa Pentecostalism by or did not write to the Pentecostal periodicals. But the stage was the catalyst for the was set for a much greater expansion in the years to come. emergence of hundreds of The Globalization of Pentecostalism “churches of the Spirit.” The tremendous diversity in Pentecostalism amounted to a twentieth-century reformation of Christianity that has precip- itated a resurgent interest in pneumatology and spirituality. young women from Ramabai’s mission, and writes that “a good Whereas older Protestant churches bemoan their ever-decreasing number of the ablest and most heaven-blest workers for Christ in membership and possible demise in the West in the early twenty- India, were once famine orphans.”22 One of them, Vihala Shan- first century, a most dramatic expansion continues to take place in kar, left with his wife for Gujarat in 1910 to preach to his own Pentecostal and independent Pentecostal-like churches, especially people in an area that had never heard the Christian message. We outside the Western world. Classic Pentecostal churches like the must not underestimate the enormous impact these sometimes Assemblies of God, the world’s largest Pentecostal denomination, anonymous Indian workers and the Mukti Mission had on the have probably only some 8 percent of their world associate mem- spread of Pentecostalism in India. bership in North America, with at least 80 percent in the Majority An evangelist from Ceylon, Charles Hettiaratchy, who re- World.23 Half the world’s Christians today live in developing, poor ceived Spirit baptism on his own through reading about the revival countries, where forms of Christianity are very different from in Los Angeles, visited the United States in 1910, wrote articles what Westerners often assume they must be. These Christians that were published in Pentecostal papers, and was featured have been profoundly affected by several factors, including the as a speaker in conferences in New York and . Shorat desire to have a more contextual and culturally relevant form Chuckerbutty, a Bengali with a graduate degree and the founder of Christianity, the rise of nationalism, the challenge of living as of an orphanage in Allahabad, became Pentecostal in early 1910 minorities in religiously pluralistic nations, a reaction to what with her fellow worker Dorothea Chundra, and people visiting are perceived as colonial and foreign forms of Christianity, and this center received Spirit baptism, which further contributed to the burgeoning Pentecostal and charismatic renewal. Global the spread of Pentecostalism. cannot be fully understood without making The early twentieth century in Africa was also a time of a serious study of its Pentecostal and charismatic varieties.

Notes 1. Apostolic Faith 2 (October 1906): 1. 12. Latter Rain Evangel 3, no. 2 (November 1910): 10. 2. Robert M. Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited: The Making of American 13. Pentecost 1, no. 7 (June 1909): 3. Pentecostalism (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1979), p. 69. 14. Apostolic Faith 7 (April 1907): 1; Word and Work 29, no. 6 (June 1907): 3. Apostolic Faith 3 (November 1906): 1. 184. 4. Word and Work 29, no. 4 (April 1907): 117. 15. Apostolic Faith 11 (January 1908): 1. 5. Frank Bartleman, Azusa Street (S. Plainfield, N.J.: Bridge Publishing, 16. Bridegroom’s Messenger 26 (November 15, 1908): 4; Upper Room, 1925, 1980), p. 53. January 1911, p. 7. 6. Confidence 1, no. 6 (September 1908): 14. 17. Bridegroom’s Messenger 57 (March 1, 1910): 1. 7. Meera Kosambi, ed. and trans., Pandita Ramabai Through Her Own 18. Ibid. 59 (April 1, 1910): 2. Words: Selected Works (New Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000), p. 18. 19. Pandita Ramabai, “Stray Thoughts on the Revival,” Bombay Guardian 8. Word and Work 28, no. 5 (May 1906): 145. and Banner of Asia, November 7, 1905, p. 9. 9. Edward L. Cleary and Juan Sepúlveda, “Chilean Pentecostalism: 20. Faupel, Everlasting Gospel, pp. 213–22. Coming of Age,” in Power, Politics, and Pentecostals in Latin America, ed. 21. Bridegroom’s Messenger 5 (January 1, 1908): 2. E. L. Cleary and H. W. Stewart-Gambino (Boulder, Colo.: Westview 22. Ibid. 18 (July 15, 1908): 1. Press, 1997), pp. 99–100, 112. 23. Everett A. Wilson, Strategy of the Spirit: J. Philip Hogan and the Growth 10. D. William Faupel, The Everlasting Gospel: The Significance of Eschatology of the Assemblies of God Worldwide, 1960–1990 (Carlisle, Eng.: Regnum in the Development of Pentecostal Thought (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca- Books, 1997), pp. 3, 107, 183. demic Press, 1996), pp. 182–86, 208–9, 212–16. 11. E. May Law, Pentecostal Mission Work in South China: An Appeal for Missions (Falcon, N.C.: Falcon Publishing, 1915), p. 2.

14 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Ecumenical Theological Education in Latin America, 1916–2005 Sherron Kay George

ne result of the Edinburgh 1910 Mission Conference school associated with the evangelical side—of Richard Shaull, Owas that the Congress on Christian Work in Latin who was a leader in the student and ecumenical movements and America was held in Panama in 1916.1 Establishing Protestant- who had served in Colombia (1942–51) and Brazil (1952–62), due ism in a continent colonized by Roman Catholic countries was to criticism of his revolutionary ideas about theological renewal a difficult challenge, and education was a key strategy from the and the role of the church in society, symbolized the depth of beginning. Historic Protestant churches and missions marked ecumenical-evangelical polarization. their presence through modern liberal North American demo- As Latin American countries have engaged in the process cratic ideals implanted in educational institutions. of redemocratization and struggled to stabilize their economies In 1916 John A. Mackay arrived in Peru to become director during the 1980s and 1990s, two recurrent dialectical themes have of the Anglo-Peruano School, one of the many American schools marked theological studies: the necessity for contextualization in Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela that have remained influential (doing theology out of and within the Latin American context to the present day. Mackay’s impact as an educator and scholar and culture) and the reality of the globalization of theological in Peru is symbolic of the role of education in the development education (doing theology in conversation with scholars and of Protestantism. Thirteen educational institutions in Brazil es- institutions around the world). The tension of the dialectic is tablished by Presbyterian missionaries between 1870 and 1930 complicated by Latin resistance to the economic globalization became catalysts for national educational reform. The American of the neoliberal model from the North, which cares little about School, founded in São Paulo in 1870, “was the pioneer in the the difficulties that many in the South face in obtaining the basic application of the North American pedagogical system in Brazil” necessities for a life of human integrity and dignity, in effect and forerunner of Mackenzie University.2 excluding them from a just participation in free markets and The missionaries and mission agencies that dominated the democratic processes. Panama Congress also advocated the unity of Protestants in In this context we review below five centers of theological Latin America, which naturally led to reflections on unity in excellence and four associations of seminaries that have made a theological education. Subsequent congresses in Montevideo long-term ecumenical impact in Latin America.4 (1925) and Havana (1929) perpetuated the twin emphases on education and ecumenism. Five Centers of Theological Excellence As autonomous Protestant denominations resulting both from mission efforts and from immigrant communities made UBL—Universidad Bíblica Latinoamericana / Latin American Biblical inroads in Latin America, they established primary and secondary University. In 1923 the Latin American Biblical Institute (IBL) for schools alongside congregations. Additionally, denominational women was founded in San José, Costa Rica, by Susan Strachan, seminaries were established, usually following closely the edu- a Scottish Presbyterian missionary. The name was changed to cational philosophy and curriculum of conservative evangeli- Latin American Biblical Seminary (SBL) in 1960, and full au- cal seminaries of the North Atlantic churches that supported tonomy and independence from the Latin American Mission them. Although Protestant denominations founded seminaries was achieved in 1971, which enabled the development of Latin soon after their arrival in the mid-nineteenth century, it took American identity and ownership. In 1997 it became the Latin over a century for ecumenical associations of seminaries to be American Biblical University upon receiving accreditation by established.3 the National Council of University Education of Costa Rica. From the 1930s into the 1960s major changes, social ferment, UBL understands its identity as progressive evangelical, its and military takeovers rocked church and society in Latin America. disposition and practice as ecumenical, and its vocation as be- Protestant student and ecumenical movements articulated com- ing an academic institution of biblical-theological and pastoral mitment to social responsibility and societal transformation. formation that serves all denominations in Latin America and Councils and federations of churches were formed throughout the Caribbean. A unique contribution of UBL is the trust it has the continent, as well as interdenominational seminaries in Cuba, established with the Protestant community without its being Argentina, and Puerto Rico, along with associations of seminar- limited to that constituency and with being open to dialogue ies. The first Latin American Evangelical Conference (CELA I) with liberation theology in response to the context of oppres- was hosted by the Faculdad Evangélica de Teología in Buenos sion. Students and professors come from both evangelical and Aires in 1949. However, polarization between the ecumenical ecumenical Protestant denominations, as well as Roman Catholic and evangelical sectors in Latin America began to surface. The and Pentecostal traditions. Priority is given to women, African structural-contextual analysis of ecumenical Christians at CELA descendants, and indigenous peoples. II (Lima, 1961) and the confession of their debt to the Roman UBL offers bachelor’s, licentiate, and master’s degrees in Catholic community at CELA III (Buenos Aires, 1969) rankled the Bible and theology and since 1997 has had the Pastoral Biblical evangelicals and only intensified the divide. The departure from Institute (IBP) for nonuniversity studies. There are 17 profes- the Presbyterian Seminary of the South in Campinas, Brazil—a sors on faculty and more than 1,500 students, half of whom are women. The current model, which combines distance and Sherron Kay George is Theological Education Consultant and Liaison for South residential studies, began in 1990. UBL partners with churches America for the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). From 1996 to 2001 she served and seminaries to offer its program through 15 satellite centers as associate professor of mission and evangelism at Austin (Texas) Presbyterian in 14 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, each of Theological Seminary. She is the author of Called as Partners in Christ’s which follows the same basic curriculum but has its own di- Service: The Practice of God’s Mission (Geneva Press, 2004). rector and local council. Students initiate their studies in their

January 2007 15 own countries through independent study of modules, small to 1884, when Waldensians and Methodists in Uruguay united extension groups, and intensive courses taught by visiting or in their efforts to prepare national pastors. In 1917 they moved adjunct professors. Then they go to Costa Rica for two, four, or their seminary to Buenos Aires and were joined by the Disciples six months to complete their course work and do research in the of Christ. Thirty years later the Saint Andrews Presbyterian UBL library. One example is the Martin Luther King Memorial Church (related to the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in the Center in Havana, which provides university-level courses and U.S.A.) joined. Separately, a Lutheran seminary was begun in also serves, at a more basic level, 500 students from diverse church Buenos Aires in 1955. In 1969 the two seminaries united to form bodies through a network of 45 nuclei scattered throughout the ISEDET. Today its board is composed of nine member churches: island. The Central American Evangelical Center for Pastoral Anglicans, Danish Lutherans, Disciples, Evangelical Church of Studies (CEDEPCA) in Guatemala is also affiliated with UBL. the River Plate, Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians, Reformed Other countries with affiliated centers are Honduras, Nicaragua, Church, and Waldensians. Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, ISEDET has government accreditation and offers the only Bolivia, and Chile. Spanish-speaking ecumenical Protestant doctoral program in The focus of UBL is to provide theological education that Latin America. After accreditation was achieved, the number strengthens partner institutions in Latin America and the residential program in Costa Rica. UBL produces study guides for all its educational programs, as well as the journal Vida y Pensamiento (Life and Thought), independent publications, and ISEDET has the largest publications in partnership with other institutions and ecumeni- Protestant library in Latin cal organizations. America, 110,000 volumes SET—Seminario Evangélico de Teología / Evangelical Seminary of and 850 journals, and has Theology. SET, in Matanzas, Cuba, was founded in October 1946 invested considerably in by Methodist, Presbyterian, and Episcopal churches as a fruit of the vanguard spirit of ecumenism in Latin America. This ecu- computer technology. menical institution for basic and advanced theological training soon expanded beyond the three founding denominations and today prepares pastors and leaders for twelve Cuban and Latin of students increased. Programs include bachelor’s, licentiate, American denominations. SET has covenants of collaboration master’s, and doctoral degrees in theology, as well as continuing with the Instituto Superior Evangélico de Estudios Teológicos education (EDUCAB). ISEDET also has a Project with Original (ISEDET) in Buenos Aires and with the Methodist University of Peoples (PPO) in the Chaco in the north, where several professors São Paulo (UMESP) and the Lutheran School of Theology (EST) go to teach a week each month. Since the doctoral program began in Brazil, as well as programs of exchange with other institutions (1984–85), 14 degrees have been granted, and 20 students were in of theological education in the United States, Canada, Europe, the program in 2004 (15 from Argentina and 5 from other Latin and South Korea. Furthermore, SET maintains close contact with or European countries). Master’s degrees have been granted to developing social processes in Cuba, Latin America, and the 102 people (1984–2003). The total number of residential students world. Its siting and focus enable SET to offer a unique perspec- in 2003 was 185. In the past five years there have been students tive on evangelism and new church development in a socialist from twenty denominations (including Roman Catholic) and from environment. eleven Latin American countries, seven European countries, and Possessing a lovely chapel, SET seeks to be a center for li- three others (including the United States). turgical renewal through worship experiences for the seminary It is noteworthy that ISEDET has the largest Protestant library community and for outside groups. In recent years there has been in Latin America (110,000 volumes and 850 journals) and has more focus on spiritual formation in the exploration of different invested considerably in computer technology. The four strong expressions of prayer, including both ancient and contemporary centers that have made significant advances in information tech- cultural traditions. nology (UBL, ISEDET, UMESP, and EST) offer a vital service to SET offers bachelor’s, licentiate, and master’s degrees in small seminaries and churches on the continent. From 1973 to theology. It also offers a doctor of ministry in pastoral studies 1990 ISEDET published a comprehensive bibliography on reli- in partnership with Columbia Theological Seminary in Decatur, gious materials in and about Latin America entitled Bibliografía Georgia. Three-year extension courses for laywomen and lay- teológica comentada. Present publications include two online jour- men are offered in Matanzas, La Habana, and other provinces. nals, Estudios Exegéticos Homiléticos and Journal of Latin American The library contains 22,500 volumes. The faculty has nineteen Hermeneutics,5 with articles in English and German. Furthermore, professors. The seminary’s official publications areCuba Teológica their journal Cuadernos de Teología (Notebooks of Theology) and and Didajé. a journal of practical theology, Visiones y Herramientas (Visions As a service to the seminary community, the Arcoiris (Rain- and Tools), are published annually. bow) Project promotes spaces of Christian education for children ISEDET has formal relations with the Free University in at SET, who learn to respect creation and environment. SET also Amsterdam, SET in Matanzas, and the Theological Institute of offers service to the community through the Pastoral Counsel- Andean Higher Education (ISEAT) in La Paz, Bolivia, and informal ing Program. relationships with UBL in San José, the postgraduate program in Sciences of Religion of the Methodist University of São Paulo ISEDET—Instituto Superior Evangélico de Estudios Teológicos / Higher (UMESP), the Ecumenical Institute of Post-Graduation (IEPG) of Evangelical Institute for Theological Studies. The University Institute the Lutheran School of Theology (EST) in São Leopoldo, Brazil, ISEDET is an ecumenical center of graduate and postgraduate the Evangelical Theological Community (CTE) in Santiago, the studies in theology located in Buenos Aires. Its origins go back Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago (LSTC), and others in

16 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Our full-time Mission and Evangelism faculty members include: “I love the PhD program in Intercultural Richard R. Cook, PhD Mission History and Global Christianity Studies. It combines global breadth, intellectual Paul G. Hiebert, PhD depth, and a passion for effective missional Anthropology and Missiology thinking and practice. I have gained exposure Harold A. Netland, PhD Religion and Intercultural Studies and mentoring from outstanding professors, John W. Nyquist, PhD and I have learned intellectual and research Evangelism and Discipleship Craig Ott, PhD skills that I needed to take the next step of Church Planting and Contextualization leadership in my field.” James F. Plueddemann, PhD Leadership and Education —Doctoral student Rick Richardson is an Robert J. Priest, PhD associate professor and director of the MA Anthropology and Intercultural Studies Tite Tiénou, PhD in evangelism program at Wheaton College. Theology of Mission and Ethnicity

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January 2007 17 Europe, including the Waldensian seminary in Rome. Through and Germany who work in Brazil. The international flavor is a these connections ISEDET is able to facilitate South-South and positive aspect. As of 2000, a total of 195 master’s theses and South-North faculty and student exchanges and institutional 35 doctoral dissertations had been approved. Many graduates relationships. are teaching in theological institutions or in sciences of religion programs in Brazil and throughout Latin America, including all UMESP—Universidade Metodista de São Paulo / Methodist Univer- of the 20 who received master’s degrees and the 16 who received sity of São Paulo. UMESP is located in São Bernardo do Campo, doctorates in 2004. Three libraries are available for postgraduate a municipality belonging to Greater São Paulo in Brazil. The students: the general Methodist University library, the Method- university includes the Methodist Theological Seminary, which ist Seminary library, and the Ecumenical library. The last one is offers bachelor’s degrees. In 1976 UMESP inaugurated a post- specifically for the program and houses around 15,000 volumes graduate program in sciences of religion, offering a master’s in and over 2,000 periodicals. theology. In 1979 the program became the Ecumenical Institute The IEPG has changed as the institution has developed. Today of Post-Graduation (IEPG), offering master’s and doctoral de- it is a sponsoring organization responsible for ecumenical and grees. A distinctive emphasis of the program is the thoroughly international relations. It receives and administers scholarship ecumenical spirit, with a measure of autonomy and freedom, even and library grants and owns an off-campus Casa dos Estudantes though the IEPG is part of UMESP, a “confessional” university. (Student Home) that provides lodging for out-of-state commuting students, temporary lodging for students from out-of-country, and a VIP suite for visiting professors. The UMESP professors The IEPG coedits the collection Ciências da Religião (Sciences of Religion) in conjunction with Methodist-Loyola, and faculty see themselves more as and research groups produce the journal Estudos de Religião (Stud- scientists of religion than ies in Religion) which stands on a par with any academic journal as theologians and view in the world for quality and quantity of materials included. the IEPG as a research EST—Escola Superior de Teologia / Superior School of Theology. In contrast to the Presbyterian churches, which owe their origin institution. to missionaries to Latin America, the Evangelical Church of Lutheran Confession in Brazil (IECLB) was started by Ger- man immigrants who arrived in Brazil in 1824. In 1946 they The following ten Protestant denominations are represented founded a theological faculty in São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do on the board: Baptist Association of Churches, Christian Re- Sul, which became the EST, offering bachelor’s degrees in theol- formed, Episcopal Anglican, Evangelical Lutheran, Evangelical ogy. Initially the main language of study was German. In the of Lutheran Confession, Evangelical Reformed, Independent 1960s there was an intense debate over how to be a Lutheran Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, and United church in Brazilian soil. One result was the decision to teach Presbyterian. Roman Catholic and Pentecostal presence through only in Portuguese. By the end of the twentieth century the professors and students is significant. The largest department is library owned more books in Portuguese than in German (38 biblical studies, in which approximately half of the students are percent vs. 37 percent of its holdings), with the rest in English Roman Catholics. and Spanish (25 percent). In the postgraduate program in sciences of religion, the “sci- An integral part of EST, the Ecumenical Institute of Post- ences” include theology, as well as, for example, anthropology, Graduation (IEPG) created the master of theology program in , pedagogy, political science, psychology, and sociology, 1981 and the doctor of theology program in 1990. In the early all of which are in conversation with the religions of the conti- 1990s the postgraduate program in sciences of religion at the nent. The professors see themselves more as scientists of religion Methodist University in São Paulo and the postgraduate program than as theologians and view the IEPG as a research institution in theology at the Lutheran School of Theology in São Leopoldo where scientific methodology and rigor are extremely important were under the direction of one board, the IEPG. In 1993 they and whose main objective is to prepare academics. This outlook were formally separated, though the ecumenical cooperation of stands in sharp contrast to confessional theological seminaries, the two IEPGs continues. Seven denominations are represented whose emphasis is on apologetics, dogma, and evangelism on the board of the IEPG in São Leopoldo: Episcopal Anglican, and whose objective is to serve the church and defend a certain Evangelical Lutheran (IELB, Missouri Synod), Evangelical Church Christian tradition. of Lutheran Confession (IECLB), Independent Presbyterian, One of the most significant recent developments for theologi- Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist, and United Presbyterian. cal education in Brazil is that the Ministry of Education and Culture The postgraduate program has continually received the passed legislation to accredit theological seminaries and programs maximum accreditation grade of 7, a point of pride and strength in religion. (Similar legislation has been passed in Argentina and for the institution. With a faculty of 17, as of 2005 the IEPG had Costa Rica.) The postgraduate program in sciences of religion granted 110 master’s degrees and 47 doctoral degrees. In both of UMESP and that of the IEPG of the Lutheran Seminary (EST) programs one-third of the graduates have been women. The in São Leopoldo are the only Protestant postgraduate programs number of students in the two degree programs doubled in two with accreditation in Brazil. years to total 94 in 2004, most of whom were Lutherans from the The faculty for the postgraduate program in sciences of three southern states in Brazil. However, there were Catholics religion has 18 professors (14 are full-time). In 2004 there were and other denominations, as well as students from outside Brazil, 106 students, 64 seeking a master’s and 42 a doctoral degree, especially from Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile. coming from throughout Brazil, other parts of Latin America, EST is a school of theology committed to training pastors and beyond, including Roman Catholic missionaries from Poland and academic theologians who are involved in the ministry of

18 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Christian communities. The courses are all in theology, in contrast gentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay—for dialogue to the Methodist University in São Paulo, whose courses are in and exchange. The twin associations share a similar vision for sciences of religion. The professors see themselves as ecumenical contextual relevance, theological excellence, and ecumenical Lutheran theologian/pastors. This awareness does not diminish cooperation, and they participate in each other’s events. ASIT the school’s commitment to academic excellence and research. has fifty-one member institutions and since 1966 has promoted For EST the struggle is to be more ecumenical by attracting non- many consultations. Number 16 of their journal Encuentro y Lutheran professors and students, while for UMESP the struggle Diálogo (Encounter and Dialogue) was released at the fortieth is to be more at the service of the church. Both EST and UMESP anniversary in 2003; they have an electronic bulletin and often have a strong commitment to contextual relevance in Latin publish books in partnership with other institutions. ASIT’s ac- American society and culture. EST defines its reference points as creditation and library commissions are very active. The latter contextualization, interdisciplinary approach, and ecumenism, facilitates the development of computer technology in member and the theme of its research is Latin American theology. institutions and provides a CD with thesis information from The IEPG recently added an area of concentration, Educa- member schools. tion and Religion, which has attracted many students, and a new program, Mestrado Profissional, somewhat like the doctor ALIET—Asociación Latinoamericana de Instituciones de Educación of ministry, in the areas of liturgy and community education, Theología / Latin American Association of Institutions of Theological which already has 40 students. Education. ALIET has members from Peru in South America, EST participates in the International Network in Advanced through Central America and the Caribbean to Mexico, and func- Theological Education with other seminaries (mostly Lutheran) in tions much like ASTE and ASIT in coordinating and gathering India, South Africa, Hungary, China, Costa Rica (UBL), Canada, seminaries from a geographic region for theological, pedagogical, and Norway. The network promotes contextual theological re- and contextual reflections. Its assembly meets biannually. search through exchanges of students and professors. EST has interaction with ELCA seminaries through the sister relationship CETELA—Comunidad de Educación Teológica Ecuménica Latino- of the parent denomination, IECLB, with the Evangelical Lutheran americana y Caribeña / Ecumenical Community of Theological Educa- Church in America (ELCA). It also has a partnership with SET in tion in Latin America and the Caribbean. CETELA was created in Matanzas, Cuba, that provides a constant exchange of students 1988 to continue the work of the Special Fund for Theological and professors. Their student-exchange program provides an Education in Latin America (FEPETEAL), founded in 1980 by outstanding infrastructure that since 1994 has received 85 inter- seven seminaries to provide financial assistance to institutions national students from around the world. In the last ten years suffering from the economic crises in their countries. By definition 114 students of EST have participated in global exchanges, often CETELA is ecumenical, and one of its major concerns from the through the World Lutheran Federation. outset has been to stimulate contextualized theological reflection The library houses around 80,000 volumes, including 800 in Abya-Yala (i.e., Latin America and the Caribbean) in light of periodicals, and it acquires 1,400–1,800 new volumes annually. The IEPG also publishes a series of essays and monographs and a series of theses and dissertations and has collaborated in eighty The WCC’s Ecumenical publications with EST and the publishing house Editora Sinodal, both translations and books written by Brazilians. Theological Education Desk (ETE) accompanies Four Associations of Theological Seminaries and encourages the work ASTE—Associação de Seminários Teológicos Evangélicos / Association of ASTE, ASIT, ALIET, of Evangelical Theological Seminaries. The exuberant and turbulent decade of the 1960s was also an era of ecumenical cooperation and CETELA. during which the Theological Education Fund (TEF) of the World Council of Churches (WCC) visited Latin America and made many generous gifts and courageous contributions. In 1961 TEF major worldwide changes in the decades of the 1980s and 1990s inspired and supported the founding of the ASTE in Brazil. ASTE and into the new millennium. The Community is composed of began sponsoring an annual symposium that brought together twenty-four Protestant member institutions committed to ecu- thirteen evangelical seminaries “in an unprecedented Protestant menical openness. In contrast to the other associations, CETELA ecumenical experience in the field of theological education” to does not accredit institutions. In 1991 CETELA initiated a series reflect on a theme.6 Today there are thirty-eight member institu- of theological jornadas (day’s work together) with the following tions. Roman Catholics participated from the beginning, and the themes: first symposium was on Roman Catholicism. The lectures then became a part of the publication Symposium, whose forty-sixth “Theological Education in Situations of Survival” (Manágua, number appeared in 2004. ASTE has an occasional Bulletin and Nicaragua, 1991) has published sixty-six books, often collaborative efforts, both “Theological Education in Abya-Yala” (San José, Costa translations of theological classics and contextual works by Rica, 1992) Brazilian scholars. “Viability of Ministerial Formation in Today’s World” (Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 1994) ASIT—Asociación de Seminarios e Instituciones Teológicas / Associa- “Theology in Abya-Yala at the Dawn of the Twenty-first tion of Seminaries and Theological Institutes. Practically a twin of Century” (San Jerónimo, Colombia, 1995) ASTE, ASIT was born with assistance of the TEF in 1963 to bring “The Ultimate of Life in a Society with a Place for All” together institutions in five countries of the Southern Cone—Ar- (Matanzas, Cuba, 1997)

January 2007 19 “Abya-Yala and Its Faces: Theological Formation and Challenges Transversality” (Cumbayá, Ecuador, 2000) “Theologies of Abya-Yala and Theological Formation: In- In my judgment, the most creative and effective Latin American teractions and Challenges” (La Paz, Bolivia, 2003) theological educators and institutions are those committed to “Interculturality, Negotiation of Knowledge, and Theologi- ecumenical cooperation and academic rigor. They are more in- cal Education: Contemporary Challenges for Theology terested in seeking new models for our age of globalization and in Latin America” (São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil, our postmodern world than in maintaining existing ecclesiastical 2006) institutions. The leaders who are doing theology in Latin America today, seeking new theological answers for new times and con- As the theme for 2006 indicates, CETELA encourages theologi- structing theological programs of excellence, are challenged by cal debate among member institutions, as well as recognizes the the following tasks: necessity for contextualization of pedagogical methods through interaction between theology and pedagogy. Through publica- • Being ecumenical and inclusive without losing one’s tions CETELA seeks to discover new generations of theologians particular ecclesial identity and without alienating the and to find space for them in theological institutions, especially evangelical community. in the areas of indigenous theology, Afro-theology, feminist theol- • Achieving and maintaining government accreditation. ogy, Pentecostal theology, and campesina theology. • Offering postgraduate programs to prepare a new genera- These four associations of theological institutions in Latin tion of church leaders and professors for Latin American America are supported by the World Council of Churches through seminaries in their own context and continent. its Ecumenical Theological Education Desk (ETE), which replaced • Being academic with critical scientific methods in the the TEF. José Duque, ETE’s consultant for Latin America, accompa- study of the Christian faith without losing the notion nies and encourages the work of all four. ETE continues to provide of theology as a practice of the community of faith and small grants for some institutions and programs. Additionally, while maintaining the objective of pastoral and diaconal ASTE, ASIT, and ALIET are members of the World Conference service to the church and the realm of God. of Associations of Theological Institutions (WOCATI). • Maintaining contextual and social relevance by taking The Department of Bible and Theology of the Latin American popular cultures seriously, impacting society with Gos- branch of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches also provides pel values and ethics, engaging in prophetic missionary support and guidance to theological institutions. In 2001 the dialogue, and addressing political and economic crises Evangelical Seminary of Puerto Rico hosted its first encounter in the region through solidarity and the promotion of of seminary professors and institutions of member churches in structural transformation. Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean, which reflected on • Increasing projects of South-South exchange and inter- needs and projects of theological education in the region. A simi- action for professors and students through institutions lar encounter for South America was held in São Paulo in 2005. and associations, as well as exchanges with other parts At the Ninth Assembly of the WCC, in Porto Alegre, Brazil, of the world through networks and partnerships. the Café Teológico, a space sponsored by EST and ASTE with the • Creating programs and alternative courses and materials support of other institutions dedicated to theological education, that enable self-support. promoted stimulating dialogue and book signings and was a • Expanding library resources, information technology, huge success. Furthermore, over 100 theology students from Latin projects of investigation, and contextual theological America participated in the congress “Mission and Ecumenism publications in Spanish and Portuguese. in Latin America” during the Assembly at the Lutheran School • Offering continuing education for pastors and lay lead- of Theology (EST) in São Leopoldo, thirty-five kilometers from ers through distance learning and extension courses. Porto Alegre. Speakers came from the Assembly, and students • Strengthening the area of practical theology and espe- also participated in parts of the Assembly activities. The congress cially missiology, with new Latin American paradigms was sponsored by EST, ASTE, and CETELA, with the support of as part of the voice of the new majority church of the the WCC Ecumenical Theological Education network. South.

Notes 1. Because Anglo-Catholics in the Church of England and some German had missionaries in Latin America, some of whom were among societies considered Latin America to be a Roman Catholic continent the conference delegates. At Edinburgh these delegates gathered where any Protestant work would be mere proselytizing, they informally for a luncheon and then met with the secretaries of boards “insisted on its omission from the programme” in Edinburgh (Hugh with work in Latin America, who agreed that “Latin America should Martin, Beginning at Edinburgh . . . Fiftieth Anniversary, 1910–1960: A have a conference to do for all its mission interests what the Edinburgh Jubilee Assessment of the World Missionary Conference, 1910 [London: Conference was doing for the rest of the world” (Christian Work, Edinburgh House Press, 1960], p. 5). The boards working in Latin p. 7). Consequently, a conference in New York in 1913 appointed America agreed to this omission, “reserving at the same time the a Committee on Cooperation in Latin America, which planned a privilege of identifying themselves at some future time with a congress on the field in Panama in 1916 following the format of movement for a Latin American conference” (Christian Work in Edinburgh both in preparation and in follow-up. See Ruth Rouse Latin America, vol. 1, Reports of Commissions [New York: Missionary and Stephen C. Neill, eds., A History of the Ecumenical Movement, Education Movement, 1916], p. 6). However, in the introduction to 1517–1948, 2d ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1967), p. 396. the reports on Panama, the Edinburgh Conference is considered a 2. Osvaldo Henrique Hack, Protestantismo e Educação Brasileira factor that opened the way for other such conferences, especially (São Paulo: Casa Editora Presbiteriana, 1985), p.102. The schools in the unanimous vote to establish the Continuation Committee. studied are (with state in parenthesis) Colégio Agnes Erskine in Furthermore, many boards that sent delegates to Edinburgh also Recife (Pernambuco), Colégio Dois de Julho in Salvador (Bahia),

20 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Colégio Ev. Alto Jequitibá (Minas Gerais), Colégio Ev. Buriti (Mato (IEPG) of the Universidade Metodista de São Paulo (UMESP), Rua Grosso), Colégio Internacional in Campinas (São Paulo), Colégio do Sacramento, 230-Rudge Ramos, São Bernardo do Campo, São XV de Novembro in Garanhuns (Pernambuco), Escola Americana in Paulo, SP, 09640-000 Brazil; [email protected]. Curitiba (Paraná), Escola Americana in Florianópolis (Santa Catarina), EST http://www.est.com.br. Contact: Lothar Hoch, rector, Escola Escola Americana in São Paulo, Instituto Cristão in Castro (Paraná), Superior de Teologia (EST), 467 Rua Amadeo Rossi, 93030-220 São Instituto Gammon in Lavras (Minas Gerais), Instituto José Manoel Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; [email protected]. da Conceição in Jandira (São Paulo), and Instituto Ponte Nova ASTE http://www.aste.org.br. Contact: Fernando Bortolleto Filho, (Bahia). executive secretary, Rua Rego Freitas, 530, F-13, 01220-010 São Paulo, 3. José Míguez Bonino, “La educación teológica latinoamericana SP, Brazil; [email protected]. en busca de profundidad y relevancia,” Encuentro y Diálogo 16 ASIT http://www.asit.org.ar. Contact: Guillermo Steinfeld, executive (2003): 143. secretary, Casilla de Correo 103, 1449 Sucursal 49B, Buenos Aires, 4. Web sites and contact information for the various schools and Argentina; [email protected]. associations discussed here: ALIET http://www.wocati.org/aliet.html. Contact: Debora Garcia, UBL http://www.ubl.ubila.net. Contact: Violeta Rocha, rector, UBL, executive secretary, Prol. Cayetano Heredia, 151 Pueblo Libre, Lima, Apartado 901-1000, 350 Cedros de Montes de Oca, San José, Costa Peru; [email protected]. Rica; [email protected]. CETELA http://www.cetela.com.br. Contact: Roberto E. Zwetsch, SET http://www.cuba-theological-seminary.org. Contact: Reinerio executive secretary, Escola Superior de Teologia (EST), Caixa Postal Arce, rector, SET, Apartado 149, Matanzas, Cuba; [email protected]. 14, 93001-970 São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; cetela@est. ISEDET http://www.isedet.edu.ar. Contact: René Krüger, rector, com.br. Instituto Universitario ISEDET, Camacuá 252, C1406DOF Buenos 5. See http://www.isedet.edu.ar/jolah/journal/htm. Aires, Argentina; [email protected]. 6. João Dias de Araújo, Inquisition Without Burning, trans. James N. UMESP http://www.metodista.br. Contact: Antônio Carlos Wright (Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Superior de Estudos da Religião, Magalhães, coordinator of Instituto Ecumênico de Pós-Graduação 1982), p. 104.

My Pilgrimage in Mission Michael Amaladoss, S.J.

was born on December 8, 1936, to Christian parents in majority of the students in the school were Hindu, as were the IDindigul, Tamil Nadu, South India. My ancestors were teachers. Though the Jesuit priests spoke to us about “mission” Christians for about four generations. Both my father and my and there was a colony of Brahmins near the school who had mother were teachers in government schools. Their jobs took been converted forty years earlier, I did not notice any explicit them to various villages, largely Hindu. I grew up in a village “missionary” activity as such, though “mission Sunday” with of about 1,000 families, only three of which were Christian. For exhibitions was celebrated enthusiastically every year. There worship on Sundays we walked to a church that was three or were still some foreign missionaries, mostly French, in the Jesuit four miles away. There was a popular temple of the goddess community. They were happy to witness to the faith in a friendly Mariyamman in the village. I grew up knowing more about atmosphere. As a child in school, I had seen from afar two French Hinduism than Christianity. My friends and playmates were monks dressed in saffron. They—Jules Monchanin and Henri Hindus. It was a natural, human relationship, not hindered by Le Saux (who later took the name “Abhishiktananda”)—had ignorance or prejudice. My Christian identity was recognized founded a Christian ashram nearby in 1950. and respected, as I respected their different identities. An open, I entered the Society of Jesus in 1953. During my novitiate easy relationship with other believers has its roots in these early I spent about two weeks with Fr. Ignatius Hirudayam, who experiences. was an expert in Indian culture and religion and whom I still consider my guru. He planted the seeds of inculturation in my Jesuit Training and Studies heart and spirit, which flowered much later under more favorable circumstances. After some years of spiritual and literary forma- At the age of eleven I was put in a Jesuit boarding school in Ti- tion, between 1958 and 1961 I completed an M.A. in Christian ruchirapalli, a large town. The school had celebrated its centenary (Scholastic) philosophy. It was a period of intense study. With in 1944. Here I grew up as a good Catholic boarder, with the access to a good library, I read the best books available on In- daily Eucharist, regular evening prayers, practice of the sacra- dian philosophy and art. I did not neglect Scholastic authors ments, devotions to Mary, and celebrations of festivals. I used to like Thomas Aquinas, Jacques Maritain, and Etienne Gilson or volunteer to go to the surrounding parishes to organize games other Christian authors like G. K. Chesterton and Christopher and teach catechism to children on Sunday evenings. Contact Dawson. I was initiating myself on my own to South Indian with Hinduism, however, did not disappear. We were still liv- classical music. We formed a small group of students study- ing in the midst of large temples and fervent popular religiosity. ing Indian art and culture to be able to use them to present the The temple bell sounded as loud as the bell of the church. The Good News to India, seeing Christianity as the fulfillment of Hinduism. But the unintended side effect was a growing ap- Michael Amaladoss, S.J., is Director of the Institute of Dialogue with Cultures preciation for Indian culture and religion and a growing interest and Religions, Chennai, India. He is a past president of the International As- in inculturation. My M.A. thesis was a comparative study of sociation of Mission Studies. C. G. Jung and Yoga. Then, from 1961 to 1963, I had a chance to

January 2007 21 do a two-year diploma in South Indian classical music, special- sciences like anthropology and semiotics and philosophical ap- izing in singing, in a professional school in Chennai (formerly proaches like hermeneutics. Claude Lévi-Strauss, Paul Ricoeur, Madras). I was the only Christian in the school—and only the and Karl Rahner were great influences. The method was also second Christian student in the ten-year history of the school. interdisciplinary and has been very useful for my contextual (Later, after the Second Vatican Council, many more Christians theologizing. I have never, however, had the joy of using such joined the school.) I had teachers for whom music was not just expertise regarding criteria, since all serious inculturation has been an art but a life of devotion to the Lord. The songs I learned blocked at various levels, starting shortly after the council. My were 100 percent devotional and Hindu. own theological development has led me into Indian contextual I did my philosophical studies in Kurseong, in the Himalayas, theology and integral mission embracing the threefold dialogue from 1965 to 1969. The Second Vatican Council had happened in with the poor, the cultures, and the religions of Asia. the meantime, almost unnoticed by us, though the effects soon became visible. We began worshiping in the local languages. Responsibilities in India and in Rome Theology now was taught in English, not Latin. There was a new approach of dialogue with other religions and cultures. In 1967 I When I returned to India after my doctoral studies, I taught went on a pilgrimage for a month with two other Jesuit students for a couple of years in St. Paul’s Seminary at Tiruchirapalli in the south. There I founded a dialogue group in collaboration with Dom Bede Griffiths, whose ashram was just twenty miles I founded a dialogue group; away. Hindus and Christians and an occasional Muslim would come together once a month to talk comparative theology. Oc- Hindus and Christians and casionally the group would spend a whole day at Bede’s ashram an occasional Muslim for common sharing and prayer. I had also begun teaching at Vidyajyoti College of Theology in Delhi, where I stayed from would come to talk 1973 to 1983, and was editing their journal Vidyajyoti Journal of comparative theology. Theological Reflection. There I had colleagues like Jacques Dupuis (who also had been my teacher) and Samuel Rayan. During this time there was a lot of talk about inculturation and dialogue. I to the sacred places of Hinduism and Buddhism in North India: used to meet Swami Abhishiktananda in his last years when- Rishikesh, Haridwar, Mathura, Brindavan, Varanasi, Bodh Gaya, ever he passed through Delhi. In the interests of inculturation and Sarnath. We stayed in Hindu guest houses, visited Hindu and contextualization I facilitated the launching of the Regional temples, attended their rituals, and met Hindu sannyasis. It was Theological Centres for Jesuits, in which theology is taught in the interesting to be told that one was ripe for sannyasa (renuncia- local (Indian) language, in close touch with the living situation tion). One such meeting lingers in my memory even today. A of the people in different parts of the country, but academically friend in Mathura took us to meet a Hindu sannyasi who had associated with the college at Delhi. This has been a successful lived through a two-year period of absolute silence, alone with experiment. At the national level I participated in theological his scriptures and in meditation. I have never seen such joy and reflection concerning the possibility of considering the scriptures brightness on a human face either before or after. I realized that of other religions as inspired and therefore of using those texts in God, after all, is present and active even in the people of other our prayers and even in the official liturgy, in an effort to develop religions. I plunged into a study of Indian spirituality. My first an Indian Christian spirituality and sadhana (methods of prayer), published articles (in English) were a comparison of Indian and in explorations into a method for doing Indian theology, and in Ignatian spirituality and a study of Gandhian spirituality. During introducing some little adaptations like gestures and symbols our pilgrimage we had visited the Christian ashram of Murray into the Roman liturgy of the Eucharist to give it an Indian flavor. Rogers, an Anglican, which brought me into contact with the I attended an Asian mission congress in Manila in 1979, which giants of Hindu-Christian dialogue at the time like Raimondo exposed me to the thought and experience of other countries in Panikkar and Abhishiktananda. I was at a seminar with them Asia, especially East Asia. in Mumbai (formerly Bombay) in 1968. Abhishiktananda was a In 1983 I moved to Rome as one of the counselors to the su- great influence in making me realize the importance of advaita perior general of the Jesuits. While my work involved advising (nonduality) in Indian spirituality and theology. By this time I had the general on all administrative matters, I also had to keep an begun to appreciate Hindu philosophy, spirituality, and culture eye on all that concerned mission in the Society of Jesus. This for their own sake and not merely as instruments to be used in period in Rome (1983–95) pushed me, rather accidentally, into proclaiming the Gospel. They can certainly facilitate divine- the area of missiology proper. In early 1983 I gave a paper on human encounter. In the same period I was a student representa- dialogue, “Faith Meets Faith,” in a congress in Baltimore of the tive in May 1969 at the National Seminar in Bangalore, in which U.S. Catholic Mission Association. It received some criticism, so I the Catholic Church set itself an agenda of renewal as a follow-up began developing my thought on mission and dialogue in a series to the Second Vatican Council. of articles, partly to explain and defend myself. Given my posi- From 1969 to 1972 I was at the Institut Catholique in Paris for tion in the Society of Jesus, I became a consultant to the Pontifical my doctoral studies. Because of my study in music, I was asked Council for Interreligious Dialogue and to the Pontifical Council to focus on the liturgy and the sacraments, but my specialization for Culture. I was also one of the seven Vatican representatives in was inculturation. The topic of my thesis was “Do Sacraments the Commission for World Mission and Evangelism of the World Change? Variable and Invariable Elements in Sacramental Rites,” Council of Churches. I became a member of the Executive Com- in which I tried to develop criteria to help the process of incul- mittee of SEDOS, an organization that serves a group of religious turation. If we were to evolve an Indian rite for the sacraments, congregations involved in mission. It publishes a bulletin and which elements should we leave alone, and which could we conducts periodical seminars. The SEDOS assemblies, in which change? This research was a very useful introduction to social missionaries with many years of experience in the field take part,

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January 2007 23 were a good sounding board for new ideas. I was also involved disciples. The other religions become allies in this endeavor, the in mission reflection in the Society of Jesus and helped prepare real enemies being Satan and Mammon. Dialogue today should the discussion in its Thirty-fourth General Congregation. I was be collaboration. getting recognized as an Asian (Indian) theologian in Rome and The fact that I have not been tied to a faculty of theology may was invited for many international meetings. These involvements have enabled me to wander far and to be creative and free. I have meant opportunities for encountering people and problems in not produced scholarly volumes that would delight specialists, a various continents. My responsibilities at the Jesuit Generalate choice I do not regret. The attempt to create contextual theology were not heavy enough to deter me from pursuing my theologi- in India may have also saved me from being a prisoner of Euro- cal interests, writing, lecturing, and participating in conferences. American “systematic theology.” Even now, we Asian (Indian) While in Rome, I kept up my contact with India and Asia by theologians resent the implication that our reflections are not annual visits and conferences both of the Indian Theology As- systematic if they are not a dialogue with the Euro-American sociation and of the Federation of Asian Bishops’ Conferences. “system.” We are convinced that no serious Indian (Asian) theol- Criticisms of my theological views from official quarters were ogy will emerge as long as we are tied to the apron strings of a not long in coming, but they have only made me clarify my own Euro-American system. We can correlate our experience to the thinking further. I was invited to respond to a paper at the Rome Gospel without the mediation of a theological system, which we Congress of the International Association of Mission Studies and see ultimately as a game of power and control. Unfortunately, was promptly elected its vice-president. Eventually I served a any reflections on the theme of the dialogue of the Gospel with term as its president. I continue as a member of the editorial cultures and religions are suspect today if they do not conform to board of Spiritus, a French review of mission. Still I would prefer the Euro-American system, which is thrust on us as normative. to be known, not as a missiologist, but as an Indian theologian No one seems to imagine the damage this attitude is doing to who is also interested in mission and dialogue, inculturation, the credibility and relevance of Christianity in Asia today. This and liberation. issue may seem to be a special problem of the highly centralized Roman Catholic Church, but in fact is relevant to all Christian Writings—and Insights theology. Colonialism of all kinds dies hard. I am sure that Asian theologians will soon assert their creative freedom. My writings (24 books and about 340 articles, as of 2006) reflect I returned to India in 1995 and continued teaching in Delhi. my varied interests: mission and dialogue, the theology of re- In 2001 I moved down to Chennai to become the director of a new ligions, liberation, inculturation, Indian Christian spirituality, Institute of Dialogue with Cultures and Religions. This institute methodology in theology, sacraments, and Christology. A few is the new form of an ashram (founded in 1973) that focused on indicative titles are Making All Things New: Dialogue, Pluralism, an ashram way of life and on inculturation of spirituality and and Evangelization in Asia (1990); A Call to Community: The Caste liturgy, as well as interreligious dialogue at a spiritual level. The System and Christian Responsibility (1994); Life in Freedom: Liberation guru, however, died in 1994. A new team took over the center Theologies from Asia (1997); Beyond Inculturation: Can the Many Be after some years and sought to focus on dialogue in the context One? (1998); Making Harmony: Living in a Pluralist World (2003); of interreligious violence. It was then decided to move into re- and The Dancing Cosmos: A Way to Harmony (2003). My latest book search concerning the real causes for the violence, the ways of is The Asian Jesus (2005), which explores the images that Asians promoting peace, and so forth. I have been associated with this perhaps would have used to understand Jesus if Christianity new orientation. Dialogue is not merely an “I’m OK, you’re OK” kind of phenomenon. I have found it more difficult to dialogue about contentious issues like violence. I also see that the Hindu The center sought to focus elite may not like the violence, but neither do they condemn it, trying rather to “understand” it as an inevitable response on dialogue in the context to provocation, even though such provocation may prove on of interreligious violence. inquiry to be more rumor than fact. Educated Hindus often ask me, “Why do you want to convert us?” We do not realize that a person who feels that he is an object of an effort at conversion had spread toward Asia rather than toward the West, such as may feel hurt that he or she is considered religiously inferior the Sage, the Way, the Guru, the Avatar (divine manifestation in and may resent such an implication as an attack against him or human form), the Satyagrahi (fighter for Truth), the Servant, the her and against God. In such a situation any dialogue that goes Compassionate, the Dancer, and the Pilgrim. Because of my train- on without any reference to interreligious suspicion, fear, and ing in music I have been able to compose about 100 hymns and violence seems hypocritical. So the Institute of Dialogue with bhajans (repetitive devotional chants for prayer) for the liturgy, Cultures and Religions, which I am now directing, aims at doing a two-volume “teach yourself” book on South Indian music for research to find out the real causes of interreligious violence and beginners, and songs on Christian themes for Bharathanatyam to explore ways of making peace. (the South Indian classical dance tradition), thus balancing intel- In the process, interreligious dialogue is taking a new shape. lect with emotion. If I respect the freedom of God, who reaches out, and the free- I have learned that mission is primarily God’s mission through dom of the humans who respond, dialogue is the only way of Jesus and the Spirit. It embraces the whole universe and all his- encountering the other. At the same time, my own self-awareness tory. The goal of mission is the building up of the reign of God has also changed. Hinduism is no longer an “other” religion for and of the church as its symbol and servant. In Asia this goal is me. I see it as the religion of my ancestors. It is also part of my achieved through a threefold dialogue of the Gospel with the inheritance. I become a Hindu-Christian. Interreligious dialogue poor, the cultures, and the religions. Dialogue is mutual prophecy. then becomes intrapersonal. I must integrate my multiple roots Through our witness to Jesus others may be called to become his and render them transformative.

24 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Missiometrics 2007: Creating Your Own Analysis of Global Data

his report represents our twenty-third annual table on Let’s take as example a subject of widespread interest: the Tglobal mission prepared for the IBMR each January since presence and influence of female workers. Start with Column 2 1983. In these 8 pages we examine the total extent of Christ’s at Row 4, showing 4,440,000 female workers. Turn the whole of mission across the world. We also present a method the reader Column 2’s 39 Rows of personnel totals into percentages, e.g., can use to analyze and make sense of the vast mass of data Row 7 is 2,958,000 which divided by 4,440,000 shows that 66% available nowadays. These are shown here in 5 global tables of all female workers are unmarried. Likewise 11% are ordained placed on the 6 concluding pages of this report. On these first clergy, and 0.1% are bishops or presidents. Work out % figures 2 pages we present the tables briefly and provide description, in all other related boxes firstly in this Column 2. commentary, and some analysis. The rest of the report then Now move to Table 2’s 8 x 39 boxes. On a separate sheet provides a progressive analysis of the 5 tables. or screen, leave all 312 boxes blank. Add all the 39 numbers percentages you have worked out and place them in Column Christian workers and their context 2. Column 2 will now show 38 percentage figures (%). Do the same for Column 4, then for Column 6, then for Column 8. (Global Table 1) This gives you a grid that shows 156 percentages depicting exclusively numbers of female workers. Next do exactly the This first table, shown in full 2 pages later, illustrates the widely same on the same sheet analysing all 7,085,000 male workers practiced compilation of mission statistics for individual into 156 boxes of percentages. This completes filling all 312 subjects. Its categories are however isolated, separate, boxes on the same sheet. Now one can compare female workers standalone denominationally-related but statistically-unrelated with their male counterparts. Lastly, if one so desires, one can figures which cannot be added cumulatively with other statistics analyze all these 312 percentages again by any or all of the 39 to yield meaningful global totals. variables themselves, leading to 12,168 additional comparison A short description of the uses of church and mission options. statistics would be that they help in understanding the past (church history), analyzing and implementing the present (day Foreign mission personnel sent out by 350 to day activities), and anticipating and planning for the future (futuristics). Our analysis should illuminate these goals. Christian World Communions (Global Table 3)

Creating your own analysis via multiple Virtually all of Christianity’s 350 Christian World Communions and their 39,000 denominations give missionary outreach options (Global Table 2) as their central emphasis. The major ecumenical grouping, CSCWC, has 21 member bodies of whom 13 are over 10,000,000 This next table, shown in full 3 pages later, invites you, the in membership. Altogether, over 140 CWCs have memberships reader, to investigate any global subject enumerated here. The of over 1 million each. Most have sizable foreign networks and method is simple. You select a number shown here by its box in denominations. this table, divide it by any other number in a box, and multiply All the 350 CWCs can now be analyzed by the 4 variables by 100. This will produce a number of similar percentages likely shown (involvement, church members, external strength, internal to convey insights. influence) as well as by the grids just produced for Global Table Global Table 2 has 8 Columns, 39 numerical Rows, which 2, now followed by Global Table 3’s 1,400 (350 x 4) boxes for means there are 312 boxes with each’s number visible. Global comparisons. Tables 3-5 then contribute further variables for use in our analysis: This third table shows which ecclesiastical traditions are 350 Christian World Communions (CWCs) with 4 variables each sending out these foreign mission personnel. Three Communions (from Global Table 3), 238 countries in 7 continents and 3 worlds send out over 100,000 each, and 2 more from 30,000 to 100,0000. (Global Table 4), 79 presences or activities, and 6 historical data The great majority—310—each send less than 1,000 personnel columns: 1800, 1900, 1970, 2000 (with trend % per year), 2007, abroad. Size is not of course a guarantor of influence; for this, and 2025 (Global Table 5). Multiplying these options together readers should compare the figures of missionaries per million produces a vast number of possible boxes to compute data into. in Global Table 3 Column 5, and also Global Table 4 Columns And multiplying this total by the basic boxes in Global Table 2 3 and 5. produces phenomenal grand totals of several thousand options into any of which your selection of data can be squeezed. In Foreign missionaries across the world many cases smaller countries and CWCs will only show a tiny fraction of 1 in its smallest box. But the order of magnitude of (Global Table 4) any of these estimates will each be realistic. By AD 2005, foreign mission personnel numbered 443,000 full-time employees of church and mission agencies, rising This eight-page report, which is also available as a separate offprint, was prepared by David B. Barrett, a contributing editor, Todd M. Johnson, and by 2007 to 453,000. Global Table 4 lists each country’s total Peter F. Crossing, who publish widely in the field of missiometrics. Most personnel sent and received. Eleven countries send out more subjects mentioned in this report are expanded in detail in their World than 10,000 each: USA 115,700, Italy 33,300, Spain 32,200, France Christian Encyclopedia (1982, 2001) and World Christian Trends (2001) 32,200, Germany 28,000, Brazil 21,100, Britain 19,500, Canada and in www.WorldChristianDatabase.org. 17,400, South Korea 15,800, Netherlands 10,800 and Belgium

January 2007 25 10,800. Eleven countries receive more than 10,000 each: USA 2007. There are now 2,077,909,000 baptized Christian believers, 35,100, Brazil 26,400, Russia 20,100, France 16,900, Britain a success story indeed. 15,800, Congo-Zaire 15,800, South Africa 12,700, Italy 12,700, C-2. Paradoxically, however, when changed to percentages Argentina 12,700, Germany 10,600, Philippines 10,000. These Row 24 shows the same figures remaining unchanged at 34% large numbers can be further described as the cutting edge of over the entire period from 1900 to 2025. Stagnation has set in, on global Christianity. Especially is this so when one realizes that this way of counting. The analysis behind this is given in World the percentage of Charismatics in these totals varies from 15% Christian Trends, Part 3. to 90%. Overall the numbers point to there being a very healthy B-1. The Commission’s main imperative in English is ‘Tell!’ international sharing of mission personnel. Of the world’s 7 Evangelized persons are people and populations adequately continents, 4 receive more than they send: Africa, Asia, Latin aware of Christianity, Christ, and the gospel, who have been America, Oceania. Nevertheless, these 4 send out and support ‘told’ the gospel. Row 78 in Global Table 5 quantifies them at 107,192 of their own foreign missionaries. 100-28 = 72% of world population, which is Row 1 minus Row 77, computing to 4,765,446,000 persons. Their annual increase Status of global mission and activities is 58.4 millions of persons newly evangelized for the first time (160,000 a day), an amazing achievement that many agencies (Global Table 5) are responsible for. B-2. Meanwhile the whole world is expanding in 2007 by 79.4 This final table forms the climax of this report. It enumerates the millions per year (287,530 per day). Some 20 millions are thus not multifold activities, presence and context of the missionary force. reached or served although several thousand Christian agencies It depicts how to analyze 79 variables across 225 years. make this their aim to accomplish. This is a failure representing Foreign mission personnel are involved in all the 16 major the other side of the paradox—failure by baptized Christians to concerns and situations of Christianity shown in capital headings attain their own widely-proclaimed global goals. in Global Table 5. Missionaries are also involved in virtually every A-1. The Great Commission’s main overall emphasis is one of the 79 spheres of activities enumerated there, often as far ‘Evangelize!’, so ‘unevangelized’ is the umbrella term for all not back as the year 1800 (first column of statistics). benefiting from the Commission’s 110 parallel or synonymous Global Table 5 sets out global statistics for 79 variables each imperatives. The churches’ stewardship over 2 centuries on enumerated at the 6 years 1800, 1900, 1970, 2000, 2007, 2025. this can be depicted in various ways. In Row 78 statistics of the A trend variable in Column 7 provides 553 (79 x 7) additional unevangelized world fall from 74.6% of the world in 1800, then comparative boxes of percentages and trends. drop precipitously to 28% by 2007. This appears to represent a Total foreign mission personnel have grown from 25,000 massive achievement by churches and agencies. in AD 1800 to 443,000 by 2005. Of the latter 245,000 are men A-2. However, a quite different picture emerges if instead and 198,000 are women. But these figures refer to full-time we examine the actual numbers of the unevangelized (persons workers, which means those employed full-time by churches unaware of Christianity, Christ, or the gospel). Row 77 thus and missions. However, the rest of the population should not be reveals a progression of rapidly increasing numbers up to 2007. labelled as part-timers. In fact, as Global Table 1 explains, there This is not progress, from these individuals’ viewpoint—it is are 688 million Great Commission Christians (rising by 2007 neglect, even regress. to 703,225,000) defined primarily as persons believing in and committed to Christ’s Great Commission and the worldwide Summary mission of the church. Of these millions, this analysis divides this vast bloc into two: 468 million function as background supporters This vast collection of percentages and numbers can now each be of worldwide foreign missions (Paragraph D in Global Table examined from varied points of view—demographic, theological, 1). The remaining 220 million Great Commission Christians missiological. This is where your mass of new statistics suddenly function as primarily supporters of home missions (Paragraph opens up for you new and often startling comparisons and C in Global Table 1). insights. We all look forward to hearing what new findings your The annual paradox: progress or regress? research discovers.

Global Table 5 presents each year data illustrating two paradoxical situations about the status of the global Christian mission—the Sources and documentation first appearing to be undergoing remarkable progress, the second undergoing little-noted stagnation or even decline. The Most of the statistics listed in the preceding analysis come, in the main global statistical categories involved are our threefold first instance, from the multiple censuses and minicensuses that terms World A, World B, and World C, described here for compose each year’s Megacensus. Due to differing definitions convenience in reverse order: C = Christians (baptized persons), of the terms used by different denominations and Christian B = evangelized persons, A = unevangelized persons. Both World Communions, and to the overlapping categories at a situations for these three are given detailed statistics in Global number of points, the total picture presented here should be Table 5, amply documented and nowhere contradictory. Here regarded as in the main an impressionistic portrait in oils rather are these six, each with reference to Christ’s Great Commission than an exact photographic image with everything in focus. with its 110 English-language imperatives. This situation, and its attendant problems and solutions, are C-1. The key quantifiable imperative in the Great Commission described and discussed in detail in the presentation of data is ‘Baptize!’, the only imperative enabling exact enumeration. and methodology set out in World Christian Trends, AD 30 – Row 25 shows the churches’ tenfold response from AD 1800 to AD 2200.

26 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Global Table 1. Christian workers in the context of global Christianity and its mission, with comparison with other large religions.

The problem raised by most varieties of statistics of workers is that the 1,090,000 clergy (290,000 being women), religious personnel world’s 37,000 denominations count and publish their annual figures 2,585,000 (26% men, 74% women), lay personnel 1,337,000, with their own definitions of categories which differ from most other seminarians 650,000. Also a large number of men and of women denominations’ usage. This means that each’s figures cannot be simply work as missionaries of regular mission agencies, unknown to added to get global totals. For example, ‘retired’ clergy continue to the churches because they function completely independently. preach, visit, and serve in local churches after their retirement; oth- ers, though officially retired, continue to write major books or work C. Christian home mission personnel (home missionaries, defined in broadcasting. Thousands of independent workers function with no as all workers who are citizens of the country they work in, and organizational ties. are usually recognized and termed as missionaries): 6,070,000 (74% men, 26% women); mostly related to the world’s 37,000 The next Paragraph enumerates the global context in 2007; next, denominations; 480,000 clergy/priests/pastors/ ministers/ Paragraphs A, B, C, and D enumerate for 2005 a selection of the more deacons, including preachers, lay preachers, radio/TV significant varieties of Christian workers, with overall totals in A = preachers, 100 mega-evangelists, evangelizers, chaplains, lay B + C + D, followed by a sampling of lesser categories. Statistics in readers, missioners, mission partners, 3,500,000 catechists, Global Tables 2 to 4 relate mainly to 2005. Paragraph D on this page 60,000 colporteurs, 590,000 local evangelists/teachers; 120,000 as the major mission category is set in bold type. Lastly, Paragraph E administrators, 130,000 accountants; most personnel use e- enumerates non-Christian workers. mail online, in 2,000 languages; incapacitated or sick workers, 44,000; retired home missionaries 56,000, of whom 16,000 Global status of Christianity in AD 2007 (65.8 generations remain unpensioned; background supporters in mission (Great after Christ): of world population of 6,616 millions (55% Commission Christians) 220 million. female), 66.8% (4.4 billions) are non-Christians (49% female), 33.2% (2,196 millions) are Christians (44.0% of them being D. Christian foreign mission personnel (foreign missionaries, White, 56.0% Non-White), of whom 31.4% (2,078 millions) defined as all workers who are aliens (noncitizens) in the are affiliated church members in 350 Christian World country they work in): 443,000 in 4,340 mission-sending Communions, 10.6% (703,225,000, up from 688,000,000 in 2005) agencies (55% men, 45% women; 80% abroad at any one time, are Great Commission Christians committed to Christ’s 20% absent on home leave): 100,000 male clergy/ministers, worldwide mission, including 258,669,000 Evangelicals 30,000 ordained women; 120,000 male lay workers, 98,000 and 602,792,000 Renewalists (Pentecostals, Charismatics, women lay workers; 135,000 married men, 110,000 unmarried Neocharismatics); of the wider world, 72.0% (4,765 millions) men (singles, widowers, celibates, monks, contemplatives, are evangelized (aware of the Gospel), with Scriptures directly friars); 95,000 married women (homemakers, wives, widows), translated into 2,238 languages (424 with whole Bible, 1,000 with 103,000 unmarried women (23,000 singles, 50,000 nuns, 20,000 New Testament only, and 814 with a gospel only), or Scriptures sisters); traditional categories of worker – pastoral, medical, indirectly available in 7,364 languages (2,256 with Bible or near- educational, agricultural, also broadcasters, scripture translators Bible, 3,228 with NT or near-NT, and 1,880 with a Portion or and distributors; 130,000 are career missionaries (over 10 near-Portion). years of service abroad); missionaries using e-mail online 410,000 in 5,000 languages; 8,000 independent missionaries A. Total all full-time Christian workers: 11,525,000 (61% (unaffiliated to any agency); missionaries murdered, 130 a men 7,085,000, 39% women 4,440,000), consisting of 1.2 year; incapacitated or sick missionaries 4,000; missionaries’ million ordained male clergy/priests/pastors/ministers/ children (under 15s) 31,000; professional tentmakers 210,000, deacons/preachers, 500,000 ordained women, 3,440,000 short-termers (under 1 year abroad) 410,000; 210,000 ex foreign religious personnel (in 2,500 religious orders, institutes, and missionaries (prematurely resigning) in attrition rate of 12,000 congregations), 300,000 ordained brothers, 6,385,000 lay per year; retired foreign missionaries 10,000, of whom 3,000 workers, 348,000 lay missionaries (so designated), 500,000 remain unpensioned; background supporters in mission (Great monks, 50,000 friars, 1,490,000 nuns, 1.1 million sisters, 3,506,000 Commission Christians) 468 million. catechists, 71,000 colporteurs, 35,000 bishops/presidents/ moderators/metropolitans/patriarchs, 800,000 evangelists/ E. Non-Christian foreign missionaries sent abroad: Muslims (who teachers, 360,000 administrators, 330,000 accountants, 410,000 number 20.4% of the world) send out 200,000 engaging in Dawah short-term missionaries, 6,000 nonresidential missionaries, (missionary activity) in 60 countries; Hindus and Neo-Hindus 1,052,000 theologians, 32,000 missiologists, 1.0 million semi- (13.5% of the world) send out 20,000; Buddhists (5.9% of the narians (in 5,000 seminaries); retired workers 116,000, of whom world) send out 20,000; Baha’is, Chinese universists, Sikhs, 81,000 are pensioned and 35,000 unpensioned. Jews, and Neoreligionists all send out significant numbers; with a grand total for all non-Christians (who number 66.9% B. Christian home pastoral workers (those not usually regarded of the world) sending out some 300,000 workers to 210 foreign or termed as missionaries): 5,012,000 (47% men, 53% women), countries.

January 2007 27 Global Table 2. Varieties and totals of the world’s full-time Christian pastoral and mission personnel AD 2005.

COLUMNS. Full-time ecclesiastical workers/personnel are here major varieties shown in capitals on Rows 1, 3, 10, 12, 18, 26, 38, and shown in 4 large columns: A, B, C, and D, where D = Foreign mission, 41. Category totals (Rows 2, 4, 10, 12, 18, 26, 38, and 41) are shown in C = Home mission, B = Home pastoral work (non-missionary), and A bold type. Under these 8 some 39 ecclesiastical categories are then listed = global total = B + C + D. Each of the 4 columns is then subdivided and enumerated. All numbers are given to the nearest thousand to allow by gender into Men, and Women. for minor overlaps and differing definitions among Christianity’s ROWS. Each of the 39 rows of data that follow refers to its global 37,000 denominations and its 350 Christian World Communions. category and global totals. Related personnel are categorized by 8 Definitions of all rows are given on the facing page.

Row Column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. SPHERE OF WORK A. ALL WORKERS B. HOME PASTORAL C. HOME MISSION D. FOREIGN MISSION 2. Total all workers 11,525,000 5,012,000 6,070,000 443,000 3. GENDER Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women 4. Total workers by gender 7,085,000 4,440,000 2,360,000 2,652,000 4,480,000 1,590,000 245,000 198,000 5. Gender, % 61 39 47 53 74 26 55 45 6. Married 5,585,000 1,482,000 1,820,000 587,000 3,630,000 800,000 135,000 95,000 7. Unmarried 1,500,000 2,958,000 540,000 2,065,000 850,000 790,000 110,000 103,000 8. Singles 620,000 418,000 260,000 165,000 300,000 230,000 60,000 23,000 9. Celibates 880,000 2,540,000 280,000 1,900,000 550,000 560,000 50,000 80,000 10. CLERGY 1,200,000 500,000 800,000 290,000 300,000 180,000 100,000 30,000 11. Bishops 30,000 5,000 20,000 2,000 5,000 1,000 5,000 2,000 12. RELIGIOUS personnel 850,000 2,590,000 685,000 1,900,000 140,000 620,000 25,000 70,000 13. Monks 500,000 — 455,000 — 40,000 — 5,000 — 14. Friars 50,000 — 30,000 — 10,000 — 10,000 — 15. Brothers 300,000 — 200,000 — 90,000 — 10,000 — 16. Nuns — 1,490,000 — 1,000,000 — 440,000 — 50,000 17. Sisters — 1,100,000 — 900,000 — 180,000 — 20,000 18. LAY personnel 5,035,000 1,350,000 875,000 462,000 4,040,000 790,000 120,000 98,000 19. Lay missionaries 200,000 148,000 90,000 50,000 90,000 40,000 20,000 58,000 20. Lay ministers 700,000 270,000 470,000 150,000 200,000 100,000 30,000 20,000 21. Catechists 3,005,000 501,000 — — 3,000,000 500,000 5,000 1,000 22. Colporteurs 60,000 11,000 — — 50,000 10,000 10,000 1,000 23. Evangelists/Teachers 600,000 195,000 100,000 80,000 480,000 110,000 20,000 5,000 24. Administrators 250,000 110,000 118,000 79,000 100,000 20,000 32,000 11,000 25. Accountants 220,000 115,000 97,000 103,000 120,000 10,000 3,000 2,000 26. AUXILIARY personnel 1,924,000 326,000 1,450,000 238,000 354,000 36,000 120,000 52,000 27. Furloughed/On leave 47,000 36,000 25,000 24,000 10,000 5,000 12,000 7,000 28. Sick/ill personnel 52,000 31,000 20,000 15,000 30,000 14,000 2,000 2,000 29. Short-term missionaries 260,000 150,000 — — — — 260,000 150,000 30. Nonresidential missionaries 5,000 1,000 — — — — 5,000 1,000 31. Pilgrim evangelizers 50,000 50,000 — — — — 50,000 50,000 32. Tourist evangelizers 150,000 350,000 — — — — 150,000 350,000 33. Tent-makers 180,000 30,000 — — — — 180,000 30,000 34. Seminarians 800,000 200,000 500,000 150,000 200,000 10,000 100,000 40,000 35. Theologians 1,000,000 52,000 900,000 45,000 96,000 5,000 4,000 2,000 36. Missiologists 25,000 7,000 5,000 4,000 18,000 2,000 2,000 1,000 37. Ex foreign missionaries 90,000 120,000 — — — — 90,000 120,000 38. RETIRED personnel 75,000 41,000 30,000 20,000 40,000 16,000 5,000 5,000 39. Pensioned 52,000 29,000 18,000 16,000 30,000 10,000 4,000 3,000 40. Unpensioned 23,000 12,000 12,000 4,000 10,000 6,000 1,000 2,000 41. BACKGROUND supporters 300 million 388 million — — 90 million 130 million 210 million 258 million

28 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 DEFINITIONS OF ROWS in Global Table 2.

1. SPHERE OF WORK. Description by the 4 categories of sphere of work: A, B, C, and D, and by the 7 varieties of personnel shown below as Rows in bold type. 2. Total all global workers combined (men and women), for all categories, in AD 2005. This total for each column = A = B + C + D, also for Rows 10 + 12 + 18. Note: in this table, ‘mission personnel’ involves only Rows 2 to 25, and is strictly defined as in Rows 10 + 12 + 18 (sometimes termed ‘career missionaries’). 3. GENDER (Rows 3 to 9): Men, Women for each variety. Note in several areas of Christian work, spouses do not call themselves workers unless specifically and officially so designated. 4. Total workers by gender: Men, Women. Note expansion of foreign mission personnel by gender: AD 1800, 25,000 (20,000 men, 5,000 women); AD 1900, 62,000 (47,000 men, 15,000 women); AD 1970, 240,000 (144,000 men, 96,000 women); AD 2005, as shown in Row 4. 5. Total workers by gender, % for each column (column 4 divided by column 2 times 100). 6. Workers married (omitting the many spouses of Christian workers who do not consider themselves also as Christian workers or mission personnel). 7. Workers unmarried. 8. Singles (unmarried, no vows). 9. Celibates (vows): those who have taken vows of celibacy or poverty. 10. CLERGY (clerical personnel): Ordained ministers/priests/pastors /deacons/preachers/chaplains/missioners, including Row 11. 11. Bishops/moderators/presidents, metropolitans, patriarchs, primates, popes (counted also in Row 10). 12. RELIGIOUS personnel: (members of religious orders, congregations or institutes (= Rows 12 to 17) excluding clergy (already enumerated here under Row 10)). 13. Monks (contemplatives, usually in the 9,000 monasteries). 14. Friars (mendicants, including OFM, OP). 15. Brothers (vows), usually in organized orders or agencies. 16. Nuns (strict vows, contemplatives). 17. Sisters (simple vows, serving outside convents). 18. LAITY, LAY personnel (= Rows 18 to 25). 19. Lay missionaries (so designated). 20. Lay ministers (unordained but serving temporarily or permanently as ministers). 21. Catechists (serving in their home countries alongside foreign missionaries). 22. Colporteurs (itinerant Bible sales and Scripture distribution personnel). 23. Evangelists/Teachers (church teachers in own countries); including itinerant evangelists. 24. Administrators, to administer personnel and support at home or abroad. 25. Accountants, treasurers, responsible for handling churches’ total income of US$360 billion per annum (see Global Table 5, Rows 58-60). 26. AUXILIARY personnel: (Rows 26 to 37 are noted here but not counted in Rows 3 to 25; likewise with Rows 38 to 40). 27. Furloughed/ On home leave (or otherwise absent from their primary work area); average time of foreign service 5 years. 28. Sick/ill personnel temporarily inactive in long-term situations. 29. Short-term missionaries (serving abroad, from 2 weeks to under one year). 30. Nonresidential foreign missionaries working with an unevangelized people in an unreached (World A) country but domiciled in their own country or a different one, with unrestricted communications and freedom of ministry. 31. Pilgrim evangelizers: pilgrims to a Christian shrine in a foreign unreached area, deliberately as evangelizers. 32. Tourist evangelizers: Christian individuals, families, churches, denominations touring a World A foreign country, deliberately as evangelizers. 33. Tent-makers (in secular posts abroad but assisting foreign missionaries in their work). 34. Seminarians (enrolled theological students usually working towards ordination). 35. Theologians, Bible teachers (duplication, since also counted in Rows 10, 12, 18). 36. Missiologists (duplication). 37. Ex foreign missionaries: formerly employed by a church or mission agency, then resigned prematurely and took other employment. This rate of missionary attrition averages 5% per year or 50% per decade. 38. RETIRED personnel (for workers in Rows 10 + 12 + 18 only), usually over 60 or 65 years old. 39. Pensioned (retirees whose former employer provides old-age pension obligation). 40. Unpensioned (workers who reach retirement age and then discover their former employer has no retirement or old-age pension plans). 41. BACKGROUND supporters of Christian mission (also termed Great Commission Christians, active on behalf of Christ’s world mission but not enrolled as employed church workers in Rows 10, 12, 18).

January 2007 29 Global Table 3. Foreign mission personnel sent out across the world via 350 Christian World Communions. A Christian World Communion (CWC) is defined as an ongoing body uniting 4. External strength: each CWC’s foreign mission personnel sent out, coded only churches and denominations with one similar ecclesiastical tradition or A to E as follows: characteristic (‘Adventist’, ‘Anglican’, ‘Baptist’, ‘Ecumencial’, ‘Evangelical’, A = Massive strength, over 100,000 personnel ‘Lutheran’, ‘Mennonite’, ‘Methodist’, ‘Orthodox’, ‘Pentecostal’, ‘Reformed’, B = Major strength, from 30,000 to 100,000 personnel ‘Roman Catholic’, etc.). C = Moderate strength, from 10,000 to 30,000 personnel D = Minor strength, from 1,000 to 10,000 personnel Meaning of 5 columns E = Minimal strength, under 1,000 personnel 1. Involvement of each CWC ranked by categories 1 to 10 (attitude to either 5. Internal influence on members: foreign mission personnel per million ecumenical or non-ecumenical confessionalism as explained in the 10 first members, coded a to e as follows: lines across each list of titles) a = massive influence, over 250 personnel per million 2. Each CWC’s official title (in English, with vernacular titles added only b = major influence, from 100 to 250 personnel per million where necessary to establish identity) c = moderate influence, from 50 to 100 personnel per million 3. Each CWC’s affiliated church members d = minor influence, from 20 to 50 personnel per million 4-5. Each CWC’s personnel, in 2 descriptive letters e = minimal influence, under 20 personnel per million 1 2 3 4,5 1 2 3 4,5 Involvement CWC Title Members Pers Involvement CWC Title Members Pers 1. Conference of Secretaries of Christian World Communions (CSCWC), 1957-2006 Christian Congregation of Brazil (Congregação Crista do Brasil) 3,120,000 Ea Anglican Consultative Council (ACC)/Anglican Communion 79,739,000 Cb Church of Christ/Iglesia ni Cristo (Manalista) 4,324,000 Ec Baptist World Alliance (BWA) 101,000,000 Dc Church of God in Christ (CoGiC) 10,000,000 Da Church of the Brethren (German Pietists/Dunkers) 346,000 Eb Church of Jesus Christ through Simon Kimbangu (Eglise Kimbanguiste) 8,990,000 Eb Disciples Ecumenical Committee for Consultation (DECC) 1,500,000 Ec Cornerstone Gospel Church (Igreja Pedra Fundamental, IPF) 3,200,000 Eb Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople 17,594,000 Ec Deeper Life Bible Church (DLBC) 9,000,000 Da Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) 507,000 Eb Indian Pentecostal Church of God (IPCG) 977,000 Eb General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists (SDA) 25,000,000 Ca International Evangelical Gypsy Social Association (ASNITE) 390,000 Eb International Moravian Church in Unity of Brethren 1,042,000 Ec Jesus is Lord Fellowship (JILF) 2,277,000 Eb International Old Catholic Bishops Conference (IOCBC) 910,000 Ec Pentecostal Methodist Church of Chile (IMPC) 720,000 Eb Lutheran World Federation (LWF) 80,000,000 Ca Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (UCKG/IURD) 5,431,000 Eb Mennonite World Conference (MWC) 2,883,000 Eb Zion Christian Church (ZCC) 9,100,000 Ec Orthodox Patriarchate of Moscow 111,404,000 Dd 50 other Neocharismatic or Independent Non-White minicommunions each with Pentecostal World Fellowship (PWF) 29,821,000 Db under a million members worldwide who maintain or function as a separate Reformed Ecumenical Council (REC) 7,347,000 Ee communion: AACJM,AIPCA,CGMI,IFDA,IPDA,NMBCA, et alia 40,000,000 Db Roman Catholic Church (RCC) (13 Patriarchates) 1,129,685,000 Aa Salvation Army (SA) 2,214,000 Ea 6. European/North American monodenominational Protestant minicommunions World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) 70,000,000 Cb 70 major Protestant global denominations each linked with its worldwide World Convention of Churches of Christ (WCCC) 10,000,000 Da daughter churches to form a separate communion: AEF, AIM, ARPC, AWM, World Council of Churches (WCC/COE/ORK) 486,000,000 Bb CAM, CBI, Christian Brethren (CMML), EPC, LAM, OD, OM, OMF, OMS, World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) 420,000,000 Aa SBC(IMB), SIM, TEAM, WEC, Worldwide Church of God (WCG), et alia 42,084,000 Ca World Methodist Council (WMC) 70,226,000 Db 7. White-led Neocharismatic communions uninterested in CSCWC 2. Not in CSCWC directly but related through a member participant Chaplaincy of Full Gospel Churches (CFGC) 8,385,000 Ec Bulgarian Orthodox Patriarchate of Sofia 11,769,000 Ee Coalition of Spirit-filled Churches (CSC) 500,000 Ec Catholic Charismatic Renewal (CCR, ICCRS) 120,000,000 Ba International Communion of Charismatic Churches (ICCC) 6,000,000 Ec Council of Catholic Patriarchs in the East (10 Patriarchates) 5,400,000 Ee International Fellowship of Charismatic Churches (IFCC) 2,000,000 Ec Global Forum of Christian Churches & Ecumenical Organizations 200,000,000 Dd Manna Church International (Mana Igreja Crista) 200,000 Ea Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria 889,000 Eb Morning Star International 1,100,000 Da Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch 1,026,000 Eb Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) 142,000 Ec Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem 115,000 Ed Willow Creek Association of Churches (WCAC) 804,000 Ea International Pentecostal Holiness Church (IPHC) 1,052,000 Eb 30 other White-led Neo-Apostolic meganetworks each globally Orthodox Apostolic Catholicate of Georgia 2,536,000 Ed >50,000, plus a handful of smaller but significant bodies: AFMA, Romanian Orthodox Patriarchate of Bucharest 19,780,000 Ed AIMS, EFICC, ICF, SACOC, UICC, YWAM, et alia 50,815,000 Db Sacred Congregation for Bishops (3 Patriarchates) 884,875,000 Cd Sacred Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (SCEP) 220,304,000 Aa 8. Conservative communions opposed to ecumenism, to WCC, to CSCWC Sacred Congregation for the Oriental Churches (6 Patriarchal Synods) 15,312,000 Ed Alliance World Fellowship (AWF) 4,366,000 Da Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Belgrade 7,642,000 Ed Apostolic World Christian Fellowship (AWCF) 6,639,000 Ed Synod of Bishops (Synodus Episcoporum) 300,000,000 Bb Assembly Hall Churches (Local Churches, Little Flock) 2,323,000 Da Waldensian Evangelical Church 54,000 Ea Baptist Bible Fellowship International (BBFI) 2,500,000 Ea Christian Holiness Association (CHA) 5,000,000 Ec 3. WCC-related bodies not members of CSCWC because never invited Global Network of Mission Structures (GNMS) 24,000,000 Db Ancient Assyrian Patriarchate of the East 500,000 Ec International Conference of Reformed Churches (ICRC) 132,000 Ec Armenian Apostolic Catholicossate of Cilicia 852,000 Ea International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches (IFFEC) 846,000 Ed Armenian Apostolic Patriarchate of Constantinople 66,000 Ea International Lutheran Council (ILC) 3,546,000 Eb Armenian Apostolic Patriarchate of Echmiadzin 5,593,000 Ed International Spiritual Baptist Ministerial Council 20,000 Ec Armenian Apostolic Patriarchate of Jerusalem 18,100 Ea New Apostolic Church (Neuapostolische Kirche: NAC/NAK) 11,098,000 Da Brazil for Christ Evangelical Pentecostal Church (OBPC) 2,000,000 Ee Old Ritualist Churches (Old Believers, Old Orthodox) 1,899,000 Ed Consultation on Uniting and United Churches (CUUC) 54,205,000 Dc True Jesus Church (TJC) 1,833,000 Eb Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria 10,354,000 Ee Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches (UFMCC) 171,000 Ed Czechoslovak Hussite Church (CCH/CHC) 221,000 Eb World Assemblies of God Fellowship (WAGF) 52,220,000 Ca Eritrean Orthodox Patriarchate of Asmara 1,904,000 Ed World Council of Biblical Churches (WCBC) 8,400 Eb Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarchate of Addis Ababa 26,093,000 Ee World Evangelical Congregational Fellowship (WECF) 53,900 Ec Great and Holy Council of the Orthodox Church (9 Patriarchates) 185,000,000 Dc World Fellowship of Reformed Churches (WFRC) 1,109,000 Ec International Charismatic Consultation on World Evangelization 5,100,000 Ed 40 other Conservative networks opposed to historic confessions: ABWE, Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar 1,115,000 Ec BMM, EFMA,GMU, IARPC, IFMA, NTM, UFM, UPC, et alia 12,212,000 Ee Organization of African Instituted Churches (OAIC) 33,002,000 Db Oriental Orthodox Churches Conference (10 Patriarchates) 49,974,000 Dd 9. Worldwide communions with heterodox christologies Orthodox Syrian Catholicate of the East (OSCE) 2,575,000 Ed Church of Christ, Scientist 2,500,000 Ec Philippine Independent Church (IFI/PIC) 3,425,000 Ed Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (CJCLdS) 12,291,000 Db Syriac Orthodox Catholicossate of India 1,300,000 Ed International Alliance of Churches of the Truth 800,000 Ed Universal Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch 1,219,000 Eb International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) 282,000 Ed Jehovah’s Christian Witnesses (Watch Tower, IBRA, JWs) 16,541,000 Da 4. Monoconfessional Anglican minicommunions Unification Church (Holy Spirit Association for World Christianity) 839,000 Ed Anglican Communion Network (ACN) 1,000,000 Ec 40 other non- or antitrinitarian heterodox communions: IACT, IARF, International Communion of the Charismatic Episcopal Church (ICCEC) 950,000 Ea IGAS, INTA, et alia 2,000,000 Ed Traditional Anglican Communion (TAC) 400,000 Eb 16 other schismatic communions ex Anglicanism/Episcopalianism, 10. Unattached denominations with no CWC, no minicommunion, including: Anglican Church International Communion, Anglican Orthodox no claim to be one, no wider communion nor formal relations with Communion (AOC), Communion of the Evangelical Episcopal other denominations of similar ecclesiastical tradition, sending Church (CEEC), Reformed Episcopal Church (REC), et alia 7,600,000 Ec out independent missionaries 206,353,000 Dd 5. African/Amerindian/Asian/Black/Latino/Oceanic minicommunions Total combined memberships in 350 CWCs 5,214,662,400 Ab Catholic Apostolic Church of Brazil.(ICAB) 3,000,000 Ee Doubly-affiliated members (counted in 2 or more CWCs) -3,404,662,400 Celestial Church of Christ (CCC/ECC) 4,436,000 Db Total individual members in 350 CWCs throughout Christian world 1,810,000,000 Ab

30 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Global Table 4. Foreign mission personnel sent out by, and received by, 238 countries, 7 continents, and the world. The data on Christian foreign mission personnel shown below are foreign mission personnel from all Christian churches and traditions. arranged as one single large 5-variable column set out in 3 pieces con- 1. Short name of country or (last 11 lines) aggregate secutively across the page, listing the world’s 238 countries in alpha- 2. Citizens of this country working abroad as mission personnel betical order. The last 11 rows list totals by the 7 continents, and by the 3. Citizens working abroad per million of their home country’s affiliated 3 missiological worlds (World A = unevangelized world, World B = church members evangelized but non-Christian world, and World C = Christian world, 4. Aliens from abroad working in this country as mission personnel baptized, affiliated). The final righthand bottom row gives global totals. 5. Aliens from abroad working in this country as mission personnel per Within each of the 3 pieces, 5 variables are set out, giving total numbers of million of this country’s total population 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Country MSent MSentPM MRecv MRecvPM Country MSent MSentPM MRecv MRecvPM Country MSent MSentPM MRecv MRecvPM Afghanistan 0 0 55 2 Greenland 2 51 65 1,142 Philippines 2,100 29 10,000 120 Albania 55 45 840 268 Grenada 10 101 130 1,263 Pitcairn Islands 1 16,129 1 14,925 Algeria 20 364 530 16 Guadeloupe 150 352 420 936 Poland 2,600 71 740 19 American Samoa 65 1,262 210 3,237 Guam 25 164 480 2,830 Portugal 5,300 551 790 75 Andorra 40 669 10 149 Guatemala 480 41 3,700 294 Puerto Rico 970 259 2,600 657 Angola 340 24 2,100 132 Guinea 2 8 110 12 Qatar 4 46 10 12 Anguilla 5 478 10 819 Guinea-Bissau 10 48 200 126 Reunion 10 15 250 318 Antarctica 0 0 10 1,894 Guyana 10 26 320 426 Romania 210 10 1,100 51 Antigua 2 31 75 920 Haiti 30 4 1,600 188 Russia 1,100 13 20,100 140 Argentina 1,900 54 12,700 328 Holy See 120 156,454 210 268,199 Rwanda 130 19 1,300 144 Armenia 110 44 55 18 Honduras 210 31 840 117 Sahara 0 0 10 29 Aruba 4 44 15 151 Hungary 260 29 1,300 129 Saint Helena 5 1,217 20 4,067 Australia 5,800 454 4,600 228 Iceland 40 145 40 136 Saint Kitts & Nevis 2 50 40 937 Austria 2,600 409 1,600 195 India 7,400 108 8,400 8 Saint Lucia 4 27 160 995 Azerbaijan 15 74 110 13 Indonesia 630 22 6,300 28 Saint Pierre & Miquelon 10 1,847 40 6,934 Bahamas 20 72 320 991 Iran 20 54 210 3 Saint Vincent 2 25 85 714 Bahrain 5 74 55 76 Iraq 40 54 85 3 Samoa 320 1,847 840 4,541 Bangladesh 30 28 1,100 8 Ireland 9,800 2,658 530 128 San Marino 6 239 20 711 Barbados 10 52 210 779 Isle of Man 20 389 4 52 São Tomé & Príncipe 20 142 110 703 Belgium 10,800 1,312 2,700 259 Israel 55 287 1,100 164 Saudi Arabia 10 8 110 4 Belize 10 45 420 1,557 Italy 33,300 700 12,700 219 Senegal 95 151 1,300 112 Belorussia 110 17 530 54 Ivory Coast 320 56 1,800 99 Serbia & Montenegro 530 80 1,100 105 Benin 55 23 630 75 Jamaica 43 38 740 279 Seychelles 15 202 160 1,984 Bermuda 10 195 110 1,714 Japan 840 254 7,900 62 Sierra Leone 10 17 740 134 Bhutan 2 117 210 97 Jordan 15 90 210 37 Singapore 530 854 1,100 254 Bolivia 3,000 353 4,400 479 Kazakhstan 30 15 210 14 Slovakia 75 17 1,100 204 Bosnia-Herzegovina 260 198 580 148 Kenya 840 31 6,300 184 Slovenia 160 94 840 427 Botswana 85 94 420 238 Kirgizstan 30 93 55 10 Solomon Islands 45 104 530 1,109 Bougainville 10 51 110 515 Kiribati 10 109 55 554 Somalia 4 68 55 12 Brazil 21,100 124 26,400 142 Kuwait 10 39 110 41 Somaliland 0 0 10 3 Britain 19,500 500 15,800 265 Laos 5 30 85 14 South Africa 7,400 214 12,700 268 British Indian Ocean 5 5,669 10 5,000 Latvia 65 42 420 182 South Korea 15,800 820 3,000 63 British Virgin Is 4 266 10 454 Lebanon 210 163 630 176 Spain 32,200 820 2,600 60 Brunei 2 36 30 80 Lesotho 55 40 690 384 Spanish North Africa 10 111 55 417 Bulgaria 110 17 210 27 Liberia 75 76 530 161 Sri Lanka 210 107 1,800 87 Burkina Faso 40 16 1,100 83 Libya 5 30 110 19 Sudan 110 19 740 20 Burundi 160 25 1,300 172 Liechtenstein 25 838 20 579 Suriname 25 132 420 935 Cambodia 4 22 320 23 Lithuania 230 81 420 122 Svalbard & Jan Mayen 10 5,444 5 1,295 Cameroon 420 51 3,700 227 Luxembourg 130 304 40 86 Swaziland 110 169 840 814 Canada 17,400 853 8,400 260 Macedonia 55 42 160 79 Sweden 2,100 350 1,100 122 Cape Verde 85 176 110 217 Madagascar 320 35 2,100 113 Switzerland 3,600 593 2,300 317 Cayman Islands 2 65 20 444 Malawi 420 50 1,600 124 Syria 160 162 110 6 Central African Rep 85 43 1,100 272 Malaysia 95 42 1,100 43 Taiwan 420 335 3,200 140 Chad 30 15 790 81 Maldives 0 0 10 30 Tajikistan 5 51 40 6 Channel Islands 15 154 10 67 Mali 10 27 630 47 Tanzania 320 17 4,800 125 Chile 1,800 128 8,400 515 Malta 1,100 2,904 30 75 Thailand 30 28 2,100 33 China 5,300 48 4,200 3 Marshall Islands 10 175 85 1,372 Timor 40 50 110 116 Christmas Island 10 33,333 10 6,667 Martinique 85 228 210 530 Togo 85 33 630 103 Cocos (Keeling) Is 5 37,037 5 7,813 Mauritania 0 0 55 18 Tokelau Islands 5 4,000 10 7,257 Colombia 3,700 84 7,400 162 Mauritius 40 101 320 258 Tonga 55 593 420 4,105 Comoros 2 589 40 59 Mayotte 0 0 30 261 Trinidad & Tobago 160 206 530 406 Congo-Brazzaville 130 44 840 210 Mexico 4,800 47 8,400 78 Tunisia 4 80 210 21 Congo-Zaire 1,100 21 15,800 275 Micronesia 55 546 510 4,616 Turkey 30 121 530 7 Cook Islands 10 591 75 4,177 Moldavia 110 39 530 126 Turkmenistan 2 27 55 11 Costa Rica 740 178 1,500 347 Monaco 20 669 160 4,539 Turks & Caicos Is 2 94 10 380 Croatia 320 79 1,600 352 Mongolia 5 131 420 159 Tuvalu 2 231 10 958 Cuba 20 3 260 23 Montserrat 2 469 10 2,228 Uganda 530 21 2,700 94 Cyprus 55 94 210 326 Morocco 15 133 1,600 51 Ukraine 420 11 4,400 95 Czech Republic 260 53 1,600 157 Mozambique 160 24 3,400 172 United Arab Emirates 10 23 130 29 Denmark 630 136 1,500 276 Myanmar 260 63 210 4 USA 115,700 578 35,100 118 Djibouti 5 373 80 101 Namibia 55 33 1,300 640 Uruguay 630 283 3,200 924 Dominica 5 67 85 1,077 Nauru 2 204 20 1,467 Uzbekistan 5 13 210 8 Dominican Republic 140 17 2,100 236 Nepal 110 116 950 35 Vanuatu 10 53 320 1,514 Ecuador 420 33 3,700 280 Netherlands 10,800 1,162 2,200 135 Venezuela 970 39 7,400 277 Egypt 320 30 1,600 22 Netherlands Antilles 20 129 630 3,449 Viet Nam 840 115 1,300 15 El Salvador 210 31 1,500 218 New Caledonia 30 170 320 1,351 Virgin Is of the US 20 219 160 1,431 Equatorial Guinea 55 125 320 636 New Zealand 2,200 962 3,000 745 Wallis & Futuna Is 2 133 30 1,938 Eritrea 130 63 210 48 Nicaragua 260 50 2,100 383 Yemen 2 55 160 8 Estonia 40 79 160 120 Niger 10 159 480 34 Zambia 260 28 3,400 291 Ethiopia 260 6 2,600 34 Nigeria 2,600 42 5,600 43 Zimbabwe 420 54 2,900 223 Faeroe Islands 55 1,264 30 638 Niue 10 7,536 5 3,460 Falkland Islands 20 9,794 10 3,268 Norfolk Island 10 7,289 5 2,322 Africa 18,406 46 95,765 106 Fiji 110 230 630 743 North Korea 2 5 20 1 Antarctica 0 0 10 1,894 Finland 1,500 332 530 101 Northern Cyprus 2 727 40 210 Asia 35,862 105 61,405 16 France 32,200 781 16,900 279 Northern Mariana Is 5 70 130 1,609 Europe 203,211 381 111,829 154 French Guiana 20 127 210 1,123 Norway 1,900 436 1,100 238 Latin America 43,967 85 114,150 203 French Polynesia 30 141 420 1,637 Oman 2 28 40 16 Northern America 133,122 603 43,715 132 Gabon 20 18 420 304 Pakistan 55 14 1,600 10 Oceania 8,957 402 16,651 504 Gambia 4 70 180 119 Palau 10 535 20 1,003 Georgia 65 23 110 25 Palestine 260 3,005 1,300 351 World A 745 38 13,750 19 Germany 28,000 480 10,600 128 Panama 630 229 2,200 681 World B 44,511 79 112,020 28 Ghana 580 51 2,100 95 Papua New Guinea 110 24 3,800 670 World C 398,269 275 317,755 178 Gibraltar 10 428 40 1,433 Paraguay 480 83 1,300 211 Greece 420 41 530 48 Peru 840 31 7,200 257 Global Total 443,525 218 443,525 69 January 2007 31 Global Table 5. Status of global mission, presence and activities, AD 1800–2025.

Column: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Year: 1800 1900 1970 mid-2000 Trend mid-2007 2025 GLOBAL POPULATION % p.a. 1. Total population 903,650,000 1,619,625,000 3,696,594,000 6,085,572,000 1.20 6,615,848,000 7,905,234,000 2. Urban dwellers (urbanites) 36,146,000 232,695,000 1,336,655,000 2,873,249,000 2.03 3,306,696,000 4,616,329,000 3. Rural dwellers 867,504,000 1,386,930,000 2,359,939,000 3,212,323,000 0.43 3,309,152,000 3,288,905,000 4. Adult population (over 15s) 619,000,000 1,073,621,000 2,315,770,000 4,257,127,000 1.62 4,763,408,000 5,995,477,000 5. Literates 123,800,000 296,146,000 1,478,531,000 3,263,248,000 1.67 3,664,358,000 5,053,723,000 6. Nonliterates 495,200,000 777,475,000 837,239,000 993,879,000 1.45 1,099,050,000 941,754,000 WORLDWIDE EXPANSION OF CITIES 7. Metropolises (over 100,000 population) 40 300 2,400 4,050 1.84 4,600 6,500 8. Megacities (over 1 million population) 1 20 161 402 1.94 460 650 9. Urban poor 18 million 100 million 650 million 1,400 million 3.07 1,730 million 3,000 million 10. Urban slum-dwellers 3 million 20 million 260 million 700 million 3.32 880 million 1,600 million GLOBAL POPULATION BY RELIGION 11. Total of all distinct organized religions 700 1,000 6,000 9,900 1.65 11,100 15,000 12. Christians (total all kinds) (=World C) 204,980,000 558,153,000 1,238,712,000 2,015,551,000 1.23 2,195,529,000 2,685,650,000 13. Muslims 90,500,000 199,914,000 548,097,000 1,199,609,000 1.81 1,359,745,000 1,811,108,000 14. Hindus 108,000,000 203,003,000 462,429,000 807,631,000 1.37 888,300,000 1,077,600,000 15. Nonreligious 300,000 3,024,000 532,397,000 775,629,000 0.21 787,236,000 813,884,000 16. Chinese universists 310,000,000 380,007,000 231,866,000 368,465,000 0.74 388,098,000 431,175,000 17. Buddhists 69,400,000 127,077,000 233,004,000 364,657,000 0.82 386,023,000 453,040,000 18. Ethnoreligionists 92,000,000 117,537,000 163,889,000 241,362,000 1.21 262,502,000 285,885,000 19. Atheists 10,000 226,000 165,391,000 150,717,000 0.31 154,019,000 152,676,000 20. New-Religionists (Neoreligionists) 0 5,951,000 78,324,000 101,416,000 0.65 106,124,000 117,572,000 21. Sikhs 1,800,000 2,962,000 10,617,000 23,571,000 1.53 26,210,000 32,282,000 22. Jews 9,000,000 12,292,000 15,097,000 14,299,000 0.87 15,193,000 17,166,000 23. Non-Christians (=Worlds A and B) 698,670,000 1,061,472,000 2,457,882,000 4,070,021,000 1.19 4,420,319,000 5,219,584,000 GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY 24. Total Christians as % of world (=World C) 22.7 34.5 33.5 33.1 0.03 33.2 34.0 25. Affiliated Christians (church members) 195,680,000 521,664,000 1,128,549,000 1,906,936,000 1.23 2,077,909,000 2,555,599,000 26. Church attenders 180,100,000 469,303,000 885,777,000 1,359,420,000 1.04 1,461,495,000 1,760,568,000 27. Evangelicals 25,000,000 71,726,000 98,358,000 224,559,000 2.04 258,669,000 348,648,000 28. Great Commission Christians 21,000,000 77,931,000 277,153,000 650,094,000 1.13 703,225,000 853,379,000 29. Pentecostals/Charismatics/Neocharismatics 0 981,000 72,223,000 525,599,000 1.98 602,792,000 798,320,000 30. Average Christian martyrs per year 2,500 34,400 377,000 160,000 1.12 173,000 210,000 MEMBERSHIP BY 6 ECCLESIASTICAL MEGABLOCS 31. Roman Catholics 106,430,000 266,568,000 665,484,000 1,055,498,000 1.14 1,142,968,000 1,353,674,000 32. Independents 400,000 7,931,000 96,926,000 377,830,000 2.12 437,673,000 602,190,000 33. Protestants 30,980,000 103,025,000 211,054,000 346,889,000 1.53 385,815,000 497,703,000 34. Orthodox 55,220,000 115,844,000 139,646,000 214,091,000 0.42 220,488,000 236,364,000 35. Anglicans 11,910,000 30,571,000 47,409,000 75,335,000 1.33 82,632,000 109,690,000 36. Marginal Christians 40,000 928,000 11,100,000 29,500,000 2.53 35,133,000 49,775,000 MEMBERSHIP BY 6 CONTINENTS, 21 UN REGIONS 37. Africa (5 regions) 4,330,000 8,756,000 117,138,000 353,225,000 2.40 417,001,000 634,611,000 38. Asia (4 regions) 8,350,000 20,781,000 96,381,000 306,446,000 2.07 353,822,000 486,035,000 39. Europe (including Russia; 4 regions) 171,700,000 368,209,000 467,940,000 531,285,000 0.04 532,715,000 521,313,000 40. Latin America (3 regions) 14,900,000 60,027,000 263,561,000 479,475,000 1.31 525,162,000 634,198,000 41. Northern America (1 region) 5,600,000 59,570,000 168,942,000 215,593,000 0.52 223,621,000 252,793,000 42. Oceania (4 regions) 100,000 4,322,000 14,586,000 20,909,000 1.16 22,668,000 26,642,000 CHRISTIAN ORGANIZATIONS 43. Denominations 500 1,900 18,800 33,800 2.07 39,000 55,000 44. Congregations (worship centers) 150,000 400,000 1,450,000 3,448,000 1.50 3,826,000 5,000,000 45. Service agencies 600 1,500 14,100 23,000 1.77 26,000 36,000 46. Foreign-mission sending agencies 200 600 2,200 4,000 1.63 4,480 6,000 CONCILIARISM: ONGOING COUNCILS OF CHURCHES 47. Confessional councils (CWCs, at world level) 20 40 150 310 1.75 350 600 48. International councils of churches 0 10 36 59 1.10 64 80 49. National councils of churches 0 19 283 598 1.50 660 870 50. Local councils of churches 0 70 2,600 9,000 2.20 10,500 15,500 CHRISTIAN WORKERS (clergy, laypersons) 51. Nationals (citizens; all denominations) 900,000 2,100,000 4,600,000 10,900,000 1.08 11,751,000 14,000,000 52. Men 800,000 1,900,000 3,100,000 6,540,000 0.85 6,939,000 8,000,000 53. Women 100,000 200,000 1,500,000 4,360,000 1.42 4,812,000 6,000,000 54. Aliens (foreign missionaries) 25,000 62,000 240,000 420,000 1.09 453,000 550,000 55. Men 21,000 47,000 160,000 240,000 0.47 248,000 270,000 56. Women 4,000 15,000 80,000 180,000 1.88 205,000 280,000 CHRISTIAN FINANCE (in US$, per year) 57. Personal income of church members, $ 40 billion 270 billion 4,100 billion 15,230 billion 0.74 16,400 billion 26,000 billion 58. Giving to Christian causes, $ 1 billion 8 billion 70 billion 270 billion 4.60 370 billion 870 billion 59. Churches’ income, $ 950 million 7 billion 50 billion 108 billion 3.78 140 billion 300 billion 60. Parachurch and institutional income, $ 50 million 1 billion 20 billion 162 billion 5.13 230 billion 570 billion 61. Cost-effectiveness (cost per baptism, $) 7,500 17,500 128,000 330,000 2.80 349,000 650,000 62. Ecclesiastical crime, $ 100,000 300,000 5,000,000 16 billion 5.77 24 billion 65 billion 63. Income of global foreign missions, $ 25,000,000 200,000,000 3.0 billion 15 billion 5.70 22 billion 60 billion 64. Computers in Christian use (numbers) 0 0 1,000 328 million 5.90 490 million 1,200 million CHRISTIAN LITERATURE (titles, not copies) 65. Books about Christianity 75,000 300,000 1,800,000 4,800,000 3.08 6,175,000 11,800,000 66. Christian periodicals 800 3,500 23,000 35,000 4.30 47,000 100,000 SCRIPTURE DISTRIBUTION (all sources, per year) 67. , p.a. 500,000 5,452,600 25,000,000 53,700,000 4.96 75,346,000 180,000,000 68. Scriptures, including gospels, selections 1,500,000 20 million 281 million 4,600 million 1.07 4,720 million 6,000 million 69. Bible density (copies in place) 20 million 108 million 443 million 1,400 million 1.97 1,600 million 2,280 million CHRISTIAN BROADCASTING 70. Total monthly listeners/viewers 0 0 750,000,000 2,150,000,000 2.31 2,522,000,000 3,800,000,000 CHRISTIAN URBAN MISSION 71. Non-Christian megacities 1 5 65 226 1.14 245 300 72. New non-Christian urban dwellers per day 500 5,200 51,100 129,000 1.78 146,000 200,000 73. Urban Christians 5,500,000 159,600,000 660,800,000 1,160,000,000 1.59 1,295,000,000 1,720,000,000 CHRISTIAN EVANGELISM 74. Evangelism-hours per year 600 million 5 billion 25 billion 165 billion 3.86 220 billion 425 billion 75. Hearer-hours (offers) per year 900 million 10 billion 99 billion 938 billion 6.23 1,430 billion 4,250 billion 76. Disciple-opportunities (offers) per capita per year 1 6 27 154 4.95 216 538 WORLD EVANGELIZATION 77. Unevangelized population (=World A) 674,350,000 879,672,000 1,641,300,000 1,722,011,000 1.03 1,850,402,000 2,156,012,000 78. Unevangelized as % of world 74.6 54.3 44.4 28.3 -0.17 28.0 27.3 79. World evangelization plans since AD 30 160 250 510 1,500 2.80 1,820 3,000

32 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 Global Table 5. Status of global mission, presence and activities, AD 1800–2025. Contextualizing Universal Values: A Method for Christian Mission Frances S. Adeney

t the beginning of the twenty-first century, mission schol- of interaction and information about forms of communication Aars and practitioners are looking at Christian mission in specific cultures.3 Hiebert, Shaw, and Tiénou’s work on the with new eyes. With mission no longer a West-to-East enterprise, church as a hermeneutical community is a particularly relevant missionaries are now sent from Korea to Indonesia, from Japan resource for facilitating the theological reflection recommended to Thailand, from Ghana to the United States. The Christian in this article.4 Gospel takes many forms as diverse cultures meet and exchange Rather than attempt an abstract description of this method, ideas and practices. Presbyterians in Pennsylvania praise God I identify here a universal value—gender equality—and discuss with trumpet sounds from Latin America, seminary students in its application in the particular setting of an Indonesian Prot- Brazil worship with African dance styles, Protestant worshipers estant university. (I do not repeat here the arguments in favor in Indonesia sing praise songs from the United States. of gender equality as a universal Christian value, which many The translatability of the Gospel into various cultural forms others have presented.)5 is one of the special features of Christianity.1 Understanding different cultures and translating the Gospel into forms that are indigenous to or compatible with those settings is a crucial task Fostering Acceptance of a Universal Value of contemporary mission. Norman Thomas calls this process in a Particular Context “radical contextualization” and affirms it as “mission in Christ’s way.”2 1. Recognize the importance and universality of the The Gospel message, however, not only consists of ideas but value. also is embodied in certain universal values that need to be identi- 2. Check out the acceptability of the value in another fied and translated into diverse cultural forms. If Christian values context. are not articulated and practiced in fitting ways in a particular 3. Identify other cultural values that prevent the culture, Christianity will remain a foreign religion, set apart from practice of the universal value. the life and commitments of society. And although Christian values 4. Recognize the complexities of the culture. will at some points diverge from societal mores, there needs to 5. Work with Christians in the culture to clarify priori- be enough overlap for Christianity to be experienced as part of ties of traditional practices in light of the universal what it means to be identified with a particular cultural group. value. Only then will the Gospel influence social change at the level of 6. Work with Christians in the culture to devise new social structures, societal mores, and political commitments. patterns of behavior that demonstrate the universal This article identifies a method of contextualizing Christian value. values so that they might be re-formed in ways that are appropri- ate in a new setting. Although the Gospel is always “clothed” in culturally specific forms and cannot exist apart from particular I outline the steps of contextualizing this value in ways that forms, universal values of love, human worth, and honoring the involve the community in its own theological formation and that transcendent are at the heart of the Gospel in any culture. How to are compatible with its cultural location.6 The same method may translate these values so that they are practiced in meaningful ways be used in working to contextualize other universal Christian in a society becomes the task of radical contextualization. values, following the steps listed in the chart above. This task belongs primarily to Christian communities in a particular locale. Guests and missionaries from other cultures, Step 1: Recognize the value of gender equality. however, may interact with that process of contextualization, bringing insights and theological perspectives that can aid or Even before entering another cultural milieu, and certainly while hinder the process. We focus here on this potential contribution one is interacting with people from another culture, the universal of outsiders to the process of contextualization. value that one holds and wants to communicate as part of the Gospel must be clearly recognized and enacted in personal and Illustrating the Method in Indonesia communal life. If the value is seen as relative, appropriate in one time and place but not in another, the universality of the value What follows are suggestions for those outsiders who, consciously itself is brought into question. Michael Polanyi argues that one or unconsciously, influence the project of contextualization when cannot be committed to a value without holding that it must be they interact with Christians in another culture. The method good for all people at all times—in other words, universalizing consists of a series of suggestions for reflection, first on one’s that value.7 Our identities as persons are shaped by the strong own background and culture and then, with others, on theirs. moral evaluations that we hold, which we apply not only to How to facilitate cross-cultural understanding and exchange ourselves but also to others.8 Examining our commitment to a has become the subject of much research, dealing with processes universal value and evaluating our practices of that value con- stitute the first step in interacting about that Gospel value with Frances S. Adeney is the William A. Benfield, Jr., Professor of Evangelism and those in another culture. Global Mission, Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Louisville, Christians draw values from Scripture, studying the Bible in Kentucky. She was a Presbyterian Mission coworker (1991–97), teaching in communities that believe that God’s Spirit will aid understanding Indonesia, and is the author of Christian Women in Indonesia (Syracuse Univ. and application of the wisdom of God’s Word. Studying Scripture Press, 2003) and Christianity and Human Rights (SUNY Press, 2007). for views of gender is a logical first step. Rather than accepting

January 2007 33 past interpretations without thinking, fresh study can discover changes in theologies of gender, acceptance of women’s leader- new insights from the text. We could start with the creation story ship, women’s public presence in worship practices, and use of in Genesis 1, which places man and woman together, charging gender-inclusive language. Societal changes have influenced the them with care of the earth and its creatures. Or perhaps start with church, and in turn, Christian values have influenced changes the wonder of the narrative of Christ’s birth, a demonstration of toward gender equality in society. God’s love for all people and God’s intention to save the world. Reflection on gender equality at the present time in one’s own Jesus’ dialogue with the Samaritan woman at the well and his experience can also be helpful. This might include reflection on countercultural interactions with women of his own culture may one’s own experiences of women’s emotional strength, intellectual change traditional views of women’s roles. Newer translations capabilities, or leadership qualities. Examining one’s community of the New Testament may reveal more clearly Paul’s praise for for signs of gender equality might be another locus of reflection. Lydia, Priscilla, and Phoebe as ministers of the Gospel. Gender equality may be practiced in one’s own family or church The past decades have brought new scholarship to bear on community, whether or not the community maintains a verbal some of the contradictions and confusing passages of the Bible theology of equality. How have women and men valued each that relate to gender equality.9 Rather than basing a theology other, worked together, fostered harmony and growth, and sup- ported each other through difficult times? How are girls valued, what coeducational activities highlight the worth of both boys and girls, how are the dreams and callings of both fostered by The church can be a focal one’s community? Where are women visible in community and point of reflection, church leadership? That reflection may not result in a totally identifying changes in egalitarian picture of one’s culture and community, but it provides a realistic place to begin as one thinks about communicating to theologies of gender and others God’s valuing of women and men. acceptance of women’s Finally, reflect on the humanity of women, persons made in God’s image, for whom Christ died, partners in the work of family, leadership. church, and society. Given that humanity, the suffering caused by the oppression of women contravenes the values Christians uphold. Of all the world’s poor, 75 percent are women and the of gender on difficult Pauline passages, we would do better children that they care for. The economic dilemmas of widows to focus on the cultural setting in which the apostle operated, throughout the world are well known, often resulting in the which might illuminate those passages in a new way. A study of abuse or even death of women. Infanticide in China and India changes in Paul’s own views of and interaction with women in has reached record levels, leading to concern about the absence the early church might also help clarify issues of gender equality of a gender-balanced society in those regions. Reflecting on the and women’s leadership. woes and oppression of women and girls throughout the world Those studies are important not only for clarifying our may strengthen our resolve to uphold gender equality as a value own views of the universal value of gender equality but also as that is at the core of Christ’s compassion for the world. preparation for accompanying our sisters and brothers in another culture in the theological study they will want to do. As com- Step 2: Check out the acceptability of gender munities are reformed by the Gospel, questions about women’s equality in one’s new context. worth, status, and roles will arise. Women who sense a call to become Christian leaders will want to turn to Scripture to see if The next step is seeing how the value—in this case, gender equal- their call is in line with the revelation of God’s Word.10 If we are ity—is understood in the new setting. Cultural forms develop to assist them with that search for God’s will, we need to have for many reasons, weaving a web of attitudes and habits that our own views clarified and informed by God’s Word. permeate society. When in dialogue with a new culture and A second focus of study is our own cultural background and church community, keep an open mind toward the customs in community life. The old adage “know thyself” is appropriate here. operation, attempting to understand them as part of that web We might add, “Know thy community.” We will not be able to of culture. appreciate the value of gender equality as it appears in another Most contemporary societies are organized around patri- setting if we do not understand our own cultural forms. Under- archal frames of reference. Expecting that framework to be in standing that our own views are formed by our social location place to some extent, examine the church and community in the and history helps us to understand that our culture is not the new setting. Are women visible in leadership? Do women wield center point of the world. We begin to see that our interpretations power behind the scenes, working through men in public life? of universal values are not the only possible interpretations. As Are women discounted and consistently subordinated to men we de-center our own culture, seeing that our perspectives and in all areas of church and community life? Analyzing the power habits are shaped within our community, we are preparing our- relations between women and men in public life is crucial to selves to aid Christians in another culture to envision ways that developing the understandings necessary for instigating change universal values can become embedded in their world.11 toward a more egalitarian, and thus more Christian, society. A historical look at one’s society and the changing roles of Family responsibilities and roles also contribute to practices women might be one place to begin. In the United States the past of gender equality. Analyze the workings of the family, discover- one hundred years have seen amazing changes in the social roles ing where cooperation between husbands and wives, sisters and and status of women. Social structures have changed, providing brothers, children and parents surfaces and how that cooperation more educational opportunities for girls in higher education, sci- is related to gender roles. For example, the Javanese in Indonesia ence, and sports. Yet inequities are still very evident in American cooperate around family finances, women taking a leading role society. The church too can be a focal point of reflection, identifying in the management of financial resources.12 Men in university

34 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 housing units are often seen walking the babies and toddlers often work at higher levels of corporate leadership or take on early in the morning or late in the afternoon when they return responsibilities as denominational leaders. Absence of women at from teaching responsibilities at the university. What might these levels may in part be due to the responsibilities they bear at those practices imply about the value of gender equality among home, which are seen as primary for women, a part of their kodrat Christians at the university? (natural destiny).16 The double burden of work in the family and A closer look at the employment and child-care division social organizations, along with paid work outside of the home, of labor is necessary to discover whether women are laboring deters women from devoting themselves to climbing corporate under a double burden of (1) carrying heavy responsibilities for ladders or seeking leadership positions in the church. the home and care of extended family members and (2) working Another cultural value that impedes gender equality in prac- outside of the home. Economic and class differences also come tice in Indonesia is bapakism, or glorification of the father figure into play here. A look at educational institutions and opportunities in public and private life. That the father should be the center presented to girls and boys for study provides another indicator of the family, community organizations, the workplace, and the of how the community views gender equality. Are girls accepted nation is an idea that is deeply rooted in Indonesian culture and and honored as students? Are women teachers and professors many indigenous religions of the region. active in the community? Reverence for the father figure is not, however, limited The community environment as a whole reveals information to family relations. At the university, it is imperative that the about the value of gender equality. In Indonesia, women have rector be accorded tremendous respect. Heads of departments enjoyed equal political rights and have been seen as partners in or schools within the university are usually men, who receive development since independence was declared in 1945. Yet women similar respect. Social custom demands that offices be positioned are often viewed as inferior to men and encouraged to center their in ways that reflect the hierarchy of male positions of authority. lives on caring for their families, while husbands take the more Meetings are chaired by men who are older, ascribed positions active public roles. That ambivalence of views on gender gives of leadership often outweighing achieved status, particularly if Christians an opportunity to foster egalitarian values.13 that achievement has been earned by a woman. The church shows the influence of diverse streams of cul- Limitations on the education of girls are being overcome in ture, Christian theologies, and societal attitudes in Indonesia. many parts of Indonesia. The graduate program at the university In Manado, North Sulawesi, 45 percent of pastors are women, where I taught actively seeks women students for graduate-level as compared with 15 percent in Medan, Sumatra, and 8 percent education. Stereotypes of women’s intellectual or emotional in Java.14 Clearly, leadership roles for women are viewed differ- inferiority are being challenged, and values of gender equality ently in Christian circles in those areas. It is crucial to study the local context and congregations to discern, not only proportions of women and men in leadership, but also attitudes toward We, as guests, need to be gender equality. open listeners, not judges Step 3: Identify cultural values that prevent and critics of other cultural gender equality in practice. forms. A number of cultural values might be evaluated to assess im- pediments to gender equality.15 The idea that women are infe- rior in mental capacity is a notion that has in recent years been are upheld in many ways. But the multilayered social strata of challenged through debates in the popular press in Indonesia. Javanese society sometimes cut across the best efforts of Christian Traditionally, men have been understood as the more rational of Indonesian scholars to uphold the value of gender equality. the two sexes, possessing more akal (reason) than women. This Sometimes the conflict is due to a commitment in the society assumption pushes men into positions that involve level-headed to other values that are also considered universal. Negotiating thinking, intellectual acumen, or situational discernment. Women among values such as freedom of religious practice, care for the in theological education at the university must struggle both with poor, protection of children, overcoming oppression of margin- men’s attitudes in this area and with their own internalized sense alized groups, seeking regional peace, and honoring the elderly of intellectual inferiority. Deferring to men in academic settings may make seeking gender equality seem less important in some is common; women struggle to articulate their own ideas with settings. Communities working with conflicting values need to confidence. take time to prioritize their efforts to practice those values in light Denigration of women’s work is another cultural value that of societal norms and their Christian commitments. prevents gender equality from being practiced in Indonesia. Work- ing in the rice paddies, caring for children, and selling goods in Step 4: Recognize the complexity of culture. the market are all activities that fall into the “informal sector” in Indonesia, that is, unpaid work. It is low-status work and not A further step must be taken. Recognizing the complexity of cul- highly valued. The government in Indonesia has attempted to ture is crucial for anyone wishing to influence change in cultural counter this devaluing of women in the home by emphasizing values. The full import of practices that seem to hamper equality the importance of homemaking as a partnership in development. in another setting may not be readily apparent. Hastily criticiz- Through training women in managerial techniques and financial ing or rejecting a practice before it is fully understood as part of management, the government has countered to some extent a set of behaviors with complicated meanings and implications the low status of homemaking. Educated women, however, are can work against the goal of showing the importance of gender expected to balance managing their own home and working equality. Throughout the process described in this article, we, outside of the home. as guests, need to be open listeners, not judges and critics of Despite their entrance into the marketplace, women do not other cultural forms. An open attitude is especially important

January 2007 35 at this stage of recognizing the complexity of customs that bear articulate what makes a traditional practice meaningful to them on gender equality.17 and what would be at stake in changing it. In the case of honoring For example, as the head of a doctoral committee for a men over women in Indonesia, the importance of the practice student at the university, I had the responsibility of summariz- varies from culture to culture within Indonesia. Cultural groups ing and evaluating faculty input to the student. As chair, I held like the Minahasans and the Torajans have had women leaders the responsibility of deciding which suggested revisions to the in their indigenous religious background. Patterns of showing proposal were to be required and which should be seen as sug- respect for men may be different in those groups. Or patterns gestions. When the meeting was held, however, the head of the of behavior may appear similar on the surface but hold differ- graduate school ended the session before I had a chance to make ing meanings at a deeper level. An outsider cannot presume to this evaluation. Rather than take affront, I realized that the director know the meanings a practice has for a group but must explore could not ask a woman to evaluate the input of Indonesian male with them the importance of certain practices and their links to faculty colleagues. He was caught in a bind between the demands concepts of gender power and equality. of university protocol and the requirements of deeply engrained As this exploration continues, men and women in the culture ascribed-status traditions. The issue was resolved amicably for will identify the deeper meanings and interconnectedness of their all when I asked permission to say a few words at the close of traditional practices. It may be a sense of belonging that keeps the practice in place. Gender roles are perhaps weighted with spiritual or societal meanings that the people themselves might Respect traditional practices be reluctant to change. Alternatively, the power men possess to control and govern may be something that they do not wish to while creating changes that share. In that case, Christian theological reflection can soften stimulate gender equality. attitudes and change thinking. One older male church leader in the doctoral program in Indonesia came with the strong idea that although women were the formal meeting. In this way, the student was informally but equal and should be given opportunity to study, they should publicly informed of his responsibilities on the thesis, and the not hold positions of authority in the church. After three years male faculty members were not dishonored by the head of the of study he stated that he was now totally committed to using department asking a woman to make formal recommendations the “other half of the church” in leadership. That change came that might disagree with some of their statements. about through dialogue with women and men from other parts In this situation everyone wanted the head of the committee of Indonesia, studies in gender and ethics, and theological re- to make those decisions, although in this case it was a woman flection on the biblical text, as well as through his experience of doing it. Finessing that decision to fit with cultural norms of interacting with women in leadership at the university. bapakism and collegial respect in Indonesian terms took some effort by all parties. Step 6: Work together to devise new patterns of Recognizing the complexities and interconnections of cultural behavior that demonstrate gender equality. forms that bear on the universal value in question requires social and cultural analysis. Perhaps the situation was muddied by As traditional practices are evaluated theologically, discus- former missionaries whose theology opposed gender equality. sion can focus on how women and men in that culture think a Or perhaps the culture deeply respects men as leaders or father practice could be reformed to reflect gender equality. Can small figures (Indonesian bapakism) or reveres ancestors (China). A changes in a practice engender equality? Should some practices question of ethics and the etiquette required in social situations be discarded? Can a shift in the meaning of a practice encour- may also be at work in situations that prevent women from age a more egalitarian interpretation? What can work in one speaking in a public or formal way, while allowing them a voice setting may fail in another. Certain roles may not be possible for in more informal settings. women within traditional structures. Should those structures be The importance of learning the multilayered reasons that changed? If so, how?18 certain practices occur cannot be overstated. Showing respect The final step, then, is to devise practices that respect tra- for these complexities will encourage people in that culture to ditional practices while creating changes that stimulate gender find their own way in sorting out the practices, finding ways to equality. New ways of relating to one another, modified forms of affirm the universal value that Christianity may bring to them. respecting age and status, and expanded roles for both women In some cases it may be that the universal value is already being and men in home and public life can result from this praxis ap- practiced in ways that the outsider does not yet understand. proach. For example, a new interpretation of the practice of husbands Step 5: Work together to clarify priorities of walking young children in the mornings and evenings can be traditional practices in light of the universal made. Rather than see this as “helping” the woman with her task value of gender equality. of child care, Christians can interpret this practice as a way of balancing time spent at work and at home for both spouses. As one works with the people of another culture, the information Women entering professions at the university and in the and wisdom to navigate between traditional practices and new church find themselves changing not only their lifestyles but also forms that promote the equality of men and women can develop. their way of dress, offering another example of cultural change This step can be taken only in dialogue with Christians in the toward gender equality. Professors and pastors face the problem other culture. They are the ones who will do theological reflection of dress on at least two levels. On the physical level, traditional from within their culture and articulate changes in practices that clothing constricts movement and limits activity. On the symbolic can reflect gender equality in ways that fit their society. level, traditional clothing sets women apart as objects of beauty or The dialogue about values is greatly enhanced as the people as workers at the “back of the house.”19 Rather than give up the

36 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 custom of wearing traditional clothing, many women teaching communities around the world as they wrestle with universal at universities have modified traditional dress to fit more active values and cultural forms. lifestyles or have limited the wearing of traditional clothing to In this article I have demonstrated a method for stimulating special occasions. value changes in societies as Christians cross cultural boundaries, Whatever steps are taken toward gender equality will spring using gender equality as a sample universal value. The ques- from within the culture, directed by the reflection of Christians on tions posed here concerning the value of gender equality can Scripture, tradition, and the culture itself. Insofar as these steps be discussed and reflected on as this and other universal values are compatible with cultural forms and values of the society, they become a focus of theological reflection in particular contexts. will be changing the culture from within. Outsiders can become more aware of their own influence and can adjust their role in the process of contextualization. Insiders Summary can interpret, potentially in Christian ways, the meanings of their practices. Dialogue across cultures can foster deeper practice of Cultures are never static. They change constantly. The power of universal values in culturally appropriate ways as Christians the Gospel to change cultures, shift values, reorganize structures, from many contexts work together to embody such values in and modify traditional practices has been evident since the their communities and societies. church began. The Holy Spirit continues to work in Christian

Notes 1. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 9. Two general works that will direct the interested reader to further 1989). studies are Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen et al., After Eden: Facing the 2. Norman E. Thomas, “Radical Mission in a Post-9/11 World: Creative Challenge of Gender Reconciliation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), Dissonances,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 29 (January and Kari Elisabeth Børresen, ed., The Image of God: Gender Models in 2005): 4. Judaeo-Christian Tradition (: Fortress Press, 1995). 3. See, for example, Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New 10. A number of women in the graduate program in religion and society York: Basic Books, 1974). For books on cross-cultural communication, at the university wanted to center their theological study on issues see Duane Elmer, Cross-Cultural Connections: Stepping Out and of gender, beginning with Scripture and applying it to practices in Fitting In Around the World (Downer’s Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, their community. 2002), and David Augsberger, Pastoral Counseling Across Cultures 11. At times perhaps our own focus needs to shift if we are to begin (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1986); for books on Christianity to see the realization of a universal value in another culture. For and specific cultures, see Vincent J. Donovan,Christianity Rediscovered, an example, see Andrew F. Walls, “The Multiple Conversions of 2d ed. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2001), and Frances S. Adeney, : A Paradigm of Missionary Experience,” in The Christian Women in Indonesia (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Univ. Press, Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis 2003). Such works are useful as guides to approaching another cul- Books, 2002), pp. 236–58. ture with understanding and respect. 12. Norma Sullivan, Masters and Managers: A Study of Gender Relations 4. Paul G. Hiebert, R. Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tiénou, Understanding Folk in Urban Java (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1994), p. 9. Religion: A Christian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices (Grand 13. For a further discussion of gender roles and ideologies in Indonesia, Rapids: Baker, 1999), chap. 15, especially pp. 385–91. see my Christian Women in Indonesia, chap. 3. 5. Early influences on my own study of this issue were Patricia Gundry, 14. These statistics were reported by Protestant church leaders at the Woman, Be Free! (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977), and Letha Scanzoni Lokakarya Wanita Perpendidikan Teologi di Tomohon, May 27, and Nancy Hardesty, All We’re Meant to Be (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1995. 1974). More recent scholarship on women in the Bible builds on the 15. Kajian Peremuan: Dari Kodrat Hinqqa Ipteck (Women’s Philosophy: From value of gender equality, developing theologies for specific groups, Fate to Independence) (Salatiga, Indonesia: Universitas Kristen Satya for example, Johanna W. H. van Wijk-Bos, Reformed and Feminist Wacana Yayasan Bina Darma, 1992) is a compilation of newspaper (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox, 1997); Jacquelyn Grant, clippings on topics of women’s emancipation, work, conditions, White Women’s Christ and Black Women’s Jesus: Feminist Christology marriage, and related issues that I found helpful in understanding and Womanist Response (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989); and Ada gender and equality issues in Indonesia. María Isasi-Díaz, En la Lucha = In the Struggle: Elaborating a Mujerista 16. Magdelena Tangkudung, “Mythos dan Kodrat” (Myth and Fate) Theology, 10th anniv. ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004). Other (master’s thesis, Satya Wacana Christian Univ., Salatiga, Indonesia, authors have formulated new interpretations of the texts, such as 1994). Cynthia S. W. Crysdale, Embracing Travail: Retrieving the Cross Today 17. Attention to that openness is stressed in the hermeneutic circle (New York: Continuum, 1999), and Tikva Frymer-Kensky, Reading developed in Adeney, Christian Women in Indonesia, pp. 185–89. the Women of the Bible: A New Interpretation of Their Stories (New York: Based on the work of Hans-Georg Gadamer, the circle emphasizes Schocken Books, 2002). the need to lay aside one’s own prejudices, becoming open to the 6. This method was developed during a six-year period when the “foreign text”—in this case, another culture—as a way to acquire author, as a Presbyterian Mission coworker, served as a professor at knowledge. Satya Wacana Christian University in Salatiga, Indonesia (1991–97), 18. I explore some of those questions in the Indonesian context in returning each summer to teach in seminaries in the United States. “From the Inside Out: Gender Ideologies and Christian Mission in Taking the conversation about Christian values and cross-cultural Indonesia,” in Gospel Bearers, Gender Barriers: Missionary Women in the mission from Indonesia to the United States and back, hearing the Twentieth Century, ed. Dana Robert (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, critiques of students in both cultures about the process of intercultural 2002), pp. 171–84. exchange, helped focus the process described in this article. 19. In the Javanese language, the word “wife” means “the one at the 7. Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philos- back of the house.” The kitchen is traditionally placed at the back of ophy (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1958). the house, outside under a separate roof. Throughout Java, women 8. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity in traditional dress work in these kitchens. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1989).

January 2007 37 The Legacy of Rudolf Christian Friedrich Lechler Jessie G. Lutz

uring the second half of the nineteenth century, the especially in contacts with women and children, was his second Dname of Rudolf Lechler (1824–1908) became almost wife, Marie. She worked with him as evangelist and educator synonymous with the Basel Hakka Mission in Guangdong, for thirty-nine years, and her assistance in the conversion and China. Unlike most Protestant missionaries in China in the mid- education of Christian wives and mothers contributed greatly nineteenth century, Lechler had a long career, spending fifty-two to the establishment of Christian families, the backbone of stable years as evangelist and mission administrator. He mastered the Christian congregations. Hakka dialect and trained a circle of Chinese coworkers who were responsible for the initial conversion of a high percentage of the Early Years Basel Christians. He worked closely with his Chinese assistants, becoming deeply attached to some of them. Rudolf Lechler was born in 1824, the third son of Gottlob Lechler, Residence in a different culture was a learning experience a pastor in the small town of Hundersingen in the Danube valley for many missionaries, one that frequently opened up a gap of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Rudolf was reared in a deeply between the home board, which was primarily interested in pious and conservative family. Their Christianity was evangeli- conversion statistics, and field missionaries, who were seeking cal and pietistic, and missionaries frequently visited the home. to make Christianity relevant to the needs and interests of the When Rudolf was ten years old, his mother died, leaving eight populace. As Lechler acquired greater appreciation for China’s children; two years later his father married Elisabeth Bauman, cultural heritage and a deeper understanding of the difficulties also a devout, evangelical Christian. Educated at home by his faced by Chinese converts in China’s non-Christian society, he father, Rudolf studied Latin, Greek, French, and above all the became a voice for moderation. Often he urged tolerance on the Bible and church history. Rudolf was said, however, to be no great part of the Basel Mission Board, as well as by newly arrived mis- student, a source of frequent conflict with his father. Shortly after sionaries ignorant of Chinese social mores. When Basel forbade confirmation, Rudolf was apprenticed to Ludwig Schmidgal, a child betrothal by Christians, Lechler explained that impover- merchant in Breilstein. ished Hakka parents could not afford the bride price and dowry In November 1842, as Rudolf was completing his four-year expected if they waited until the marriage partners came of age. apprenticeship as a merchant, he became gravely ill and went Placing a girl as a little daughter-in-law in the home of her future through a conversion experience. He determined to become a husband was an economic necessity designed to assure both sets missionary and on January 1, 1844, entered the Basel Mission of parents of a mate for their child at minimum expense. When School, joining Hamberg there.2 By this time Karl Gützlaff, an ardent new missionary insisted that Christians abstain from the first German Protestant missionary to China, had publi- every aspect of village and lineage ceremonies deemed supersti- cized the China cause in Europe, England, and America and tious, Lechler wrote that he saw no harm in Christians eating the was calling for Western recruits to supervise and instruct his meat distributed after the festivities so long as they took no part Chinese evangelists of . Basel heeded this in the rituals. Meat was a luxury to be relished only on special call, selecting Rudolf Lechler and Theodor Hamberg as its occasions.1 He protested Basel’s attempt to substitute transliter- first missionaries to China. At Lechler’s ordination service, ated Chinese for Chinese characters in Basel middle schools. Gottlob Lechler spoke of his joy over Rudolf’s decision to be- A Chinese evangelist, he explained, would not be accorded come a missionary. As a minister, he said, he had contributed respect if he were not literate in Chinese characters and lacked to missions for over twenty-five years; as a father, he was now acquaintance with the classics. Despite the heathen connotations offering his own flesh and blood. Rudolf Lechler and Theodor of the Confucian classics, they were essential knowledge for an Hamberg sailed for China in November 1846. Simultaneously, educated man in China. the Rhenish Mission Society, in Barmen, answered Gützlaff’s Lechler initially was overshadowed by his Basel colleague call and commissioned Ferdinand Genähr and Heinrich Köster Theodor Hamberg, who studied with him at the Basel Mission to assist Gützlaff and the Chinese Union. The four arrived in School and traveled with him to China in 1846–47. Hamberg Hong Kong on March 19, 1847. was five years older, came from a cultured and sophisticated background, and was considered more gifted intellectually Introduction to China than Lechler. But Hamberg lived only seven years in China, and much of that time was devoted to language study; he died Gützlaff was overjoyed that his pleas for China missionaries from in 1854 just as he acquired real facility in the Hakka dialect. Europe had finally been answered; he looked forward to great Many of the other German missionaries to China also had brief things. The day after the missionaries’ arrival, Gützlaff escorted careers. It was Lechler, therefore, who provided continuity to the them to their rented rooms in the China quarter, had them don Basel Mission during the second half of the nineteenth century Chinese clothes, and instructed them to adopt Chinese cuisine and who gained status in the eyes of the home board so that it and lifestyle. Each was given a Chinese name, and each was respected his recommendations on mission policy. Aiding him, assigned a language tutor and assistant, Hamberg studying the Hakka dialect, and Lechler studying Hoklo. In the belief that a Jessie G. Lutz is Professor Emerita of Chinese History, Rutgers University, Westerner learned spoken Chinese best by interacting with the New Brunswick, New Jersey. Her recent publications include (with R. R. Lutz) populace, Gützlaff informed them that they were to accompany Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850–1900 (Sharpe, their Chinese assistants on a preaching tour the following Sun- 1998) and Opening China: Karl Gutzlaff and Sino-Western Relations, day, and they were to take up residence in the Chinese interior 1828–1953 (Eerdmans, 2007). as soon as possible. Their letters to Basel could not hide their

38 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 culture shock, though they were still buoyed by the dream that an ethnic minority not fully incorporated into Confucian society, the Gospel of salvation would soon be carried to every Chinese the Hakka had a reputation for being more receptive to hetero- province.3 dox teachings than other Han Chinese. During his years in the By the autumn of 1847 both Hamberg and Lechler had be- Shantou region, Lechler had worked on a Hoklo dictionary, which come much less sanguine about prospects for evangelizing all of was later used by missionaries evangelizing among the Hoklo China via the Chinese Union. Their attempts to reside at Tanshui, and was revised and published by the English Presbyterians. north of Kowloon, had stirred up strenuous local opposition, and He had also published a collection of Western hymns translated during one boat trip they had been attacked by robbers, who into Chinese by missionaries, Yang xin shenshe (Western hymnal), stripped them of their clothing and valuables. Clearly, China for use in worship services. He had made a number of converts, was not open, as Gützlaff had so often pronounced. Residence but since he was unconvinced that they had experienced a true outside the treaty ports by foreigners aroused such antagonism renewal, he had baptized only thirteen males and no women. as to be hazardous. Chinese who rented or sold property to Contemplating the request of a certain Toa for baptism, Lechler Westerners were attacked or even imprisoned. Both Basel mis- wrote in his diary: sionaries, furthermore, had become convinced that many of the Chinese Union evangelists were not believing Christians, What I have missed in him for some time is also something I have indeed, that they had professed Christianity only in order to missed in my assistants, namely evidence of an inner life. His knowledge was very considerable. He acknowledged himself as secure employment and travel money for alleged itinerations a sinner tainted by hereditary sin and real sin, which would bring into the interior. Attempts to inform Gützlaff of the true charac- him to eternal damnation. And he believed the words that only ter of the Chinese Union workers were rebuffed, and relations the blood of Jesus Christ could cleanse him. . . . But can one un- between Gützlaff and the Basel missionaries became decidedly derstand all this without living of it and in it? If a man were to live cool.4 Though both Hamberg and Lechler continued to employ in the experience of these truths, there must take place, according Chinese Union members, they insisted on further instruction of to my views, a powerful manifestation of a comparable spiritual their assistants, and they attempted to supervise them closely. life. Dr. Gützlaff has expressed the opinion that my expectations Those who faltered were quickly dismissed. Unlike Gützlaff, are too high, that I am imposing a standard on heathen Christians they permitted only ordained ministers, not Chinese assistants, that is more suitable to believers from Christendom. I myself have to baptize converts. They nevertheless continued to operate on had heavy internal battles over this matter, and I have begged the Lord to give me enlightenment that it may lead me down the the premise that Chinese evangelists would make most of the right path. Finally, it seemed to me that I could no longer resist initial contacts and that the rural interior was the most promis- the pleas of these people and should, in God’s name, carry them ing milieu for evangelism. They thus built on and also modified over through Holy Baptism to the Trinitarian God, a God that is Gützlaff’s mission methodology. also their God, their Creator, and their Savior.8 The Shantou Experience Christianity for Lechler still meant Western European Christianity, but he was beginning to appreciate the need for adjusting one’s In accord with Gützlaff’s original assignment, Lechler left sights to the Chinese milieu. Hong Kong on May 17, 1848, to establish a mission among the Despite Lechler’s sense that he had labored in vain among the Hoklo in the Shantou region. Three Chinese Union assistants Hoklo, his evangelism helped prepare the ground for the estab- and a servant accompanied him. Since marauding pirates made lishment of an English Presbyterian mission in Chaozhou during travel on a Chinese junk highly risky, Lechler took passage on the late 1850s. One of Lechler’s most promising converts was Lin the only Western vessel available, an opium smuggler, and he landed six days later at Nanao, a major opium depot. He was repeatedly rebuffed in attempts to rent a residence and had to Since pirates made travel take refuge with the captain of the opium ship.5 His Chinese assistants advised returning to Hong Kong. Luckily, Lechler met highly risky, Lechler took a former Chinese Union member identified only as Old Kong passage on the only or Khong-lan. Kong had originally been baptized by Gützlaff and sent to northern Guangdong to proselytize, but Kong, Western vessel available, Lechler wrote, was not truly converted and was now engaged an opium smuggler. in the opium trade. Kong nevertheless offered to guide Lechler, in Chinese disguise, on a risky, fourteen-hour journey to his home village near Chaozhou. Here Kong provided Lechler Qi (Lim A-Kee). Lin, however, was the only Christian convert with meals and housing. Lechler’s assistants, who had feared in his family, and he ultimately succumbed to constant pressure to venture into the interior, eventually joined him. Contacting from his family. When his wife died and his family demanded a previous acquaintances, the assistants and Kong gathered eleven traditional funeral, he agreed and returned his Bible, catechism, people from neighboring villages for Lechler to instruct. Asked and hymnal to Lechler.9 Lin admitted to Lechler that he had done why he housed a foreigner despite the dangers, Kong replied, wrong, but he expressed the hope that God would forgive him as “He is my brother, a godly ambassador who does only good.”6 God had forgiven others. Lechler concluded that Lin was not a Lechler returned to Hong Kong for consultation with colleagues true “born again Christian.” Yet, when the English Presbyterians in September. Though Lechler made three subsequent trips to entered the region some years later, Lin and Old Kong requested the Chaozhou area between 1848 and 1852 and established a that a missionary be sent to their villages to instruct them. Lin small Christian community, official pressure compelled him to eventually became a church elder, and his son became a pastor. leave each time.7 One wishes for Kong and Lin’s definition of Christianity. Had In 1852 Lechler abandoned the Hoklo mission in Shantou they considered themselves Christians throughout the interval as a failure and joined Hamberg in work among the Hakka. As of isolation from Westerners?

January 2007 39 Noteworthy Personalia also announced Alan R. Johnson as the first J. Philip Hogan The International Association for Mission Studies has appointed professor of missions and the establishment of a doctor of Jan van Butselaar as general secretary, replacing Frans Dok- missiology degree. Visit www.agts.edu for details. man. Van Butselaar, author of Mission: The Soul of Ecumenism The American Society of Church History (www. (2004), has taught African church history and theology in churchhistory.org) will honor Andrew F. Walls with a Distin- Mozambique and Rwanda. Until recently, he was general guished Career Award when they meet in Atlanta, January secretary of the Netherlands Missionary Council, Amsterdam. 4–7, 2007. Dana Robert of Boston University School of Theol- The IAMS secretariat is located in the Nijmegen Institute of ogy will chair the awards session and Lamin Sanneh of Yale Missiology in the Netherlands. Divinity School will participate. Walls is director emeritus of After twenty years as executive director of the World the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western Evangelical Alliance Mission Commission, William D. Taylor World at the University of Edinburgh. All three scholars are handed over leadership to Brazilian missionary Bertil Ekström. contributing editors. The transition celebration occurred on June 21, 2006, at a meeting in Cape Town, South Africa. A resident of Campinas, Announcing Brazil, Ekström has led the Brazilian Association of Mission The Project on Religion and Economic Change (PREC) is Agencies, been president of COMIBAM Internacional, and creating digital maps of the spread of Protestant and Catho- chaired the Great Commission Roundtable. K. Rajendran, lic mission activity from the early nineteenth century to the executive director of the India Missions Association, chairs the mid-twentieth century. Developed as part of the Spiritual WEA Mission Commission Global Leadership Team. Capital project of the Metanexus Institute and funded by the Wonsuk Ma has been appointed executive director of the Templeton Foundation, the project has as its goal to evaluate Oxford Centre for Mission Studies (www.ocms.ac.uk). From the effect of religion on economies around the world. Robert 1996 to 2006 he was vice president for academic affairs and D. Woodberry, Department of Sociology, University of Texas professor of Old Testament and Pentecostal studies at Asia at Austin ([email protected]), is project director. Pacific Theological Seminary, Baguio City, Philippines. He is Audio recordings, texts of papers, and photographs from coeditor of the Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies. Last fall Ma the 1966 World Congress on Evangelism, held in West Berlin, replaced Vinay Samuel, who will continue with OCMS as are now available on the Web site of the Billy Graham Center director emeritus and also serve as executive director of the Archives, Wheaton, Illinois. For details, visit www.wheaton. newly established Oxford Centre for Religion and Public Life. edu/bgc/archives/berlin66.htm. Address questions and com- The Assemblies of God Theological Seminary has ments to [email protected]. named Gary B. McGee as distinguished professor of church Yale Divinity School Library and Uganda Christian history and Pentecostal studies. A contributing editor, McGee University have agreed to undertake a pilot project to micro- delivered his inaugural lecture on October 13. The seminary film documents from the Church of the Province of Uganda

Work with the Hakka and Taiping Christians optimistic, ready to embrace the Taipings as Christians who would complete the task that they themselves had begun. When In 1853 Lechler’s sister came out to marry Genähr, and in 1854, it became known, however, that Hong Xiuquan believed that through the mediation of Hamberg, Lechler also acquired a his revelation superseded that of the New Testament, many wife, Auguste Nordstadt, from Sweden.10 Unhappily, she died of Westerners turned against the Taiping Christians. Since the dysentery on April 17, 1854, only forty days after their wedding. Basel Mission concentrated on the Hakka community in its Lechler suffered a further blow with the death of Hamberg the work and since most of the early leaders of the Taiping rebel- next month. Sustaining Lechler was an unquestioning faith in the lion were Hakka, it was natural that Taiping members should truth of Christianity as he understood it, the elemental evangeli- seek out Hamberg and Lechler when fleeing to Hong Kong cal Christianity of nineteenth-century German pietists. Despite for refuge. Li Zhenggao and Hong Rengan, nephew of Hong adversity and his own bouts of illness, he remained convinced Xiuquan, were among these. Hong Xiuquan had converted of the higher wisdom of God. He lamented the paucity of his the two to Taiping Christianity and had baptized them, but converts and the frequency of their apostasy and moral lapses, they had failed in attempts to unite with the Taiping forces in but he never seems to have doubted the universal, unique truth Guangxi and were being hunted by imperial authorities. They of Protestant Christianity or the sanctity of the mission enterprise. made their way to the Basel Mission in Hong Kong, where He was, furthermore, interested in Chinese society and culture. Hamberg and Lechler instructed them in Christian doctrines Sprinkled through his correspondence are comments on Chinese and rebaptized them.11 Hong Rengan for a time worked with beliefs regarding creation, a description of a dragon boat festival, of the London Missionary Society (LMS), but a discussion of the practice of selling civil service titles, and so eventually joined the Taipings at their capital in Nanjing. Li, forth. His remarks are critical, but not harsh and censorious. For who had become convinced that Taiping Christianity was a him, China had become home. distortion of true Christianity, became Lechler’s most trusted During the 1850s the Taiping movement (1850–64) became and valued Chinese associate.12 an important concern of Christian missionaries. Was it the After the defeat of the Taipings, Li Zhenggao and Lechler prelude to the Christianization of all China? Or was it sim- itinerated among former Taiping followers in Hong Xiuquan’s ply a Christian heresy? Was it primarily a political rebellion home region, the Hua and Qingyuan districts of Guangdong. against the Manchu dynasty? At first, many missionaries were Because Li had many kinfolk there and because of his earlier

40 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Anglican) archives. The cost of the filming will be underwrit- Hungary, established the Central and Eastern European ten by the Initiative for the Docu- Institute for Mission Studies (CIMS) in June 2006. Univer- mentation of World Christianity. IDC Publishers of Leiden, sity rector Ferenc Szücs announced that Anne-Marie Kool Netherlands, will serve as project manager. The pilot project ([email protected]) has been named professor of missiology will produce fifty reels of microfilm as a test to determine the and CIMS director. feasibility of a larger microfilming project. This is the first pres- The Australian Association for Mission Studies, launched ervation microfilming project outside the West underwritten last summer, plans to publish the Australian Journal of Mis- by the Latourette Initiative. Other projects have microfilmed sion Studies, commencing in June 2007. Larry Nemer, S.V.D. material at the World Council of Churches and the University of ([email protected]), lecturer in mission studies at Yarra Edinburgh. Readers who are aware of archival collections that Theological Union, Box Hill, Australia, was elected AAMS might be candidates for preservation microfilming should con- president. The new association and journal supersede the tact Paul Stuehrenberg, YDS librarian, at paul.stuehrenberg@ South Pacific Association for Mission Studies and the South yale.edu. Pacific Journal of Mission Studies, which ceased publication in The Akrofi-Christaller Memorial Centre for Mission December 2006. Research and Applied Theology, Akropong-Akuapem, The cumulative index of the South East Asia Journal of Ghana (www.acmcghana.org), has a new name and a new Theology (1959–82) and its successor, the East Asia Journal degree-granting status. A postgraduate research and training of Theology (1983–86), are now online at www.ttc.edu.sg/ institution established by the Presbyterian Church of Ghana csca/epub/seajt.htm. Both journals were based in Singapore. to serve the wider Christian community, the institution has In 1987 the scope of the journal was expanded, and its name been renamed the Akrofi-Christaller Institute of Theology, changed, to Asia Journal of Theology. Seminaries may receive Mission, and Culture. The change of name was made to additional details or the cumulative index source file from accompany conferral of a presidential charter to offer post- Michael Nai-Chiu Poon, director of the Centre for the Study graduate degrees. The center was previously accredited in of Christianity in Asia, Trinity Theological College, Singapore, 1998 to offer postgraduate degrees in conjunction with the [email protected]. School of Theology at the University of Natal, Pietermaritz- The Mission Society for United Methodists, Norcross, burg, South Africa. The center also offered a master’s degree Georgia, has shortened its name to The Mission Society. in cross-cultural studies, organized in cooperation with the Philip R. Granger, president, states that the name change Tamale Institute of Cross-Cultural Studies. Kwame Bediako “does not represent departure from the United Methodist is the ACI director. Church” but gives recognition to “a ministry that includes To advance missiological education and research and to Methodist and other church bodies and missionaries from “assist the churches to grow into missional communities,” many denominations.” the senate of Karoli Gaspar Reformed University, Budapest,

association with the Taipings, he and Lechler were able to enter which other cultures were judged. China must accept Western homes and villages ordinarily closed to outsiders. Contrary to the science, technology, and concepts of international relations along impression that Taiping Christianity disappeared without a trace, with Christianity. The lectures reveal as well Lechler’s interest in they found individuals who secretly prayed to God (Shangdi); Chinese culture and his appreciation of China’s heritage. While they and others proved receptive to the Protestant Christianity Lechler laments the Chinese oppression of women, he finds their preached by Li and Lechler.13 respect for elders and their loyalty to family praiseworthy. A final chapter on Christian missions relates many of his personal Home Leave and Marriage to Marie Stotz experiences as an evangelist, including a repetition of a frequent theme: lack of a sense of sin among Chinese is the major obstacle When the Anglo-French War with China began in 1856, Lechler to Christian evangelism. and other Basel missionaries retreated from the mainland to Hong While in Germany, Lechler also acquired a new wife, Marie Kong. There, Lechler worked with the local Hakka Christian Stotz, from the Neckar region near Württemberg. She shared in community and assisted Dr. J. H. Hirshberg of LMS in St. Paul’s his mission work until they retired from China in 1899. Often Hospital. The medical knowledge that he gained later assisted she accompanied him and his Chinese assistants on itinerations him in offsetting antiforeign sentiment and securing an audience in the interior, thereby making access to women and children on his itinerations. Illness necessitated his return to Germany in more possible. While the men preached in public, she joined the 1858 for recuperation. women and children in the inner quarters. Not having children Missionaries on furlough were expected to visit churches of her own, she devoted herself especially to the girls’ school she and speak to congregations and mission societies in order to founded in Hong Kong. Acting as a go-between for her gradu- popularize missions and inform potential supporters about ates, she arranged marriages with Chinese evangelists and other their field. Through such contacts and also their reports and Christian converts, thereby helping establish the Christian families correspondence with the home front, China missionaries became so important to the durability of Christian communities. Educa- the principal conduit for information on China generally among tion was a means of social mobility for the orphans, beggars, and Westerners. Eight of Lechler’s lectures were published in 1861 as unwanted daughters Marie was able to enroll. Having acquired Acht Vorträge über China. For Lechler, as for most Protestant mis- literacy and acquaintance with Western culture, they married up, sionaries of his era, Western Christendom was the norm against in some cases to overseas Chinese businessmen. Other graduates

January 2007 41 went on to secondary schools to prepare to become teachers, or funds for a stopover. A joyous reunion with former members of “Bible women.”14 the Basel community awaited the couple in Hawaii and again in San Francisco.17 Lechler as Administrator Returning to China in 1888, Lechler dropped his administra- tive duties and served once again as a field missionary. Marie Upon Lechler’s return to China in 1861, he became increasingly and Rudolf settled at the newly established station of Pingtang, involved in administrative responsibilities. The Basel Mission was near Xingning in northern Guangdong. In cooperation with expanding as Chinese evangelists carried the Christian message evangelist Chen Minxiu, an ordained minister educated at Basel, to the interior, and it became possible for Westerners to reside in they established numerous outer stations, sometimes journeying the countryside. A major Christian center with about two hundred for months at a time to little clusters of Christians. By 1897 the converts had been established in Meizhou, the Hakka heartland Xingning district, with almost a thousand Christians, had become in northeast Guangdong. Another major center was located in one of the largest Basel stations. In 1899 after a fifty-two-year the Xinan region east of the Pearl River, where primary schools career as a China missionary, Rudolf Lechler and his wife retired for boys and girls, a boys’ middle school, and a seminary for to Germany, where he died in 1908. training evangelists had been established. Though Westerners were posted at the central stations, Chinese were generally in Legacy charge of congregations at the outer stations, and they carried the Rudolf Lechler’s legacy was the Hakka Christian church. As a German, he was something of an outsider to the Anglo-American community of missionaries in Hong Kong and could not be consid- By nurturing Chinese ered one of the leaders in the counsels of the China missionaries. evangelists and guiding Although not a prolific writer, Lechler did contribute articles to recently arrived German the Chinese Recorder and the Evangelisches Missions-Magazin on the Basel Mission and the history of the Hakka peoples, and his missionaries, Lechler lectures during his first two furloughs were published. In 1903, helped to build a stable on the one hundredth anniversary of Karl Gützlaff’s birth, he contributed a memorial essay to the Allgemeine Missions Zeitschrift Hakka church. in which he credited Gützlaff with the decision of Basel, Barmen, and Berlin to enter the China field. But , he thought, came closest to fulfilling Gützlaff’s dream by establishing posts Christian message to the countryside. Once a cluster of congre- in all the provinces of China.18 Lechler translated the Gospels of gations had grown up, it became possible to establish a central Matthew and Luke into Hakka, and he completed a phonetic station with schools for boys and girls and with a Westerner or Hakka dictionary begun by Hamberg. occasionally an ordained Chinese in residence. Lechler was in Distinguishing Basel’s mission work were its heavy reliance charge of staffing and overseeing these Christian communities on Chinese assistants and its concentration on rural interior vil- and their leaders. By 1876 Basel had four central stations, sixteen lages rather than on the treaty ports and major urban centers. outer stations, eleven schools, and 953 communicants. Fourteen Also, emphasis on primary and secondary education for both years later, in 1890, the numbers had more than doubled: thirteen girls and boys contributed to the establishment of upwardly central stations, thirty-eight outer stations, fifty-six schools, and mobile Christian families, thereby strengthening both the church 2,029 communicants.15 and the Hakka community. By nurturing Chinese evangelists During the early 1860s a major conflict between Hakka and guiding recently arrived German missionaries, Lechler and bendi (local Cantonese residents) in the Foshan district of helped to build a stable Hakka church that for some is closely Guangdong had led to the expulsion of thousands of Hakka. identified with their sense of Hakka ethnicity. While most mis- Hundreds fled to Hong Kong, where the Basel Mission provided sion societies expanded to other provinces, Basel continued temporary food and shelter. With the assistance of the mission, to work primarily in Guangdong. By 1922 its communicants some, including a number who had converted to Christianity, in Guangdong Province were second in number only to the emigrated overseas; furthermore, Hakka congregations in Mei- American Presbyterians.19 zhou, Xinan, and elsewhere were continually depleted by the Today the Hakka church is thriving, especially in Meizhou, departure of their members seeking better economic opportunities where youth are less subject to the lure of consumerism and overseas.16 They established Christian communities in Australia, materialism than in the Pearl Delta region. Ties between main- Sabah (North Borneo), Hawaii, Indonesia, San Francisco, South land and overseas Hakka have been renewed, and assistance America, and elsewhere. Retaining ties with the homeland, they from overseas Chinese has attained proportions reminiscent remitted funds for the establishment of schools and for the sup- of earlier remittances by Chinese émigrés. In recent decades port of orphanages and Chinese pastors. When Marie and Rudolf the Basel society has formed partnerships with independent Lechler returned to Germany on furlough in 1886, Christians Hakka churches in the People’s Republic as well as in overseas in Hawaii invited the Lechlers to visit them and even provided communities. Notes 1. Lechler to Inspector, Hong Kong, December 5, 1863, Archives of Basler the Basel archives, I have retained the German transliteration in Missionsgesellschaft, A-1.5, #10. Unless noted otherwise, subsequent endnotes. archival references are all to materials in the Basel Mission archives. 2. W. Schlatter, Rudolf Lechler. Ein Lebensbild aus der Basler Mission in The transliteration system employed by nineteenth-century German China (Basel: Missionsbuchhandlung, 1911), pp. 1–23. missionaries differs from pinyin; to assist in locating the sources in

42 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 3. Lechler to Inspector, Victoria, March 22, 1847, A-1.1, #4; Hamberg Insurrection (Hong Kong: China Mail, 1854), still an important source to Inspector, Hong Kong, March 27, 1847, ibid., #6. on the early Taiping movement. 4. For further detail on the Chinese Union and its demise, see Jessie G. 12. Lechler, “Lebensgeschichte des Reisepredigers Li Tschin-kau,” Hong Lutz and R. Ray Lutz, “Karl Gützlaff’s Approach to Indigenization: Kong, April 20, 1868, A-1.6, #9; also Li Chengen, “Das Leben des The Chinese Union,” in : From the Eighteenth Seligheimgegangenen Diakon Li Tschin-kau,” 1885, A-1.19, #38. Century to the Present, ed. Daniel H. Bays (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford 13. Li Tschin-kau, “Übersetzung des Berichts von dem Reiseprediger Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 269–91. Tschin Kau vom 8ten bis zum 10ten Monat,” trans. Lechler, Hong 5. “Mission in China,” Evangelisches Missions-Magazin 34, no. 4 (1849): Kong, February 17, 1869, A-1.6. #3; Li Tschin-kau, “Bericht über 143–44, quoting from Lechler’s diary; William Gauld, “History of die Arbeit des Reiseprediger Li Tsching-kau, 1870,” trans. Lechler, the Swatow Mission” (unfinished M.A. thesis, United Reformed January 1871, A-1.7, #91; Lechler to Inspector, July 16, 1869, A-1.6, Church Archive, Overseas Addenda, Box 103A, London), quoting #18. from Lechler’s diary, pp. 6–8; Schlatter, Rudolf Lechler, pp. 48–84. 14. This was generally true of the graduates of parochial girls’ schools. 6. “Mission in China,” pp. 143–44. See, for example, the report of the Berlin orphanage in Hong Kong, 7. “The Expulsion of Mr. Lechler from Yamtsau,” Chinese and Missionary Findelhaus Bethesda auf Hongkong (Berlin: Selbstverlag des Berliner Gleaner 2, no. 2 (July 1852): 15–16; George Hood, Mission Accomplished? Frauenmissionsvereins für China,1910), pp. 32–37. The English Presbyterian Mission in Lingtung, South China (Frankfurt: 15. C. J. Voskamp, “The Work of German Missions in China,” in China Peter Lang, 1986), pp. 28–29; Schlatter, Rudolf Lechler, p. 78. Mission Yearbook, 1914 (Shanghai: Christian Literature Society of 8. Diary for October 5, 1849, quoted in Evangelisches Missions-Magazin China, 1914), pp. 373–76. 35, no. 2 (1850): 248–49. 16. Philipp Winnes to Inspector, Hong Kong, January 14, 1861, A-1.4, 9. Lechler’s diary quoted in Gauld, “History,” pp. 11–12. #14; Lechler to Committee, January 10, 1862, ibid., #19; Lechler to 10. In the belief that a wife and family detracted from the dedicated, Inspector, “Erster Quartalbericht,” April 1868, A-1.6, #5. sacrificial life expected of a missionary, the Basel Society required a 17. Schlatter, Rudolf Lechler, pp. 183–87. Accompanying the Lechlers missionary to work in the field for five years before marrying. This were two girls who had been affianced to Hawaiian Christians. rule was soon abandoned as it became evident that women were 18. “Zur Würdigung Gützlaffs, des ersten deutschen Chinesen- needed to contact women and children in Chinese society, where missionars,” typed MS, Schachtel/box, A-1.10. separate social relations for sexes were the norm. 19. Milton T. Stauffer, ed., The Christian Occupation of China (Shanghai: 11. The contacts between Hamberg and Hong Rengan were the basis for China Continuation Committee, 1922), pp. 167–74. Hamberg’s Visions of Hung Siu-Tshuen and the Origin of the Kwang-si Selected Bibliography Works by Rudolf Lechler 1879 “A Sketch of the Work of the Basel Mission.” Chinese Recorder Lechler’s correspondence, reports, and essays are located in the Archives 10 (November–December): 145–48. of Basler Missionsgesellschaft, Basel, Switzerland, under China: Berichte 1887 “Meine Reise von China in die Heimat” (My journey home und Korrespondenz, 1847–1899, Lechler Fascicle, Schachtel/Box A-10.1. from China). Evangelisches Missions-Magazin. Selections from Lechler’s diaries and reports were regularly published 1888 “Die Chinesen in ihrem Verhältnis zur europäischen Kultur” in the Evangelisches Missions-Magazin (Basel), 1847–72. (The relation of the Chinese to European culture). Evangelisches 1851 Yang xin shenshe (Hymnal). Hong Kong. Missions-Magazin, pp. 110–41. 1860 Das Evangelium des Matthaeus im Volksdialekte der Hakka-Chinesen (The Gospel of Matthew in Hakka). Berlin. Works About Rudolf Lechler 1861 Acht Vorträge über China (Eight lectures on China). Basel: Verlag Eppler, Paul. Geschichte der Basler Mission, 1815–1899. Basel: des Missionshauses. Missionsverlag, 1900. 1865 Luka, tso uk, yim su, Hakka, syuk wai (The Gospel of Luke in Gauld, William, “History of the Swatow Mission.” Unfinished M.A. thesis, Hakka). Hong Kong. Council for World Mission, Archives of United Reformed Church 1871 “German Mission in Canton Province.” Chinese Recorder 4 (Presbyterian Church of England), Foreign Mission Committee, (October): 137–38. Overseas Addenda, Box 103A. London. 1874 Drei Vorträge über China (Three lectures on China). Basel: Hood, George. Mission Accomplished? The English Presbyterian Mission in Missionsbuchhandlung. Lingtung, South China. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1986. 1876 “A Visit to Some of the Basel Mission Stations in Kwangtung Lutz, Jessie G., and Rolland Ray Lutz. Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Province.” Chinese Recorder 7 (July–August): 276–83. Christianity, 1850–1900. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1998. 1877 “Historical Sketch of the Basel Mission Station at Lilong.” “Missionar Rudolf Lechler, 1847–1899, in China.” Evangelische Heidenbote Chinese Recorder 8 (January–February): 46–54. 5 (1908): 36–38. 1878 “The Hakka Chinese.” Chinese Recorder 9 (October): 352–59. Schlatter, Wilhelm. Geschichte der Basler Mission, 1815–1915. Vol. 2, 1878 “On the Relations of Protestant Missions to Education.” In Die Geschichte der Basler Mission in Indien und China. Basel: Record of the General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of Missionsverlag, 1916. China, Held at Shanghai, May 10–23, 1877. Shanghai: Presbyterian ———. Rudolf Lechler. Ein Lebensbild aus der Basler Mission in China. Basel: Mission Press. Missionsbuchhandlung, 1911.

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January 2007 43 Book Reviews

The Qur’an and the West.

By Kenneth Cragg. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Univ. Press, 2006. Pp. 244. $34.95.

Kenneth Cragg’s Qur’an and the West is a indulgence of its own esteem” (p. 92). paradigm is imperative for Muslims in the meditation on Christian-Muslim relations Cragg argues that “the West” needs to West, who must “devise ways of being ‘a in the post–September 11 era. It sets out reflect upon this image in a spirit of minority culture’” (p. 5) while accepting to challenge political discourses regarding humility. He criticizes the foreign policies Western religious and cultural pluralism. the “clash of civilizations” and “Islam and of Western governments, arguing that the Cragg believes that Muslims can find the West,” which present relations between “War on Terror,” together with the invasion guidance in the Qur’an by embracing Western and Islamic societies as inevitably of Iraq and the ongoing Arab-Israeli “those passages . . . which enjoin mutual hostile. Noting that a quarter of all Muslims conflict, have only compounded Muslim emulation between peoples and races, and now live outside Islam’s historic centers, antipathies. From the Qur’an (17:37) he which stress that human diversity was often in immigrant communities, Cragg draws a lesson for the U.S. government: divinely meant and willed” (p. 188). Here, reflects on what the Qur’an and the Bible “Walk not proudfully on the earth. You Cragg’s exhortation resembles that of the can offer to Muslims, Christians, and cannot cleave the earth, nor match the Swiss Muslim thinker Tariq Ramadan others as they rub shoulders in a world mountains in stature” (p. 26). (b. 1962), who has urged Western Muslims of “inter-bondedness” (p. 174). Drawing Cragg also has a message for Muslims, to participate “faithfully” in civic life. insight from the last sura of the Qur’an which addresses the notion—deep-rooted Muslim-Christian relations are more (114: “Say: I seek refuge in the Lord, the in the history of Islamic thought—that strained than they were in 1956, when King, and the God of mankind, from the world is divided into Dar al-Islam Cragg published his classic work The Call the evil one who whispers in the hearts (the Abode of Islam, where Muslims of the Minaret as a call for respectful witness of mankind . . .”), Cragg considers how and Islam prevail) and Dar al-Harb (the between Christians and Muslims. Now recriminations between and within Abode of War, against which jihad is the need for dialogue is more urgent than Muslim and Christian communities have licit and standard). In the past, many ever, particularly inside the West vis-à-vis led to enmities that “litter the centuries” Muslim scholars maintained that good growing Muslim communities. (p. 59), and he calls upon people of faith Muslims should not live under non- —Heather J. Sharkey to replace “mutual demonizing” (p. 65) Muslim dominion, so that “resident with critical self-appraisal. Muslims inside Dar al-Harb ought either Heather J. Sharkey is Assistant Professor of Middle Muslims often regard “the West” as to leave it forthwith or work inside it to Eastern and Islamic Studies in the Department of harboring “arrogance, consumerism, sex- Islamise its power structure” (p. 198). Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the ual exhibitionism, vulgarity, and sheer Cragg suggests that a rethinking of this University of Pennsylvania.

Strange Names of God: The Ricci’s Shangti in late Ming China. Anti- Missionary Translation of the Christian Chinese scholars accused the Divine Name and the Chinese Jesuit missionaries of stealing the familiar Responses to Matteo Ricci’s term Shangti found in the Confucian “Shangti” in Late Ming China, classics and of applying strange Christian 1583–1644. color to it. In their eagerness to put forward convincing counterarguments, they were By Sangkeun Kim. New York: Peter Lang, more committed than most contemporary 2005. Pp. xii, 322. $75.95. Chinese Christians to comprehend the central tenets of Christianity. These anti- What should the name of the Christian provoked an interreligious dialogue Christian Chinese literati thus assumed an God be in Chinese? This is a centuries-old between Christianity and Confucianism. unexpected but pivotal role of interpreters question and controversy. Kim has placed his study of Ricci’s in the process of semantic remapping and Strange Names of God thoroughly translation in a wider context. The author theological reconfiguration of Shangti investigates a sixteenth-century effort to examines current theories of cultural from the Confucian Most-High to the resolve this thorny problem. Famous for his translation, with special reference to the Christian God. accommodative mission strategy, the Italian missionary translation enterprise, and Kim makes fine use of primary and Jesuit Matteo Ricci made a provocative discusses the intellectual and theological secondary sources in Chinese, Korean, attempt to identify the Christian God background of sixteenth-century Jesuit Japanese, and English. He provides with the Confucian Shangti (the Lord missionaries. Kim contextualizes Ricci’s meticulous documentation, with only on High) on the ground of the alleged Chinese translation by comparing it with occasional typographical infelicities (e.g., monotheism in classical Confucianism. other Jesuit translation efforts in Japan, Morrison’s Chinese Bible should be titled The adoption of an established term Peru, and South India. Shen-t’ien Sheng-shu, not Shen-fu Sheng-shu, in Chinese not only triggered a heated The principal contribution of Kim’s p. 193 n. 333). theological debate among missionaries study lies in his groundbreaking review The name Shangti was ultimately from different Catholic orders but also of the response of Chinese intellectuals to rejected by the Catholic Church when a

44 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 papal bull endorsed instead the neologism Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2006 for T’ienchu (the Lord of Heaven). The Catholic debate, however, was resumed Mission Studies by the Protestant missionaries in late Qing China, and the controversy has not been In consultation with fifty distinguished scholars from around the world, the editors resolved completely until the present day. of the International Bulletin of Missionary Research have selected fifteen books In this light, Strange Names of God has its published in 2006 for special recognition of their contribution to mission studies. We contemporary relevance and indeed long- commend the authors, editors, and publishers represented here for their contribution term significance as a reference work in to the advancement of scholarship in studies of the Christian mission and world the fields of translation, cross-cultural, Christianity. In the future, this feature will run in the IBMR’s April issue to ensure that missiological, and biblical studies. John T. P. Lai outstanding books published late in the year can be appropriately acknowledged. Burgess, Stanley M., ed. John T. P. Lai is Assistant Professor in Translation, Routledge Encyclopedia of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity. Hong Kong Baptist University. New York: Routledge. $150. Cooper, Barbara M. Evangelical Christians in the Muslim Sahel. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press. $49.95. Cushner, Nicholas P. Evangelical, Ecumenical, and Why Have You Come Here? The Jesuits and the First Evangelization of Native Anabaptist Missiologies in America. Conversation: Essays in Honor of New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Paperback $29.95. Wilbert R. Shenk. Gross, Andreas, Y. Vincent Kumaradoss, and Heike Liebau, eds. Edited by James R. Krabill, Walter Sawatsky, Halle and the Beginning of Protestant Christianity in India. 3 vols. € and Charles E. Van Engen. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Halle, Ger.: Verlag der Franckeschen Stiftungen. Paperback 50. Orbis Books, 2006. Pp. 336. Paperback $25. Jenkins, Philip. The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global South. Evangelical, Ecumenical, and Anabaptist New York: Oxford Univ. Press. $26. Missiologies in Conversation is a Festschrift in honor of Wilbert R. Shenk, former Jeyaraj, Daniel. missionary to Indonesia, mission ad- Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg: The Father of Modern Protestant Missions; An Indian ministrator, prolific author, missiologist, Assessment. and recently retired professor at Fuller Chennai: Gurukul Lutheran Theological College and Research Institute; New Delhi: ISPCK. Theological Seminary. This book is a rare Rs. 300 / £13 / $18. treasure, bringing together missiological Kirk, J. Andrew. essays from an impressive array of authors. Mission Under Scrutiny: Confronting Contemporary Challenges. The collection is divided into five parts, Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Paperback $20. with five essays under each heading, all with excellent bibliographies. Kollman, Paul V. The first part is dedicated to historical The Evangelization of Slaves and Catholic Origins in Eastern Africa. perspectives on global mission. Dana Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $25. Robert’s and Walter Sawatsky’s essays of- Krabill, James R., Walter Sawatsky, and Charles E. Van Engen, eds. fer brilliant historical analyses that demand Evangelical, Ecumenical, and Anabaptist Missiologies in Conversation: Essays in a total “reconceptualization of mission Honor of Wilbert R. Shenk. history for a multicultural, worldwide Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $25. church” (p. 24). Andrew Walls traces the historical collapse of the biculturalism of Mattam, Joseph, and Joseph Valiamangalam, eds. the apostolic era and demonstrates how Emerging Indian Missiology: Context and Concept. global Christianity is poised to recapture New Delhi: FOIM/ISPCK. Rs. 180 / £6 / $8. a New Testament ecclesiology that hailed McLeod, Hugh, ed. one church with multiple cultural patterns World Christianities, c. 1914–c. 2000. Vol. 9 of The Cambridge History of Christianity. of following Jesus. Jehu Hanciles helps Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. £100 / $180. the reader to appreciate the profound implications of the “reverse migration” Ogunu, Oseni, ed. that is bringing millions from the South The African Enchiridion: Documents and Texts of the Catholic Church in the and East to the West. African World. Vol. 1: 1905–1977; vol. 2: 1978–1987. € € The second part is dedicated to Bologna: Editrice Missionaria Italiana. 65 / 90. exploring perspectives on the theology Ott, Craig, and Harold Netland, eds. of missions. From Willard Swartley’s Globalizing Theology: Belief and Practice in an Era of World Christianity. excellent exegetical work on the “evangel” Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Paperback $27.99. to Bonk’s insightful article on the im- plications of a global Christianity that is Skreslet, Stanley H. emerging from the poor and powerless, one Picturing Christian Witness: New Testament Images of Disciples and Mission. leaves these articles abundantly enriched. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Paperback $24. Chuck Van Engen’s exploration of critical Wright, Christopher J. H. contextualization reminds us afresh that The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative. the global South is reading the Bible and Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press. Paperback $38.

January 2007 45 understanding the Gospel in profound wonderful resource for reflection on (p. 207) provides fresh hope that Lesslie new ways, creating a “polycentric” (p. 90) mission in the Western world. Excellent Newbigin’s call to reevangelize the West context for global theologizing. essays can be found on what it means may yet be heeded. The third part explores new trends to be a missional church in the context The highlight of the final section is in missiology and ecclesiology. While this of the breakup of Christendom and the Paul Pierson’s article “Beyond Sodalities entire section is excellent, the highlight is emergence of postmodernity. Anyone and Modalities,” which thoughtfully dem- David Shank sharing his experiences with involved in traditional training preparation onstrates how the dynamics of twenty- the Kimbanguist and Harrist churches in for ministers and missionaries involving first-century mission defy traditional Africa. He powerfully illustrates the great “extractionistic and abstractionist forms” structural analysis. gulf between the “dechristianizing ethos of (p. 197) should not miss the challenge In my estimation, this is the best western Europe” and the “Christianizing of these essays. The reminder by Alan collection of missiological essays to appear context of sub-Saharan Africa” (p. 149). Kreider that a post-Christendom Europe in recent years. It should be read widely. The fourth section provides a is not necessarily a post-Christian Europe Timothy C. Tennent

Timothy C. Tennent is Professor of World Missions and Indian Studies at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Massachusetts. Since 1989 he has also taught annually at the Luther W. New, Jr., Theological College in Dehra Dun, India. He is the author of Theology in the Context of World Christianity (Zondervan, forthcoming).

African Christianity: An African Story.

Edited by Ogbu U. Kalu. Pretoria: Univ. of Pretoria, Department of Church History, 2005. Pp. xxii, 631. Paperback R 250.

In this self-confessed ideologically driven work, the eminent African church historian Ogbu U. Kalu and six associate editors take on the task of telling the story of African Christianity from an African perspective. Kalu’s goal is “to build up a group of African church historians who will tell the story as an African story by intentionally privileging the patterns of African agency without neglecting the roles of various missionary bodies” (p. xi). Many of the authors are from the newer crop of emerging scholars of Africa. Multiple authorship, though, can entail uneven quality, which Kalu has closely guarded against. This volume gives adequate attention to the nascent Pentecostalism on the continent, African diasporan Christianity, and women theologians. In line with Kalu’s objective of following the UNESCO General History of Africa series, he groups nineteen chapters

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46 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 under five themes. Driven more by the Tuttle’s approach aims to make the 381) is certainly welcome. His reluctance expertise of the various contributors than history of evangelism relevant for today. to engage with historiographical issues, the needs of a general history (not all In fact, his stated intention (p. xiv) is to however, limits the usefulness of this the contributors are trained historians), draw readers into this story as the next work for advanced students of the history the book treats some themes without a generation of outstanding witnesses to the of mission. timeframe, and there is some redundancy in Gospel. As such, the book is more like a Stanley H. Skreslet introductory sections. Evident throughout, series of personal reflections or a “blog” though, is Kalu’s shadow—ideologically on the history of evangelism than it is Stanley H. Skreslet is Professor of Christian Missions ecumenical in the broadest sense of the a scholarly response to the interpretive at Union Theological Seminary and Presbyterian word. The book discusses primal religions problems that must be posed to any School of Christian Education in Richmond, Virginia. and covers issues of poverty in much telling of this grand narrative. Tuttle’s He is the author of Picturing Christian Witness: detail. The East African revival is covered, attention to women, people of color, and New Testament Images of Disciples in Mission but not the Rwandan genocide. The most neglected parts of the world (pp. xi–xii, (Eerdmans, 2006). obvious feature of African Christianity, music and dance, is not addressed in any detail. African Christianity: An African Story meets its objective, but one is left with the impression that it could have soared higher. Those interested in history of Christianity and history of Africa will do well to get a copy of this valuable book. In the inimitable language of Kalu, this volume tells “the story of where the rain of the gospel met our ancestors, its thick showers on us and the tornado that will meet our future generations as the gospel deluges Africa” (p. xii). Casely B. Essamuah

Casely B. Essamuah, a Ghana-born Methodist, serves as the Compassionate Outreach Pastor of Bay Area Community Church, Annapolis, Maryland.

Here am I. The Story of Evangelism: A History of the Witness to the Gospel.

By Robert G. Tuttle, Jr. Nashville: Abingdon “Send me!” —Isaiah 6:8 Press, 2006. Pp. xv, 435. $30. Prepare to go with a Master of Arts in Global and Contextual Studies Robert G. Tuttle, Jr., is professor of evangelism at Asbury Theological from Bethel Seminary. Seminary in Orlando, Florida. In this Develop practical ministry skills and tools: NEW ambitious survey of Christian history, he • relevant theology for cross-cultural ministry has endeavored to present the whole of • understanding of the contemporary world and its needs PROGRAM the church’s story against the backdrop • interdisciplinary perspective of a changing world context. The book is structured according to thirteen periods • cultural dimensions of global and contextual ministry of time that extend from to • accurate exegesis of cultural contexts the twenty-first century. Each of these • incarnational models for cross-cultural ministry epochs is treated in the same way, with • contextualization of the Christian message an initial chapter focusing on the “global • points of contact within other religious traditions scene,” with sociopolitical and religious factors highlighted. After this reading Build biblical, theological, historical, cultural/contextual, and strategic of faith’s temporal context is presented, foundations for communicating the Christian message across cultures, an exemplary figure is lifted up as God’s whether overseas or among the growing ethnic populations within the U.S. “speaker” to his or her age by means of a first-person narrative (e.g., “I am Toyohiko Traditional and distance degree programs available. Kagawa”). A final chapter in each section reviews the “the impact” of evangelistic efforts made during the period and a http://seminary.bethel.edu selection of institutional developments, Program is accredited by the Association after which a bibliography of key primary of Theological Schools; pending accredi- 800.255.8706, ext. 6288 and secondary resources is provided for tation by the North Central Association further study. of Colleges and Schools.

January 2007 47 Muslims and the Gospel: Bridging explore a dozen key themes that form the Gap. the Muslim worldview. Two especially provocative themes Miller explores are By Roland E. Miller. Minneapolis: Lutheran “Success” and “Sense of Perfection.” Univ. Press, 2005. Pp. 452. Paperback $35. Miller writes as a friend of Muslims with an empathetic insightfulness that Muslims Unveiling God: Contextualizing will appreciate. Christology for Islamic Culture. The author brings to bear a lifetime of experience, as well as a lively By Martin Parsons. Pasadena, Calif.: William acquaintance with the foundational Carey Library, 2005. Pp. 400. Paperback literature (Qur’an, Hadith, Shari‘a). He is $29.99. conversant with centuries of theological debates among Muslims. Furthermore, he From the Straight Path to the introduces a broad stream of Christian Narrow Way: Journeys of Faith. engagement with Muslims, from the earliest years (e.g., John of Damascus) Edited by David H. Greenlee. Waynesboro, Ga.: to modern times (e.g., Henry and Authentic Media, 2006. Pp. 333. Paperback Mary Esther Otten). Here I would have $19.99. appreciated reading more about persons whose roots have been Muslim and who These three very dissimilar books have a my reference shelf and is a “must read” are committed to bearing witness to common vision: bearing faithful witness for those committed to bearing witness salvation in Christ. to Jesus Christ among Muslims. They are among Muslims. The book is organized The final part is an exploration of an essential resource for those who want in three major parts: “The Context— practical steps for Christians committed to understand the world of Muslims and Pivotal Muslim Views,” “Bridges for the to ministry among Muslims. Especially all who are committed to faithfulness Crossing,” and “The Task—Connecting engaging is chapter 11, “The Profile of a in bearing witness to Christ among Muslims and the Message.” Sharing Friend.” In fact, “friend” is the Muslims. The opening chapter, “Key Principles theme that gives this fine book cohesion, Roland Miller’s Muslims and the for Understanding Islam,” moves beyond with relevance for all of us. Although Gospel will occupy a central place on the familiar pillars of belief and duty to Miller is a thorough scholar, this book is

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48 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 fully accessible. The personal anecdotes He demonstrates that the Christological churches? What do Muslims themselves enliven the chapters. questions that Muslims bring to the table say of Jesus the Messiah after they have Martin Parsons’s Unveiling God force Christians to repent of distorted read the Gospels? complements Miller’s volume, for he Christology. From the Straight Path to the Narrow attempts to develop a Christology that is This book invites discussion! A key Way, edited by David Greenlee, addresses contextual and understandable and that can question for me is his neglect of addressing such questions. This book explores what be received within a Muslim worldview. the incarnation, choosing rather to focus it is about Jesus the Messiah that attracts He describes the Western church’s creedal on what he calls the “God side” of Jesus. Muslims to faith, and what happens within Christology as a development within Does this approach take us in the direction their worldview when they meet Jesus. the Hellenistic world, whereas New of a Docetic Christology? Parsons relies The book comprises essays from twenty- Testament Christology was honed within a considerably on epiphany to interpret two contributors who were participants Jewish/Semitic worldview. He focuses on Jesus. Does such a focus lend itself to a in a forum of fifty people from twenty Second-Temple Judaism, which in his view Gnostic understanding of Jesus? There is countries, a number of whom had recently has continuities with Islam. He therefore little reference to Jesus as Messiah, and journeyed from the Straight Path to the believes that New Testament contextual Jesus as Son of Man is not addressed, Narrow Way. Several years of research Second-Temple Christology provides although this latter name is the one Jesus preceded the conference. indicators of how to do Christology within most often used to describe himself. The The presentations of most a Muslim context. He demonstrates that in purpose of this book is narrowly focused contributors were an interpretation of both communities the concept of God was on making the case for the divinity of their research. The chapters are salted bounded and extrinsic and argues that a Christ and a Trinitarian theology rooted with narrative. The book is in four main relevant Christology must fit within that in the oneness of God. The incarnation is sections: “Missiological Overview,” parameter. not addressed (p. 253). “Understanding the Experience of Parsons also develops insights into If Parsons has tested emphasizing the Coming to Faith,” “Understanding Some Islamic theological development. He is in God side of Jesus with Muslims, it would Movements to Faith,” and “Concluding touch with Muslim interpretations of the be instructive to know their response. Reflections.” Qur’an as it relates to God and revelation. He recognizes that the local church in A concluding statement by David He demonstrates a rich acquaintance with mission within the Islamic context must Smith embraces three central themes: the Hadith literature that has relevance develop its own contextual Christology. (1) Muslim converts have seen and to Christology. In fact, in my judgment, To what extent has he tested his efforts at experienced sacrificial love shown by this is a seminal contribution of this book. contextual Christology with those local Christians; (2) Muslim converts have mission insurance. nothing else. There’s something to be said for insuring with a company that only offers missionary-specific policies. For starters, our professionals are really specialists. They know the ins-and-outs of international insurance and travel hazards— and have helped thousands with unforeseen obstacles. That’s why you place your trust in an insurance company in the first place, isn’t it?

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January 2007 49 read some portion of Scripture; and (3) little reference is made to such groups. Evangelical Theological Muslim converts have experienced a That said, I commend this readable and Perspectives on Post–Vatican II special manifestation of the power of insightful book; it is pertinent to the Roman Catholicism. Christ. All who are seriously committed mission and calling of the church among to bearing witness among Muslims will Muslims. By Leonardo De Chirico. Bern, Switz.: Peter want to read this book and be challenged David W. Shenk Lang, 2003. Pp. 337. SFr 87 / €55.70 / £39 / and encouraged thereby. $66.95. A pertinent theme that was not David W. Shenk, Global Missions Consultant explored in the book is reasons that with Eastern Mennonite Missions, is the author The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) Christians convert to Islam. Equally of over a dozen books on themes related to Islam brought hope that a review and updating pertinent would have been consideration and missiology. of Catholic thinking on a variety of of the societies in which very few Muslims important issues might bring about a are choosing to enter the Narrow Way; new rapprochement between the Vatican and other Christians. Since 1965 that rapprochement has become evident in many ways, but nowhere more so than in the many bilateral dialogues that have emerged between the Pontifical Council SPECIAL for Promoting Christian Unity and other Christian families. In addition to many dialogues with historic churches, the OFFER TO pontifical council has also undertaken dialogues with Pentecostals (since 1972), a dialogue on mission with evangelicals STUDENTS (1977–84), and, more recently, periodic consultations with the World Alliance Receive 4 issues of of Evangelicals (intermittent since 1993). Significant strides such as the Joint Dec- an award-winning laration on the Doctrine of Justification, signed by representatives of the Catholic research journal Church and the Lutheran World Federation on Reformation Sunday in 1999, and the July 2006 signing of an agreement on justification by Catholics, Lutherans, and FREE the Methodist World Council offer further hope to those with evangelical interests. NOW AVAILABLE AS AN Leonardo De Chirico’s volume is the reworking of a Ph.D. dissertation he completed at Kings College, London, in 2003. He is a native Italian and an E-JOURNAL evangelical who stands squarely within the Reformed tradition. As director of The INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH is a vital study the Institute of Evangelical Formation tool for students interested in world Christianity. To introduce current and Documentation in Padua, Italy, he full-time students to the quarterly journal, the IBMR is offering a identifies with the institute’s commitment that rejects “the form of unity promoted four-issue special introductory gift of the easily searched and easy- both by the Roman Catholic church and to-print-out e-journal edition. Students will receive four free issues by the Ecumenical Movement” (www. of the IBMR e-journal as an e-mail attachment—before the print ifeditalia.org). This position probably represents the thinking of most Protestants edition reaches your school’s library. in Italy, many of whom have experienced or heard compelling testimonies of Simply visit www.OMSC.org/studentoffer.html, click on the link, religious persecution and marginalization enter in the SPECIAL OFFER CODE box, and complete that they attribute to Rome. It thus is 3ZS06 not surprising that De Chirico provides the online form. In just a few days you will be reading the latest a stinging critique of much of the work issue. When you receive the fourth free issue you also will receive that has been undertaken by evangelicals an option for renewal. in dialogue with the Catholic Church. If you prefer the Print Edition, visit While he affirms portions of some of that www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html to work, he argues that recent evangelical purchase a subscription using a credit studies have been far too limited and Subscribers may read card, call (203) 624-6672, ext. 309, or too pragmatic. They are also fraught current issues online. Visit mail a check payable in U.S. funds to: either with “hostile resistance” or with www.omsc.org/onlinehelp.html IBMR, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834 “undiscerning openness” (p. 22). for details. Published quarterly by the De Chirico argues that what OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER evangelicals need is a “systemic” approach to Catholicism; that is, it must take 3Z82 the entire system, the Roman Catholic Weltanschauung, into consideration if

50 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 any real breakthrough is to take place. of this same research project, refocuses Northern, historical-critical readings of the While the study of specific theological the same phenomenon with relation to Bible assume that Southern interpretations issues can be useful, such studies do not interpretation of the Bible. are narrowly premodern. But one can address the larger question of Roman Jenkins seeks to challenge several readily turn the tables and say that the Catholicism as a system. He believes that widespread prejudices about Southern former hermeneutics is narrowly unable to the best such attempt to date lies with the Christianity. First, it is commonly rejected hear wide swatches of the biblical witness. work of the nineteenth-century Dutch as “fundamentalist.” Jenkins’s balanced Southern biblical hermeneutics, growing Calvinist Abraham Kuyper. And he points account is not uncritical of more judgmental out of similarities between Southern to scholars such as Gerrit Berkhouwer, features of Southern Christianity. Still, cultural realities and those described in Cornelius Van Til, and David Wells as such an adjective is not useful to describe the Bible, reclaims the very themes that having provided the “most plausible” the complex appropriation of the Bible Northern hermeneutics has frequently recent attempts to address the situation. by Southern Christians. Undergirding silenced: agrarian life as described in While De Chirico may provide an Jenkins’s argument is his point that the Old Testament, the spoken Word as important critique on the current state of evangelical theology, the voice of that he chooses to lift up is only one among a number of such voices. Too facilely, I believe, he has dismissed Lutheran and Methodist voices, and fearing that the balance between what he terms “Reformation” and “Revival” will Religion in Latin America be endangered if “revivalist” contributions are taken too seriously, he has quickly A Documentary History dismissed any potential Pentecostal Edited by LEE M. PENYAK or Holiness contribution. They simply and WALTER J. PETRY lack “systemic sharpness and acuteness because they are interested in renewal of Nearly 600 years of significant documents “clear- aspects of a given theology” (p. 306). ly chart out the vast landscape of Latin American It seems clear that De Chirico has discarded many developments in the late religious experiences...an invaluable scholarly twentieth and early twenty-first centuries resource, especially in the classroom.” in favor of a nineteenth-century Reformed —Virginia Garrard Burnett, University of Texas approach that begins once again in the sixteenth century. The question to be 1-57075-679-1 paper $40.00 answered is whether such a position can really take into account the changes that Major Mission Studies took place at Vatican II. Voices from the Margin Cecil M. Robeck, Jr. Interpreting the Bible in the Third World Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., is Professor of Church History Edited by R.S. SUGIRTHARAJAH and Ecumenics, Fuller Theological Seminary, Third Edition — Revised and Expanded Pasadena, California. An essential resource on interpretations of the Bible from scholars around the world. “Very useful...” — Journal for the Study of the Old Testament The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the Bible in the Global 1-57075-686-4 paper $35.00 South.

By Philip Jenkins. New York: Oxford Univ. Concepts of Mission Press, 2006. Pp. 272. $26 / £16.99. The Evolution of It has become a truism that the center of Contemporary Missiology gravity of the Christian religion has shifted FRANCIS ANEKWE OBORJI south, and also that the present century will be one of global Christianity. While these A comprehensive history, theology, and practice observations have been commonplace in of Catholic mission attuned to Conciliar and missiological quarters, Philip Jenkins, a Post-Conciliar perspectives. historian and sociologist of religion at Pennsylvania State University, served 1-57075-663-5 paperback $27.00 to bring this insight to the attention of a general audience with his book The Next Christendom: The Rise of Global Christianity (Oxford Univ. Press, 2002), a work at once At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS popular and credible for scholars. Jenkins’s Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 The New Faces of Christianity: Believing the A World of Books that Matter 1-800-258-5838 Bible in the Global South, a continuation

January 2007 51

IBMR January — Roth Order no. N0914 List your numinous and the translated Word as antimachismo direction. The common socially transformative, spiritual powers thread is taking the Scripture seriously and principalities, healing, the existential and believing that it can address with OSITIONS reality of the message amid extreme power the immediacy of the social and P poverty, apocalyptic judgment, and so political situation. forth. Jenkins closes with a call to Christian Second, Southern Christianity is North and South alike to a fuller, more OPEN often categorized through use of an easy mutually informed reading of Holy dichotomy between liberationist versus Writ. patriarchal. Jenkins shows how this —George Sumner We are pleased to announce a dichotomy breaks down. Supposedly new service for readers of the conservative groups preach the truth George Sumner, the principal of Wycliffe College, International Bulletin of to power, and women are liberated Toronto, formerly served in Tanzania and in Missionary Research. A free list by Methodist-style virtues and the Navajoland in the U.S. Southwest. redefinition of male headship in an of positions open in mission studies, intercultural studies, and similar fields is now found on the Overseas Ministries Study Center Web site. A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. 2: 1500 to 1900.

To post an opening, e-mail By Samuel Hugh Moffett. Maryknoll, N.Y.: a brief description to: Orbis Books, 2005. Pp. xxvi, 742. $65. [email protected]. This immense and long-awaited work is together under that incongruous category an extremely important contribution to the “Asia.” One hopes that the author will To read the current openings, history of the missionary movement, with soon favor us with a third volume. visit www.OMSC.org/ special reference to the role of European Robert Eric Frykenberg Christians in bringing the Gospel to openings.html. the vast reaches of western, southern, Robert Eric Frykenberg, born and reared in India eastern, and northern Asia during the four by missionaries, has specialized in the history and centuries following Vasco da Gama’s 1498 cultures of India for over sixty years, forty-four of arrival in Calicut (now also Kozhikode), which have been at the University of Wisconsin– Read of the IBMR India. The almost impossible task of Madison. His books include History of Christianity ALL adequately covering such a vast subject, in India (Clarendon, in press). with all its incredible complexities, is so daunting that only the most intrepid and seasoned among our senior scholars would have contemplated making such Back an attempt. Only a dean among historians of Christianity could have accomplished The Road to Delhi: Bishop Pickett such a feat, and done it so well. Remembered. Yet even Moffett, with his advantages Issues of birth, nurture, and many years of By Arthur G. McPhee. Bangalore: SAIACS teaching in Korea and China, could hardly Press, 2005. Pp. 394. Rs 200. grasp all of the cultural idioms and intricate Online complexities required for a work such The subtitle of McPhee’s biography of as this. Understandably, the very best Bishop J. Waskom Pickett (1890–1981) is Sign in to the IBMR e-journal parts of this work are those that focus an apt description of this well-researched online when you visit on China, Japan, and Korea. The many and well-written work. The author, www.OMSC.org/ibmr.html Christianities of India (or South Asia) are who is currently associate professor of not as well represented, which is hardly evangelization at Asbury Theological and follow the link to previous surprising. Not surprising either is the Seminary in Wilmore, Kentucky, has issues of the Occasional largely conventional tone of this work gathered thousands of remembrances of Bulletin of Missionary as a whole. To expect more in a work Bishop Pickett from people, documents, Research (1977–80) and the striving for such comprehensive breadth, photographs, and even buildings and has especially in light of the vast missiological synthesized them into a highly engaging International Bulletin of literatures from which its substance has account of his life. Administrators like Missionary Research (1981– been drawn, would be churlish. Pickett rarely get the recognition of present). This service, provided Together with the first volume, this prominent public figures such as his friend work is unlikely to be replaced very soon. and colleague E. Stanley Jones, yet the in cooperation with the Henceforth, generations of students and former do as much as, and perhaps more American Theological Library scholars alike will find this standard on than, the latter to establish the foundations Association (ATLA), is the shelves of most libraries. The author of ecclesiastical life, which, after all, vitally deserves praise for his wonderfully shapes and forms Christians. available to all subscribers. evocative and immensely useful work on The one question I have with regard Christians in those worlds so long lumped to this monograph concerns its audience.

52 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 The work is obviously not designed with unacceptable to wider Anglicanism. The Non-Anglicans like Stanley Hauerwas a scholarly readership in mind; there recent Windsor Report called on ECUSA to and George Lindbeck commend the book. are no footnotes, even though there are “express regret” and observe a moratorium This Anglican reader from outside North many wonderful quotes, nor is there a on such actions. Bishops were called on to America is grateful for the clarity of the bibliography. For the academic who wants refrain from authorizing the blessing of analysis and the theological rigor whereby to investigate further McPhee’s work on same-gender unions. the authors seek to establish the historic Pickett, the obvious source would be the The positive recommendations, principle of the authority of Holy Scripture author’s Ph.D. dissertation completed argued with great skill and theological in the church’s life as a communion. at Asbury Theological Seminary. Since sophistication, for the unity of the —Timothy Yates J. Waskom Pickett does not carry the name communion rest on a proper conciliarity, recognition of someone like E. Stanley rooted in the kind of mutual subjection at Timothy Yates, Canon Emeritus of Derby Cathedral, Jones among North American church folk, the institutional level that Ephesians calls Derby, England, was a contributor to The Study one wonders whether Americans without for at the individual level to maintain unity. of Anglicanism (SPCK, 1998). a good understanding of India would purchase, let alone read, this biography. Perhaps the fact that The Road to Delhi was published in India provides us with a clue to McPhee’s primary audience: it is educated Indian Christians who are eager to learn about their own history. That i>À˜ÊÜ ˆiÊޜÕʏi>` being said, I hope that North American

Protestants interested in Christian mission i>`iÀà ˆ« will also take the time and effort to read ÜˆÌ ÊՏiÀÊ"˜ˆ˜i this sympathetic account of a crucial figure in the missionary movement of the last œL> century. ˆ˜ >À˜Ê>ÊՏiÀÊ i}ÀiiÊ Arun W. Jones  QR7ˆÌ œÕÌÊi>ۈ˜}ÊÌ iʈi` Arun W. Jones is Associate Professor of Mission and Evangelism at Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary in Austin, Texas.

/ iÊ ʈ˜ÊœL>Êi>`iÀà ˆ« >œÜÃÊޜÕÊ̜ÊÃÌÕ`Þʜ˜ˆ˜i The Fate of Communion: The Agony of Anglicanism and the Ü iÀiÛiÀÊޜÕÊ>Àit Future of a Global Church.

By Ephraim Radner and Philip Turner. Grand ± œ“«iÌiÊÌ iÊw֐ßË?WWÁja‰Íja >ÃÌiÀ Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006. Pp. xiii, 306. $32. œvÊÀÌÃʈ˜ÊœL>Êi>`iÀà ˆ«Ê`i}Àii The Anglican communion is currently Ü ˆiÊÀi“>ˆ˜ˆ˜}ʈ˜ÊޜÕÀʓˆÃȜ˜ÊœÀ undergoing great strains, which even “ˆ˜ˆÃÌÀÞ Archbishop Rowan Williams has judged »0†jË Ëj™?Mja˔j may lead to its fragmentation. In this book ͝ːj?Á™Ë?MÖÍːj?ajÁƉ¬^ the authors chronicle the developments that have led to this crisis and give their ”‰Äĉ™^Ë?™aË͆jË ‰Mj ± ÃÌ>LˆÃ ʓi>˜ˆ˜}vՏÊÀi>̈œ˜Ã ˆ«Ã view as to how disaster may be averted. ݉͆ÖÍːj?܉™~Ë”ß ÜˆÌ Êj?ajÁÄË?ÁÖ™aË͆jËݝÁa >ÃÊÞœÕ They stand in critical solidarity with the Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. (ECUSA) ”‰™‰ÄÍÁß±Ë+jjÁˉ™ÍjÁ?W͉™ ÃÌÕ`ÞÊ̜}iÌ iÀʈ˜Ê>ÊVœ œÀÌÊ}ÀœÕ« as ordained members and would no doubt ݉͆˝͆jÁË †Á‰Ä͉?™ œ˜ˆ˜iÊ>˜`Êv>Vi‡Ìœ‡v>ViÊ`ÕÀˆ˜}ÊÌܜ] claim, “Faithful are the wounds of a friend” j?ajÁÄËwÁ”Ë?ËÜjÁË͆j Ìܜ‡ÜiiŽÊÃi“ˆ˜>Àà (Prov. 27:6). The profile given here is of a church whose leadership has failed to ݝÁa˔?ajË͆‰ÄˬÁ~Á?” arrest in-built tendencies to individualism ? ”Í‰Ü?͉™~ËWÁÄĈ ± Ý«œÀiÊÌ iÊÌ iœÀˆiÃ]Ê«À>V̈ViÃ]Ê and division, dating as far back as the case W֐ÍÖÁ?ËjÞ¬jÁ‰j™Wj±¼ of Bishop James Pike in 1966, followed by >˜`Ê}œL>ÊVœ˜ÌiÝÌÃʜvÊ the response to the General Convention’s - !. Ë -0. ”‰Äĉ™?Ëj?ajÁƉ¬ ruling of 1974 against the ordination of .ÖË.ÖÁ܉ܝÁ^ .Ö͆ËwÁ‰W? women, when a number of bishops acted independently. The issues have been brought to a head recently by the 2003 consecration of an openly gay bishop, Gene ?ÄÍjÁ˝wËÁÍÄˉ™ËM?Ëj?ajÁƉ¬ Robinson, as bishop of New Hampshire. ÝÝݱw֐jÁ±jaÖʔ?~ This step, along with the blessing rites for gay unions in the diocese of New ¤ˆoå刚ššˆšyÈo˝ÁËÉÔɈyo|ˆyԚš Westminster, Canada, of 2002, has proved

January 2007 53 United States Catholic China Bureau

22nd National Catholic China Conference co-sponsored by Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western and Cultural History at USF Center for the Pacific Rim November 3–5, 2006 Atlanta, Georgia “Experiencing Jesus Christ through Chinese Eyes”

For details, call (973) 763-1131, e-mail [email protected], or visit www.usccb.net

Dissertation Notices

Adadevoh, Delanyo. Jacobson, Timothy Allen. “Approaches to Christianization “Nurturing Spiritual Formation Mission scholars and families are Among the Ewe People of Ghana.” Among Missionaries.” welcome to apply for a short-term Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission D.Min. Otterburne, Manitoba: Providence summer 2007 residency at OMSC. Studies (Univ. of Leeds), 2005. Theological Seminary, 2006.

Austnaberg, Hans. Lindland, Eric H. Invest your “Shepherds and Demons: A Study of “Crossroads of Culture: Religion, Exorcism as Practiced and Understood Therapy, and Personhood in Northern by Shepherds in the Malagasy Malawi.” Lutheran Church.” Ph.D. Atlanta: Emory Univ., 2005. SUMMER Ph.D. Stavanger, Norw.: School of Mission in research & writing. and Theology, 2006. Makuja, Darius Oliha. “Eschatology and Inculturation: Barasa, Magina Robert. The Missionary Strategy of Pope Conveniently located across from “The Ember of Grandparenthood: Gregory the Great (590–604).” Yale Divinity School and its The Theological Foundations of Ph.D. St. Louis, Mo.: St. Louis Univ., 2006. renowned Day Missions Library, Pastoral Practice with Grandparents the Overseas Ministries Study Who Are Primary Care Givers of Mendez, Dinorah. Center provides comfortable Their Grandchildren in Kenya.” “An Analysis of the Theological accommodations from efficiencies Ph.D. Evanston, Ill.: Garrett Evangelical Content in the Hymnody Used by to three-bedroom apartments—at Theological Seminary, 2005. Evangelicals in Mexico in Relation affordable rates. to the Mexican Religious Context.” Carr, Robert L. Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission E-mail Judy Stebbins, OMSC “Training Kenyan Church Planters Studies (Univ. of Wales), 2005. Director of Finance and Housing, for Harvest: A Formative Evaluation [email protected], or of a Training Program for the Africa Osuch, Dean. visit www.omsc.org/summer.pdf. Evangelical Presbyterian Church.” “Effective Evangelistic Churches in D.Min. Columbia, S.C.: Columbia Biblical the North Georgia Conference of the Seminary and School of Missions, 2005. United Methodist Church.” D.Min. Columbia, S.C.: Columbia Biblical CIRCULATION STATEMENT Cyuma, Samuel. Seminary and School of Missions, 2005. Statement required by the act of August 12, 1970, section “The Process of Conflict Resolution 3685. Title 39, United States Code, showing ownership, and Post-conflict Reconciliation in Ramirez, Dan. management, and circulation of International Bulletin of Missionary Research. Published 4 times per year at 490 Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of the “Migrating Faiths: A Social and Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Church, with Special Reference to Cultural History of Pentecostalism Publisher: Jonathan J. Bonk, Overseas Ministries Study South Africa and Rwanda.” in the U.S.-Mexican Borderlands.” Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Editor: Jonathan J. Bonk, Overseas Ministries Study Center, Ph.D. Oxford: Oxford Centre for Mission Ph.D. Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ., 2005. 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Studies (Univ. of Wales), 2006. Associate Editor, Dwight P. Baker; Managing Editor, Daniel J. Nicholas; Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Redse, Arne. Street, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511. The owner is Dann, Robert Bernard. “‘By Grace Alone’ in Contexts of ‘Self- Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New “The Primitivist Missiology of Cultivation’: An Attempt at Haven, Connecticut 06511. Anthony Norris Groves (1795–1853): Contextualizing the Lutheran The known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding one percent or more of total A Radical Influence on Nineteenth- Doctrine of Justification to Chinese amounts of bonds, mortgages or other securities are: None. Century Protestant Mission.” Contexts, as Influenced by New Ph.D. Liverpool: Univ. of Liverpool, 2006. Confucianism.” Average no. Actual no. of of copies copies of Ph.D. Stavanger, Norw.: School of Mission each issue single issue Dorr, Richard S. and Theology, 2005. during pre- published ceding 12 nearest to “Protestant Missions and months filing date Earth-Keeping in Southern Africa, Yaremchuk, Igor. 1817–2000.” “Development and Evaluation of a Total no. copies printed 6,860 6,474 Paid circulation: sales Th.D. Boston: Boston Univ. School of Course on Expository Preaching for through dealers, carriers, Theology, 2005. Ukranian Pastors.” street vendors, and counter sales 0 0 D.Min. Dallas: Dallas Theological Mail subscriptions 4,305 4,214 Galadima, Rose B. Seminary, 2006. Total paid circulation 4,305 4,214 Free distribution 800 850 “Theological Education of Women Total distribution 5,105 5,064 Leaders in the Evangelical Church of Copies not distributed: 1,755 1,410 West Africa (ECWA).” The updated database, Researching office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled Ph.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity International World Christianity: Doctoral Dis- after printing Univ., 2005. sertations on Mission Since 1900, is Returns from news agents 0 0 Total 6,860 6,474 now available online. Go to http:// Percent Paid and/or Hartley, Benjamin L. resources.library.yale.edu/ Requested Circulation 84.3% 83.2% “Holiness Evangelical Urban Mission dissertations or www.omsc.org/ I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and Identity in Boston, 1860–1910.” dissertationscollection.html. and complete. (signed) Jonathan J. Bonk Th.D. Boston: Boston Univ. School of Editor Theology, 2005.

54 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 31, No. 1 MissionFROM EVERYWHERE TO EVERYWHEREToday Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders

January 2007 STUDENT SEMINARS ON WORLD MISSION “Constrained by Jesus’ Love”: Christian Mission Today visit www.omsc.org/jan2007.pdf

February 26–March 2, 2007 Leadership, Fund-raising, and Donor Development for Missions. April 9–13 Mr. Rob Martin, director, First Fruit, Inc., Newport Beach, Cali- Culture, Interpersonal Conflict, and Christian Mission. fornia, outlines steps for building the support base, including Dr. Duane H. Elmer and Dr. Muriel I. Elmer, Trinity Evangelical foundation funding, for mission. Eight sessions. $145 Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, help Christian workers strengthen interpersonal skills and resolve conflicts among col- March 5–9 leagues, including host country people. Cosponsored by Wycliffe Little Letters of Paul: 1 Thessalonians, Philippians, International. Eight sessions. $145 Philemon. Dr. Edgar Krentz, former New Testament professor at Concordia April 16–20 Seminary and Christ Seminary–Seminex, St. Louis, and at Lutheran Mission in the Shadow of Declining Empire. School of Theology, Chicago, opens up the thinking and world of Dr. Wilbert R. Shenk, professor of mission history and contem- the apostle Paul. Cosponsored by Park Street Church porary culture, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, (Boston). Eight sessions. $145 California, and senior mission scholar in residence, examines ways decline of the American empire—seeds March 19–23 of whose dissolution expert observers see as beginning Challenges Facing Roman Catholic Mission The- to sprout—will shape the setting in which Christian ology: From the Eve of Vatican II to the Twenty- mission will be carried out in the twenty-first century. first Century. Cosponsored by Moravian Church Board of World Mis- Dr. Lawrence Nemer, S.V.D., lecturer in mission stud- sion and Wycliffe International. Eight sessions. $145 ies at Yarra Theological Union, Box Hill, Australia, and senior mission scholar in residence, surveys shifts in April 23–26 (note change of date) Roman Catholic thinking on mission from the eve of Deuteronomy: A Challenge to Mission. Vatican II to the present and identifies the principal Dr. Christopher J. H. Wright, international ministry challenges facing Roman Catholic mission theology director, Langham Partnership International, London, will today. Eight sessions. $145 unfold the relevance of Deuteronomy for contemporary Christian missions and ethics. Cosponsored by the Bap- March 26–30 tist Convention of New England and Trinity Baptist Worship and Mission. Church (New Haven). Eight sessions in four days. $145 Dr. Alan Kreider, associate professor of church history and mis- sion at Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana, May 7–11 and Mrs. Eleanor Kreider, musician, author, and specialist in wor- Personal Renewal in the Missionary Community. ship, reflect on the twin themes: worship of God empowers God’s Rev. Stanley W. Green, executive director, Mennonite Mission people for mission; the mission of God guides worship and pro- Network, Elkhart, Indiana, and Dr. Christine Sine, Mustard Seed vides a means for evaluating it. They give special attention to Associates, Seattle, Washington, blend classroom instruction and issues of inculturation. Cosponsored by Greenfield Hill Congrega- one-on-one sessions to offer a time of personal renewal, counsel, tional Church (Fairfield, Connecticut), InterVarsity Missions/ and spiritual direction for Christian workers. Cosponsored by Urbana, and Mennonite Central Committee. Eight sessions. $145 Mennonite Mission Network. Eight sessions. $145

OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 (203) 624-6672, ext. 315 [email protected] Visit www.omsc.org/2006-07SP.pdf for a printable brochure.

January 2007 55 Book Notes In Coming Barram, Michael. Mission and Moral Reflection in Paul. Issues New York: Peter Lang, 2006. Pp. xi, 212. $65.95 / SFr 86 / €55.40 / £38.80. Cracknell, Kenneth. The Economies of Temple Chanting In Good and Generous Faith: Christian Responses to Religious Pluralism. and Conversion in China Cleveland, Ohio: Pilgrim Press, 2006. Pp. xxi, 265. $35. Eric Reinders The Church in North Korea: Faulkner, Mark R. J. Retrospect and Prospect Overtly Muslim, Covertly Boni: Competing Calls of Religious Allegiance on Hyun-Sik Kim the Kenyan Coast. Leiden: Brill, 2006. Pp. xiv, 298. Paperback €79 / $107. Catholic Missionaries and Civil Power in Africa, 1878–1914 Hunger, Harold D., and Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., eds. Aylward Shorter, M.Afr. The Suffering Body: Responding to the Persecution of Christians. Bletchley, Milton Keynes, Eng.: Paternoster Press, 2006. Pp. xiii, 228. Paperback £14.99. The Lausanne Movement: A History and Assessment Jeyaraj, Daniel. Doug Birdsall A German Exploration of an Indian Society: Ziegenbalg’s “Malabarian Heathenism”; An Annotated English Translation, with an Introduction and Glossary. Adivasi and Avarna Communities Chennai: Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies; New Delhi: ISPCK, 2006. Pp. xvii, in the History of Christian Mission 418. Paperback Rs. 300 / £13 / $18. Robert Eric Frykenberg Violence and Mission Klaus, Byron D., and Douglas P. Peterson, eds. Alan Kreider The Essential J. Philip Hogan. Springfield, Mo.: Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, 2006. Pp. 148. Paperback $6. Gospels, a Gospel, the Gospel: Where Is Jesus in All of This? Lake, Alison. Geoffrey Johnston Colonial Rosary: The Spanish and Indian Missions of California. Athens, Ohio: Swallow Press / Ohio Univ. Press, 2006. Pp. xviii, 244. Paperback $19.95. A Reader’s Guide to Islam: A Survey of Post–9/11 Publications Leslie, Donald Daniel, Yang Daye, and Ahmed Youssef. J. Dudley Woodberry Islam in Traditional China: A Bibliographical Guide. Pre-Revolution Russian Mission Sankt Augustin, Ger.: Institut Monumenta Serica, 2006. Pp. 398. Paperback €45. to Central Asia: A Contextualized Sinclair, Daniel. Legacy A Vision of the Possible: Pioneer Church Planting in Teams. David M. Johnstone Waynesboro, Ga.: Authentic Media, 2006. Pp. x, 294. Paperback $17.99. In our Series on the Legacy of Stone, Frank Andrews. Outstanding Missionary Figures Academies for Anatolia: A Study of the Rationale, Program, and Impact of the of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Educational Institutions Sponsored by the American Board in Turkey, 1830–2005. Centuries, articles about San Francisco: Caddo Gap Press, 2006. Pp. xiv, 381. Paperback $39.95. Thomas Barclay Thomas, Scott M. George Bowen The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Hélène de Chappotin Relations: The Struggle for the Soul of the Twenty-first Century. Pierre Claverie New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Pp. xv, 300. Paperback $24.95. Pa Yohanna Gowon Carl Fredrik Hallencreutz Unruh, Heidi Rolland, and Ronald J. Sider. Hannah Kilham Saving Souls, Serving Society: Understanding the Faith Factor in Church- George Leslie Mackay Based Social Ministry. Lesslie Newbigin New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. Pp. x, 323. $35. Constance Padwick Wang, Jiwu. “His Dominion” and the “Yellow Peril”: Protestant Missions to Chinese James Howell Pyke Immigrants in Canada, 1859–1967. Pandita Ramabai Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfred Laurier Univ. Press, 2006. Pp. x, 190. $65. Elizabeth Russell Bakht Singh Yoder, Lawrence M. James Stephen The Muria Story: A History of the Chinese Mennonite Churches of Indonesia. Philip B. Sullivan Kitchener, Ont.: Pandora Press, 2006. Pp. 386. Paperback $34. James M. Thoburn Zeliang, Elungkiebe. M. M. Thomas A History of the Manipur Baptist Convention. Published on the Occasion of Harold W. Turner the MBC National Leadership Golden Jubilee Celebration (1955–2005). Johannes Verkuyl Imphal, Manipur, India: Manipur Baptist Convention, 2005. Pp. xx, 289. Paperback Rs. 175. William Vories