UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

Environ Sci Pollut Res DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-5741-7

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Cs-137 in milk, vegetation, soil, and water near the former ’s Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site

Aitbek Kakimov1 & Zhanibek Yessimbekov1 & Zhainagul Kakimova1 & Aigerim Bepeyeva1 & Marilyne Stuart2

Received: 3 April 2015 /Accepted: 3 November 2015 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract The present study was carried out to evaluate Cs- Introduction 137 activity concentration in soil, water, vegetation, and cow’s milk at 10 locations within three regions (Abai, Ayaguz, and The former Soviet Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site (SNTS) is Urdzhar) to the southeast of the Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test within the limits of the Republic of . According to Site (SNTS) in Kazakhstan. Cs-137 activity concentrations, official sources, 456 nuclear bomb tests were carried out on determined using a pure Ge gamma-ray spectrometer, showed the site between 1949 and 1989 (Michailov 1996). Nuclear that, all samples collected did not exceed the National maxi- testing at SNTS can be divided into two periods. First, from mum allowable limits of 10,000 Bq/kg for soil, 100 Bq/kg for 1949 to 1962, when nuclear tests were carried out in the at- cow’s milk, 74 Bq/kg for vegetation, and 11 Bq/kg for water. mosphere (116 above ground tests including 30 surface (at Cs-137 is, therefore, not considered a health hazard in these heights of 30 to 40 m), eight air (at heights below 10 km), regions. The highest levels of contamination were found in the and 78 atmospheric tests (at heights above 10 km)) (Howard Abai region, where the highest activity concentration of Cs- et al. 2004). These atmospheric tests were conducted on the 137 was 18.0±1.0 Bq/kg in soil, 7.60±0.31 Bq/kg in cow’s experimental field (Fig. 1). During the second period, from milk, 4.00±0.14 Bq/kg in the vegetation, and 3.00±0.24 Bq/ 1963 until 1989, underground nuclear tests were conducted in kg in water. The lowest levels were measured within the the Degelen Mountains and Balapan area (see also Fig. 1). The Urdzhar region, where 4.00±0.14 Bq/kg was found in the soil, last was conducted on the 19 October 1989 0.30±0.02 Bq/kg in the cow’s milk, 1.00±0.03 Bq/kg in the (Bocharov et al. 1989). So far, most of the environmental vegetation, and 0.20±0.02 Bq/kg in the water. radioactive contamination can be attributed to the atmospheric tests (Grosche 2002). It follows that these events have been and are still contributing to public radiation exposure. It was Keywords Cs-137 . Milk . Vegetation . Soil . Water . estimated that tests conducted on the 29 August 1949 (22 kt), Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site on the 24 September 1951 (38 kt), on the 12 August 1953 (400 kt), on the 24 August 1956 (27 kt), and on the 7 August 1962 may have contributed more than 95 % of the collective dose to the population living near the SNTS (Gordeev et al. 2002). Atmospheric nuclear test resulted in considerable human and Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues non-human biota radiation exposures in proximity of the test site (Groshe et al. 2002). Approximately 1.6 million people * Zhanibek Yessimbekov suffered from the effects of radiation due to nuclear testing at [email protected] SNTS, of which approximately 1.2 million are still suffering (Kawano et al. 2006; Gusev et al. 1997). 1 Shakarim State University of , 20 A Glinki Street, Since the closing of the SNTS in 1989, Kazakh and inter- 071412 Semey, Kazakhstan national scientists have been studying the radiological situa- 2 Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (formerly Atomic Energy of Canada tion at the SNTS and adjacent territories. These studies Limited), 1 plant road, Chalk River, ON K0J 1J0, Canada allowed the main sources of contamination to be identified UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

Environ Sci Pollut Res

Fig. 1 Sampling point location

as well as the mechanisms responsible for their dispersion/ The international project within the framework of the distribution (Lukashenko 2011). The presence of radiological NATO BScience for Peace Program^ BInvestigation of the contamination in the south part of SNTS and surrounded area radioecological situation of southwestern part of SNTS near was attributed to the radioactive fallout from the southeast Sarzhal village^ SEMIRAD (2000–2003) was aimed to con- trace, resulting from the hydrogen bomb explosion that took duct radiological fieldwork to differentiate which lands could place in August, 1953 (IRSE 2007). be used for agricultural purposes from those heavily contam- In July 1994, the IAEA estimated intake doses to the inated by radionuclides where habitation should be ruled out population living in the Semipalatinsk area. The IAEA (Priest et al. 2003). In the framework of two international also reviewed Russian and Kazakh databases in order to projects, BSemirad 1^ and BSemirad 2^, 1400 km2 of the assess the radiological situation (IAEA 1998). At that SNTS territory most widely used for economic purposes have time, the IAEA also took samples of soil, vegetation, been explored. The NATO report did not suggest elevated Cs- and water that were used to obtain radionuclide content 137 activity concentrations within the area that is the subject measurements. Outside the SNTS, soil Cs-137 activity of the present paper. The NATO report showed that soil Cs- concentrations were measured in Sarzhal and in Kainar 137 activity concentrations had a tendency to decrease with (see Fig. 1). For sampling depths of up to 5 cm, the sampling depths: 0–5cm>5–10 cm >10–15 cm. Cs-137 activity concentrations were between 6.0 and Within the European Union program INTAS (International 72.0 Bq/kg in Sarzhal and 0.2 to 50.0 Bq/kg in Kainar. Association for the Promotion of Cooperation with Scientists After the IAEA mission, the experts agreed (1) to recom- from the New Independent States of the Former Soviet mended access restriction to the experimental field and Union), the research activities were focused on the biological Lake Balapan areas, and (2) that in most of the other and environmental assessment of the settlement of Dolon, areas, external radiation dose rates and soil activity con- situated near the east-north border of the SNTS, a small town centrations are the same, or close to, typical levels mea- known to be heavily affected by the nuclear explosions sured in other regions and countries where no nuclear (Steinhäusler et al. 2000). According to this study, the dose weapons testing had been carried out. contribution for Cs-137 and Sr-90 was generally low in water, UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

Environ Sci Pollut Res vegetation, and food and did not differ significantly from the animal grazing. Plant cover consists of Artemisia: Artemisia global averages. sublessingiana, Artemisia frigida, Artemisia compacta-B Nowadays, it remains important to monitor radionuclide A.albida^, Artemisia gracilescens, Stipa capillata, Stipa levels in environmental media. Such monitoring helps sareptana, Stipa lessingiana, Festuca valesiaca. Steppe confirming what is known, would alert of any unexpected bushes are mostly Caragana pumila, Spiraea hypericifolia, changes in the situation, and provides data that can be used Epherdra distachya, Ziziphora clinopodioides, and Thymus to reassure the local population. In addition, the knowledge marshallianus. gained from the SNTS studies can be used to better manage Soil, water, and vegetation samples were obtained from the growing uranium mining industry in the country. undisturbed portions of pastures located near the settlements. Measuring radionuclide levels in raw animal and plant Fresh cow milk was chosen as the animal products to be an- products is important to evaluate doses and, therefore, the alyzed. This choice was based on its importance for the health risks associated with internal radionuclide exposure region. through foodstuff. In this study that was conducted within a Most of the Cs-137 was expected to be found within the top Cs-137 monitoring program, Cs-137 activity concentrations 3–5 cm of soils. This was estimated based on organic matter were measured in soil, water, vegetation, and cow’smilkat content, clay minerals, and hydrology of the upper layers of 10 locations within three regions (Abai, Ayaguz, and Urdzhar) soil (Larionova et al. 2006; Forsberg et al. 2000;Zhiyanski to the southeast of the SNTS. The locations selected were et al. 2008). For this reason, a sampling depth of 5 cm has been along a line of contamination that resulted from the 12 chosen. Undisturbed surface soil was collected using a shovel August 1953 tower thermonuclear explosion conducted at to a depth of 5 cm (surface to 5 cm depth). The sampling was Ground Zero on the experimental Field. This is the largest based on the assumption that Cs readily affixes to soil parti- plume that left SNTS and can be traced all the way to the cles, and thus, most of the atmospheric test fallout contamina- Chinese border. The two main objectives of the study were tion would be expected to lie near the soil surface (Val’kov to verify that the Cs-137 activity concentrations were low, as et al. 2004; Rafferty et al. 2000). For each grabs, the area expected, and to confirm that Cs-137 does not constitute a sampled was 100 cm2.Tomakeuponesample,soilwas health hazard. The dataset, although the sampling was not grabbed from five different places within a 50 m perimeter. conducted with this purpose, was also used to derive rough The five samples were then mixed together in a large contain- transfer factor values to compare with the values listed in the er. The soil samples were packed into polyethylene sack, la- handbook of parameter values for the prediction of radionu- beled and transported to the laboratory. Soil samples were air- clide transfer in terrestrial and freshwater environments (TRS- dried for 2 weeks at room temperature. This was done by 472) (Fesenko et al. 2009). Future sampling and sample pro- spreading each sample on rigid paper and by mixing it peri- cessing will be conducted in a way that will allow region- odically. Finally, the soil samples were milled. Lumps were specific transfer factors data to be derived. removed by repeated, gentle crushing of the soil using acid- washed mortars and pestles. The samples were then sifted through a 2-mm mesh sieve. For Cs-137 measurements, soil Materials and methods samples were transferred to a Marinelli beaker and placed into a pure Ge gamma spectrometer (Canberra, USA). Soil, water, vegetation, and cow’s milk sampled from 10 lo- The vegetation cover within the study area comprises cations within three regions (Abai, Ayaguz, and Urdzhar) Artemísia, Stipa, Festuca valesiaca,andKoeléria (which are located to the southeast of the Semipalatinsk Filipéndula in the Abai and Ayaguz regions and Artemísia, Nuclear Test Site (SNTS)) were analyzed for Cs-137 content. Stipa, Festuca valesiaca, and Koeléria in the Urdzhar re- The distance of the 10 locations, from the southeast border of gion. The vegetation was collected from undisturbed areas the SNTS, are the following: Medeu—33 km; Kaskabulak— of at least 6 sq. m (2×3 m). Each plant was cut at least 3 cm 40 km; Zhidebay—64 km; Karaul—68 km; Kokbai— above the ground using scissors, sickles, or knives. The 125 km; Ayaguz—234 km; Akshatau—282 km; Urdzhar— vegetation was collected into plastic bags. The samples were 392 km; Naualy—424 km, and Kabanbai—480 km (Fig. 1). labeled and transported to the laboratory. The total weight of The climate, in the region, is continental with an average vegetation collected from each location was at least 2 kg. annual temperature of +3.5 °С. The lowest temperature on After collection, the samples were transferred to the labora- records is −40 °С while the highest recorded temperature is tory and washed with distilled water to remove aerial depo- +40 °С. The wind mostly comes from the east and west with sition. The samples were then air-dried (for 2 weeks at room speed of 3.0–4.5 m/s. On occasion, increases in wind speeds temperature) in the laboratory. The collected vegetation was cause snow and dust storms. processed in a separate room from where other sample types The major zonal soils are light chestnut and chestnut soil. were processed. The samples were then milled (using a The territory (referred to as Artemisia steppe) is used for blender) to pieces approximately 1 cm long and further dried UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

Environ Sci Pollut Res at a temperature of 70–80 °C for 15–18 h. For Cs-137 mea- Table 1 Cs-137 activity concentration in different types of sampling surements, vegetation samples were transferred to a areas, Bq/kg Marinelli beaker and placed into the gamma spectrometer. Sampling area Soil Milk Vegetation Water Water samples were collected from the surface of streams using polyethylene or metallic bucket. During water collec- Abai region tion, care was taken to avoid sampling troubled or muddy Zhidebai 14.0±0.4 5.8±0.13 3.20±0.19 0.80±0.07 water. The sample volume taken was between 1.5 and 2.0 L. Karaul 18.0±1.0 7.60±0.31 3.90±0.23 2.00±0.21 At the time of collection, the measured ambient temperatures Kaskabulak 12.5±0.5 3.90±0.13 2.40±0.18 3.00±0.24 were 23–25 °C and the measured water temperatures were 17– Kokbai 17.0±0.5 4.20±0.12 4.00±0.14 0.50±0.02 18 °C. The samples were transferred into plastic bottles, la- Medeu 11.0±0.3 3.50±0.13 2.00±0.21 0.80±0.07 beled and transported to the laboratory. Water samples were Ayaguz region filtered (filter pore size of 8 μm) and preserved with nitric acid Ayaguz 10.0±0.3 0.80±0.07 2.00±0.21 0.20±0.02 (3 ml per 1000 ml of sample (pH <1)). The pH was verified Akshatau 15.0±0.4 6.40±0.13 3.40±0.13 0.20±0.02 using indicator paper. Samples were stored in the dark, at Urdzhar region room temperature for 5 days. Then, the samples were trans- Kabanbai 9.0±0.3 0.60±0.02 3.00±0.12 0.20±0.02 ferred to a Marinelli vessel, and their radionuclide contents Urdzhar 4.00±0.14 0.30±0.02 1.00±0.03 0.20±0.02 were determined using the gamma spectrometer. Naualy 5.00±0.32 0.30±0.02 1.00±0.03 0.20±0.02 The milk samples were collected from cows of local farmers. Samples of milk (five 1-L sample from each location, 50 samples in total) were collected from 10 locations within three administrative regions Abai, Ayagoz, and Urdzhar. The Cs-137 content of 5.00±0.32 and 4.00±0.14 Bq/kg, collected milk samples were poured into clean glass airtight respectively. containers. Milk samples were preserved with a 40 % formalin In water samples, the activity concentration of Cs-137 in solution (1–2 ml/L). For analysis, milk samples were poured Kaskabulak and Karaul were 3.00±0.24 and 2.00±0.21 Bq/ into a Marinelli vessel and their radionuclide contents were kg, respectively. In all other settlements the measured levels determined using the gamma spectrometer. were less than 1 Bq/kg. In fact, for the region of Ayaguz, a The gamma-ray spectrometer used for Cs-137 determina- value of 0.20±0.02 Bq/kg was obtained. A value of 0.20± tion was a pure Ge detector GC-2019 (55 cm3), Canberra 0.02 Bq/kg was obtained from the water samples collected (USA). The calibration of the detector was done using stan- within the Urdzhar region. dard solutions of gamma-emitting isotopes. Standard sources The results of the vegetation analysis showed the of Eu-152, Am-241, and Cs-137 were from the Khlopin highest activity concentrations in the Abai region. The Radium Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia. The limit of detec- Kokbai settlements showed a level of 4.00±0.14 Bq/kg, tion for the determination of radionuclides by γ-ray spectrom- while the Karaul settlement showed a level of 3.90± etry under the prevailing experimental conditions was 0.1 Bq 0.23 Bq/kg. Cs-137 activity concentrations were 3.2± for 0.5 kg of environmental samples. The Marinelli beaker 0.2 Bq/kg in Zhidebai, 2.40±0.18 Bq/kg in Kaskabulak, characteristics were as follows: volume of 1 L, diameter of and 2.00±0.21 Bq/kg in Medeu. In the region of Ayaguz, 15 cm, and height of 11 cm. The sample weights placed in the the levels of Cs-137 were lower. Values of 3.40±0.13 and Marinelli beaker were measured using a ±0.01 g balance. 2.00±0.21 Bq/kg were obtained in this region. The Urdzhar region is less contaminated. In this region, 3.00 ±0.12 Bq/kg of Cs-137 was found in Kabanbai and 1.00± Results 0.03 Bq/kg in both Urdzhar and Naualy. The highest activity concentration measured in milk was Table 1 and Fig. 2 present the results of the gamma- also from the Abai region where, in Karaul, a value of 7.60 analysis. Cs-137 content in the soil collected from the ±0.31 Bq/kg was obtained. The second highest value was Abai region varied from 11.0±0.3 to 18.0±0.4 Bq/kg. obtained in Zhidebai (5.80±0.13 Bq/kg). In Kaskabulak, Within this region, the highest value was obtained in Kokbai, and Medeu, the Cs-137 activity concentrations were Karaul while the lowest was measured in Medeu. The 3.90±0.13, 4.20±0.12 and 3.50±0.13 Bq/kg, respectively. sample analysis from Kokbai, Zhidebai, and Kaskabulak Within the Ayaguz region, the highest activity concentration showed 17.0±0.5, 14.0±0.4, and 12.5±0.5 Bq/kg, re- was measured in Akshatau (6.40±0.13 Bq/kg). In the spectively. In the Ayaguz region, the activity concentra- Ayaguz settlement, a value of 0.80±0.07 Bq/kg was obtain- tion in Akshatau was 15.0±0.4 and 10.0±0.3 Bq/kg in ed. The less contaminated region of Urdzhar showed activity Ayaguz. Finally, for the Urdzhar region, 9.0±0.3 Bq/kg concentrations of 0.60±0.02 Bq/kg in Kabanbai and 0.30± was measured in Kabanbai. Naualy and Urdzhar showed 0.02 Bq/kg in both Urdzhar and Naualy. UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

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Fig. 2 Distribution of Cs-137 in different samples by villages

Discussion measured levels were about 141, 33, 24, and 20 Bq/kg, respectively (Yamamoto et al. 2004). The Cs-137 soil levels measured in this study were near the Also, the soil inventories of Cs-137 within Dolon (located levels generally associated with global fallout (i.e., near near the east part of the SNTS) and other nearby villages such 15.0 Bq/kg). The measured Cs-137 activity concentration as Mostik, Cheremushka, and Budene (Fig. 1) were found to be levels were, therefore, not found to exceed the National max- in the range of 140–10 Bg/m2 in 2006 (Sakaguchi et al. 2006). imum allowable limits for soil (10 000 Bq/kg). According to Artemyev (2011), in most soil samples (to the The data were also in agreement with data reported by depth of 10 cm) the average level of Cs-137 in Sarzhal was not other groups. In fact, apart from this study, Cs-137 contami- exceeding the global fallout (15 Bq/kg); however, activity nation levels have also been monitored by others in different concentrations up to 1438.0 Bq/kg were found in soil collect- settlements near the SNTS. An investigation by Carlsen et al. ed in an area where a gamma-survey revealed an elevated dose (2001) has suggested that the most contaminated sites in the rate, indicating a localized deposition. southeastern part of the SNTS were near the underground The investigation of Duyssembaev et al. (2014) showed that nuclear explosion sites Telkem-1 and Telkem-2 (see Fig. 1) the Sarzhal and Kainar regions were radiologically contaminat- Telkem-1 and Telkem-2 are craters formed by underground ed. In soils, the levels were 2100 and 1380 Bq/m2 for Cs-137, low-yield explosions were later filled with subter- 2220, and 900 Bq/m2 for Am-241 and, 567, and 372 Bq/m2 for ranean water. At Telkem-1, a single device (0.24 kT) was Pu-239/240. In plants, the measured activity concentrations exploded at the depth of 30 m producing a circular crater. were 0.3 and 2.2 Bq/kg for Cs-137. The levels of radionuclides Telkem-2 Lake (130 m long, 45 m wide and 10 m deep) was did not exceed the maximum allowable contaminant levels. produced by three simultaneous detonations (total 0.72 kT) Investigation by Aidarkhanova (2012) showed the following (Burkitbayev et al. 2009). Soils in a radius of 600 m from levels of Cs-137 in soil: Sarzhal—20.4 Bq/kg; Kainar— the epicenter of the explosions were found to be contaminated 66.0 Bq/kg; and Abai—29.0 Bq/kg. In plants, the activity con- with the fission products Cs-137 and Sr-90, the activation centrations were as follows: Sarzhal—15.0 Bq/kg; Kainar— products Am-241, Co-60, Eu-154, Eu-152, and the compo- 27.0 Bq/kg; and Abai—13.0 Bq/kg. The levels of radionuclides nents of nuclear weapons material Pu-239/240. did not exceed the maximum allowable contaminant levels. In 2004, the activity concentrations of Cs-137 were mea- Measured food product Cs-137 information was available sured in soil, collected in the areas surrounding the Karaul, for cow milk in different regions surrounding the SNTS. The Akbulak, Sarzhal, and Kainar settlements (these settle- measurements by Semiochkina et al. (2004)showedlevelsof ments are located near the south part of the SNTS). The 6.5±0.6 Bq/kg at the Zavety Iljicha Farm (near the southeast UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

Environ Sci Pollut Res of the SNTS) and 0.9±0.1 Bq/kg at the Akzhar Farm (near the Cs-137 at shallower depth) but it could also mean that the north part of the SNTS). The values obtained in 2004 by assumptions used to calculate the daily intake of Cs-137 are Semioshkina et al. were below the National maximum allow- not valid for cows living in those areas. For example, cows able limit for cow’s milk (100 Bq/kg). The same was true for grazing in the study area could perhaps ingest more soil than the levels measured as part of this study. what has been assumed. The present study, therefore, add to the weight of evidence In future sampling campaigns, we are planning to remove that Cs-137 does not constitute a radiological hazard for most small particulates from the water and sample soil according to regions surrounding the SNTS. the root depth of the vegetation. This will allow the determi- Although the sampling was not conducted with the deriva- nation of site specific Cs soil to water kd values and confirm tion of transfer factors in mind, the types of sample collected at soil to vegetation transfer factors. each site made it possible to derive rough transfer factor values In conclusion, the data collected, as part of this study, are to compare with the values listed in the handbook of parame- part of a contaminant-monitoring program. As for other stud- ter values for the prediction of radionuclide transfer in terres- ies conducted near SNTS, the measured Cs-137 activity con- trial and freshwater environments (TRS-472) (Fesenko et al. centration levels within the Abai, Ayaguz, and Urdzhar re- 2009). First, it should be noted that Cs distribution coefficient gions were not found to exceed the National maximum allow- (ratio of Bq/kg dry soil to Bq/L water) values between soil and able limits for soil (10,000 Bq/kg), water (11.0 Bq/kg), vege- water were lower (0.4–7.5×101 L/kg) than what is expected tation (74.0 Bq/kg), and milk (100.0 Bq/kg). This means that (on average kd for soil (all types included) is around 3.8× the Cs-137 is not considered a health hazard. The data pre- 105 L/kg and sandy soil is expected to be in the vicinity of sented here contribute to better characterizing the Cs-137 con- 3.5×104 L/kg). This tells us that small soil particulates were tamination levels and represent a first step towards the deter- present in the water analyzed and that distribution coefficient mination of site-specific transfer factors that will later allow (kd) values cannot be derived from the samples collected. In for modeling of Cs-137 fate and transport and allow for more future sampling, care will be taken to remove all particulates accurate Cs-137 dose calculations in the area. from the water such that site specific kd values can be obtained. Acknowledgments This article was prepared as part of the scientific Transfer factors (ratio of Bq/kg dry vegetation to Bq/kg dry project No. 1810/GF and No. 1064/GF4 of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The authors would like to thank soil) from soil to vegetation (stem and shoots) are expected to B −1 the staff of the engineering laboratory Scientific Center of be in the vicinity of 1.5×10 (average of all soil types) or Radioecological Research^ of Shakarim State University of Semey for − 2.1×10 1 (for sandy soils). With a soil depth sampling of only conducting the analysis. 5 cm, the values obtained in this study were ranging from 1.8 to 3.3×10−1. The values obtained were, therefore, in relatively good agreement with TRS-472 reported transfer factor values References (IAEA 2010). If deeper soil samples had been taken (to better represent the local root depth), the soil Cs-137 activity con- Adams RS (1995) BCalculating drinking water intake for lactating cows.^ centrations would likely have been lower. This would likely Dairy reference manual (NRAES-63). Northeast Regional translate into somewhat higher values than the TRS value Agricultural Engineering Service, Ithaca Aidarkhanova GS (2012) Soil degradation at the Semipalatinsk testing recommended for sandy soil. That being said, for determining site near with inhabited locality. Proceedings of VIII international soil to vegetation site-specific transfer factors, deeper soil scientific-practical conference BCurrent problems of ecology^ 24– samples will be collected in the future. 26 October 2012, Grodno, Belarus: 136–138 In order to evaluate the activity concentrations that would Artemyev OI (2011) Radiological monitoring of Sarzhal, near the – be expected in milk, the daily amount of Becquerel of Cs-137 Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site. NNC Bull 1:131 136 Bocharov VS, Zelentsoz SA, Mikhailov VN (1989) Characteristic of 96 consumed by the cows has to be estimated. Estimates were underground nuclear explosions at the Semipalatinsk Test Site (in based on cows eating about 16 kg dw of vegetation (Muller Russian). Atomic Energy 67:210–214 2004), drinking about 115 L of water (Adams 1995 and Burkitbayev M, Priest N, Mitchell P, Vintro L, Pourcelot L, Kuyanova Y, McFarland 1998) and swallowing approximately 0.3 kg dw Artemyev O (2009) Ecological impacts of large-scale war prepara- of soil each day (for example Healy 1968). This translated into tions: Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan in Machlis GE et al. (eds.), Warfare ecology: a new synthesis for peace and security, 55 site-specific transfer values (defined as the ratio of Bq/L in NATO science for peace and security series C: environmental secu- milk to the daily intake expressed in Bq/d) that would range rity: 55–64 between 7.4×10−3 and 78.1×10−3 d/L. The expected transfer Carlsen TM, Peterson LE, Ulsh BA, Werner CA, Purvis KL, Sharber AC − ’ parameter value was found to be lower (4.6×10 3 d/L). The (2001) Radionuclide contamination at Kazakhstan s Semipalatinsk Test Site: implications on human and ecological health. Hum Ecol values obtained were, therefore, higher than the expected val- Risk Assess 7:943 ue by a factor of at least two. This may be due to an under- Collected works of the Institute of Radiation Safety and Ecology (IRSE) estimation of what is at the soil surface (there could be more for 2007–2009 (2010) Pavlodar, BDom pechati^.P.528 UNRESTRICTED CW-121241-CONF-015

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