36331S5

Initial evaluation of the radioecological situation at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in the Republic of Kazakhstan

G. Voigt, N. Semiochkina

Institut fur Strahlenschutz

GSF-Bericht 10/98

GSF - Forschungszentrum fur Umwelt und Gesundheit

30-15

D Herausgeber: GSF - Forsehimgszentrum fur Umwelt und Gesundheit, GmbH ingolstadter LandstraRe 1 D-85764 Neuherberg Telefon 089/3187 -0 Telefax 089/3187 - 3372

Mitgiied der Hermann von Helmholiz-Gemeinschaft Deutseher Forschungszentren (HGF) © GSF-Forschungszentrum, 1998 ISSN 0721 - 1694

Gedruekt auf urnweltfreundlichem, chlorfrei gebleichtem Papier Parti

THE RADIOECOLOGICAL SITUATION AT THE SEMIPALATINSK TEST SITE IN THE REPUBLIC OF KASAKHSTAN

G. Voigt and N. Semiochkina GSF-Institut fur Strahlensdmte, Germany

with contributions by S, Wright and B. Howard institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE), UK and H. Mehli and P Strand Norwegian Radiation Protection Agency (NRPA), Norway CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2, SITE DESCRIPTION 6 2.1. Geography and Co-ordinates 2.2. Climate 2.3. Hydrology 2.4. Soils 2.5. Vegetation 2.6. Land use 2.7. Population

3, NUCLEAR TESTS 14

3.1. Nuclear tests 3.2. Isotopic composition

4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION IS 4.1. General surveys of the STS 4.2. Experimental Field (Ground Zero) 4.3. Lake Balapan 4.4. Degelen mountains

5. RADIONUCLIDE TRANSFER IN THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE STS 29

5.1. A general survey of soil and vegetation contamination 5.2. Mobility in soil 5.3. Contamination of vegetation 5.4. Soil to vegetation uptake 5.5. Contamination of animal products 5.6. Transfer from plant to animals

6. EXPOSURE OF THE POPULATION 40 6.1. Activity intake and internal dose estimation

7, DISCUSSION 44 CURRENT INFORMATION DEFIC1ENCES 8.1. The RESTORE approach

8.2. Interaction with ISTC

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES mini *05012466698*

1. INTRODUCTION

The Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS) located in the Republic of Kazakhstan (Figure 1.1) was one of the major nuclear weapon test sites of the former Soviet Union. At the site, four hundred fifty six nuclear explosions took place between 1949 and 1989 within the STS (Mikhailov et al.

1996; Dubasov et al. 1994a), resulting in radioactive contamination both within and around the STS. Incidences of radiation related illnesses in such areas may be higher than normal levels (Burkhart 1996). Published estimates of the resulting dose to the public vary according to the source, but an independent study (Grosche 1996) indicated that as many as 30,000 - 40,000 people could have been exposed to an average dose of 1.6 Sv (160 rem) or more (mainly due to short-lived radionuclides such as 13 lI). A detailed international assessment of the impact of these tests on the local population has not yet been undertaken. A current investigation under the acronym, RADTEST, includes an evaluation of Semipalatinsk as part of a broad review of internal and external doses to people arising from nuclear tests at many different sites in the world.

In the context of the European Commission funded project RESTORE (Restoration Strategy for Radioactive Contaminated Ecosystems) an attempt is being made to assess the present radiolecological situation in the STS. This initial report collates currently available data published in Russian-language literature and internal CIS reports, reports from Europe and the

USA, and other international literature. In this initial evaluation, only an overview of published data made available to the RESTORE project is provided and briefly discussed. In addition, further assessments including experimental work are suggested. Additional sources of data will be pursued and will be integrated with experimental results in the final evaluation report.

Data on the deposition of long-lived radionuclides and resulting activity concentrations in fbodchains and biota are currently scarce or difficult to find from sources within Kazakhstan. The majority of information about the nuclear tests and the past and present radiological situation has been obtained by Russian (former Soviet Union) experts, and is maintained by different institutions and individuals who have previously worked on the STS and are now mostly resident in Russia (Obninsk, Moscow, St. Petersburg). It has been a significant problem whilst undertaking this part of the RESTORE assessment to identify such sources and to obtain relevant information. It must be stressed that the information currently obtained

5 needs to be critically reviewed once new data is available, since some reported values are inconsistent.

Russia Russia

Tadzhikistan

Figure 1.1 Location of the Semipalatinsk test site (STS) in the Republic of Kazakhstan

2. SITE DESCRIPTION

2.1. Geography and Co-ordinates The Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS) (Figure 2.1) is located in the north-east of Kazakhstan

between 77° and 79°E and 49° and 60°N, to the west of the River Irtysh. The STS has an area

of 18 500 km2 (185 km x 100 km) and is centred on the junction point of three oblasts:

Semipalatinskaya to the South/Southeast (54% of STS area), Pavlodarskaya to the north

(39%) and Karagandinskayato the west (7%).

Administratively, the STS belongs to the Semipalatinskaya oblast, with scientific and technical

management co-ordinated in the town of Kurchatov which is approximately 120 km to the

north west of Semipalatinsk city (Figure 2.2). The STS is located in a region of steppe and

6 semi-desert landscapes and has a strong continental climate, with seasonally variable strong winds and dust storms.

Figure. 2.1: General view of the STS (photo generously provided by Prof. Logachov)

2.2. Climate

The climate of the STS is strongly continental with the monthly average temperatures for July ranging between 19 to 22 °C and for January between -18 to -14°C. Two climate belts can be distinguished. Areas along the River Irtysh, with average annual temperatures ranging from +0.6 to +5°C and average annual precipitation of between 250 to 300 mm, are considered to be dry. In contrast, mountainous areas within the test site are classified as moderately humid with average annual temperatures ranging from -4 to 1 °C and average annual precipitation between 400 to 600 mm. Highest precipitation rates occur in May/June and October/November. Both wind direction and speed is highly variable within this region and

7 difficult to predict. The average wind speed is 4 to 5 m/s in winter (mainly from the south- west) and 3 to 4 m/s in summer (from the north).

P 8fvi o d i rskaya

Kurchatov

Degelen mountains

Sarzhal

paiatinskaya

Figure 22 Geographical location and borders of the STS

2.3. Hydrology

The landscape in which the STS is located has only one river, the Irtysh, with a permanent flow, which borders the Northeast of the STS. The landscape is composed of small hummocky

hills between which there are many depressions with alkali soils, salt lakes, dry wadis and dried up river beds. The largest of the dry river beds are Tundyk in the west and Shagan with Ashisu

8 in the east of the STS. In springtime, the flood water of Shagan may even reach the Irtysh

River.

2.4. Soils

The variation in soil type across the STS is small. The area is dominated by chestnut and light chestnut soils, which are characteristic of a semi-arid grassland ecosystem. The typical chestnut and light chestnut soils found on the flood plain of the Irtysh River in the North gradually change into chestnut alkali soils (solonetz) in the west, the Kazakh hummocky land.

Imperfectly developed chestnut soils with much rock debris are found in mountainous areas.

The arable light chestnut non-alkali soils occur as small separate massifs and are located on the hills. In the valleys of small drainage lines, meadow-bog and meadow soils have developed.

The low lying plains are highly saline with additional soil types present such as alkali soils and solonchaks, with widely distributed old-alluvial deposits - light loam, loamy sand and sand.

The major soil types of the STS are shown in Figure 2.3 and the physical-chemical characteristics of selected soils are given in Table 2.1 (Atlas pocv SSSR 1974). The organic matter content in surface layers is low at 1-1.5% in light chestnut soils and 3.0-4.5% in dark chestnut and chestnut soils.

9 1. Chestnut 2. Light chestnut

3. Light chestnut imperfectly developed, rock

debris 4. Chestnut imperfectly developed, rock debris 5. Dark chestnut 6. Alkali soils

7. Chestnut alkali and solonez

8. Low-mountain chestnut

Figure 2.3: Major soils types within the STS

Table 2.1: Physico-chemical characteristics of selected soils within the STS

Cations Soil type Organic 1111;:; lii® gggigg matter mg-equiv. to lOOg of soil % of amount

I;::#### WM. EM#.IKK Na+

Dark 0-10 4.7 0.22 8.5 25.9 4.9 0.4 83 16 1 chestnut 20-30 2.8 0.14 9.0 20.6 7.9 0.4 71 27 2 45-65 2.4 0.12 9.2 16.3 6.4 1.2 68 27 5

Chestnut 0-10 2.2 - 7.3 25.3 5.8 no 81 19 -

20-30 1.3 0.08 7.3 12.1 4.5 0.1 73 26 1

40-50 1.0 0.03 7.3 12.1 8.3 0.1 59 40 1

Light 0-10 1.5 0.09 7.5 17.6 2.0 0.1 90 10 1 chestnut 10-20 1.3 - 8.0 9.7 3.8 0.1 71 28 1 32-42 1.0 0.09 8.0 8 8 5.8 0.1 60 39 1 2.5. Vegetation

The STS has fescue-needle grass steppes on dark chestnut and chestnut soils, and sagebrush- needle grass steppes on the light chestnut soils. The vegetation of these dry steppes generally consists of a sparse growth of stunted grass and predominantly consists of drought loving xerophytic species (sheep's fescue, Fesh/co ovma, needle grass, A'/yo app, sagebrush,

/frfe/MAM# s#p)with a considerable quantity of short-lived spring ephemerals. Other species present include D/wh/my rigMw, .Wwa A/eRpom and The total annual production of above ground and root mass is 10,000-20,000 kg/ha, with the former being only

1000 - 1500 kg/ha. Decomposition of vegetation including sagebrush and wormwood grass leaves introduces Si and the alkali metals, Ca and Mg into the soil, supporting the development of alkali soil.

2.6. Land use

The area is dominated by a semi-arid grassland ecosystem and is commonly used for the extensive grazing of sheep, horses and goats. Little information is available about land use specifically within the STS, but a consideration of the Semipalatinskaya oblast provides some indication of actual and potential land use within the area.

The whole Semipalatinskaya oblast has 14.4 million ha of agricultural land 83% of which is pasture. Typically, nomadic herdsmen use pasture lands in mountainous areas during the summer months and establish z/fMowe (winter huts) in areas of lower altitude during the winter months. Other types of land use within the Semipalatinskaya oblast include collective farms with arable cultivation producing mainly cereals (such as wheat, maize and barley) and

sunflowers and meat production (including horse, sheep and beef). In general, the agricultural activity of the oblast is dominated by animal production (mainly sheep and goat products). In 1992, there were 3.7 million sheep and goats, 0.5 million cattle including 0.19 million dairy

cows, 0.17 million pigs and 0.11 million horses. In the same year, 95 kg of meat, 332 L of

milk, 30 kg of vegetables and 142 kg of potatoes were produced per person living in the Semipalatinskaya oblast (Sel’skoe khozyaistvo Resp. Kazakhstan 1993).

The population largely resides in small rural villages (mainly agricultural workers) and some towns (inhabitants with mixed occupation). On the flood plain of the Irtysh River there are

approximately 0.6 million ha of seasonally flooded hayfields and 1.8 million ha of arable ploughed fields.

10 The density of cattle per 100 ha in the Kazakh Republic is given in Figure 2.4 and shows that most of the animal production occurs in the northern parts of Kazakhstan, including the

Semiplatinskaya oblast. Figure 2.5 shows the numbers of sheep and goats per 100 ha in Kazakhstan (Atlas sel’skogo khozyaistva SSSR 1960).

Figure 2A Steck «f cattle per l#ha in Kazakhstan

Figure 2.5 Slock of sheep and goals per 100 ha in Kazakhstan

11 Until 1989 the access to the STS region was restricted and the area was not used for

agriculture. Nowadays, herds of mainly sheep and horses belonging to nomads and cows belonging to collective farms around the STS are being driven through the pastures of the test

site without any restriction and grazed in the areas of Ground Zero, lake Balapan and the

Degelen mountains. Groups of nomads with herds of mainly sheep and horses traverse the

region in summer and live in winterhuts also within the STS during the cold winter season..

The main production is meat, milk (cow, sheep and horses) and to a lesser extent several cereals. Data on agricultural production within the STS are sparse, and often it is not clearly

indicated if these data relate to collective farms or other agriculture such as private production.

2.7. Population

The population density of the STS and the areas surrounding the STS boundary is low with an average of less than one person per 1 km2. Within the STS there are no settlements; in the

area within 30 to 60 km of the STS border there are some rural villages (partly collective farms

- Sovkhoses) with a total population of less than 10,000. To the south of the STS the main

population is of Kazakh origin; on the shores of the River Irtysh there are also Russian,

Ukrainian, German and other (including Tatar, Chinese) ethnic groups. The ethnic composition

in the Semipalatinskaya oblast in 1978 is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Ethnic composition of the population in the Semipalatinskaya oblast

12 The different ethnic groups have different consumption habits. The Kazakhs favour horse meat and milk (kumys), whereas Russians and Ukrainians prefer vegetables, pork, and cow milk. The annual average daily consumption rates of different foodstuffs for the whole population in the region around the STS are shown in Table 2.2 (Tsyb et al. 1989).

Table 2.2. Average daily consumption rates in the Semipalatinskaya oblast (Tsyb et al. 1989).

Population Average consumption (kg/d or L/d) group Meat Milk Bread Water

Adults 0.28 0.3 0.4 2.2

Children 0.14 0.6 0.2 0.9

13 3. NUCLEAR TESTS

Internationally published literature and other sources provide information on the number of nuclear tests performed within the STS. Information has been published by the Russian Committee of Meteorology and Hydrology (Gorin et al. 1993; Dubasov et al. 1994a,b,c) and has recently been supplemented by a compilation in Michailov et al.

(1996).

3,1 Nuclear tests

The first Soviet above-ground nuclear explosion was conducted on 29 August 1949 within the STS. The first H-bomb test was performed on a tower in 1953 within the STS. From 1962 onwards all tests were performed underground. From 1949 until

1989, when the STS was closed, a total of 456 nuclear tests took place. During the period from 1949 to 1962, 124 nuclear explosions were performed: 25 at the surface (30 to 40 m height above ground), 8 in air (below 10 km height), and 91 atmospheric

tests (above 10 km height). The total yield of the explosions was 6.4 Mt of TNT equivalent (Dubasov et al. 1994a). Altogether, 6.6 PBq of'^Csand 3.5 PBq of ^Sr

are estimated to have been emitted into the atmosphere. The trend in types of nuclear testing within the STS can be seen in Figure 3.1.

® Surface #AAnMVhwk+a*r ^Underground

Figure 3.1: Nuclear tests performed on the STS from 1949 until 1989 (Michailov et

al. 1996).

14 Recent research reconstructing the passage of the plumes (Logachov 1993; Logachov et al. 1993; Izrael et ai. 1994; Gabbasov et al. 1995) has shown that the main direction

z. TaiUfl

Bisgclea m«ss$taias

Figure 3.2. Plume directions from different nuclear explosions performed at the STS during the years 1949 - 1965 (Dubasov et al. 1993)

15 of the plumes was In the north easterly direction and radioactive traces were mainly formed within the territories of the Semipalatinskaya, East-Kazakh and Pavlodarskaya oblasts of Kazakhstan and the Altai region of Russia (Figure 3 .2) resulting in radiation exposure of the local population in these areas. The plumes in 1965 occurred as a result of underground test (excavation test) which lead to a considerable blow up of soil and consequently release and distribution of radionuclides into the atmosphere.

An additional 175 chemical explosions were conducted at the surface within the STS, of which 44 had explosive yields greater than 101 leading to considerable pollution of the environment (National Nuclear Center of Rep. Kazakhstan 1994)

In addition to the production of fission products, such as "?Cs and ^Sr, many neutron activation products are generated due to the interaction between the fission neutrons and elements within both the device itself and the environment (Figure 3.3). The ratio of different radionuclides depends upon factors such as the type of weapon exploded, the method of explosion and the prevailing conditions during the explosion. It is possible to categorise the activation products into three groups according to their generation mode (Izrael 1974; Izrael et al. 1994):

1. Radionuclides generated by interaction of neutrons and fissile material of the bomb (e g. **Np, ^U)

2. Radionuclides generated by interaction of neutrons and the bomb casing (e g. 54Mn, **Y, "%h, '*'w, '^Re, "W, ""Re)

3. Radionuclides generated by interaction of neutrons and environmental elements in air, water and soil (e.g.2jNa, 46Sc, 54Mn, 154Eu, 60Co).

16 Activation products Activation products

Na-24, Sc-46, Mn-54, Eu-152t154, Co-60 etc.

Figure 3.3. Isotopic composition of released radioactive material after explosion

Therefore, all these differently generated radionuclides, together with those formed as a result of radioactive decay (241Am, L'1I), have occurred in the STS.

17 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION

Most environmental contamination arises from the above-ground nuclear tests, those conducted underground normally give rise to little contamination, although local contamination close to the explosion site can occur.

Generally, for all above-ground nuclear tests (either surface or atmospheric explosion) conducted within the STS 10 to 25 % of the fallout of radioactive products occurred within a distance of about 100-300 km from the explosion site (Dubasov et al. 1994a)

The majority of the radioactive products are ejected into the stratosphere and subsequently transported by atmospheric dispersion processes around the globe. However, during tests performed at surface level, the high-temperature fireball comes into contact with soil and causes the production of large amounts of vitrified highly radioactive particles within the vicinity of the explosion site (Dubasov et al. 1994a).

4.L General surveys of the STS

An aerial gamma spectrometric survey conducted within the STS in 1990 (Dubasov o et al. 1993b) identified three distinct areas with significantly elevated levels of ^7Cs and other long-lived radionuclides (Figure 4.1). Two of these areas are to the south and south east of Ground Zero (experimental field - area 300 km 2, perimeter up to 64 km) where surface, air and atmospheric explosions were performed. Estimates of ^7Cs deposition range from 19 to 185 kBq/m2. The third area is in the eastern part of the STS at Balapan, which was the site of 123 underground nuclear tests and has an artificial lake, created by a peaceful nuclear explosion in 1965 (Bulatov, 1996; Izrael, 1974). Additional soil samples taken in this area show 137 Cs deposition exceeding 1850 kBq/m2 (>50 Ci/km2). However, in general, ^7Cs deposition in soil in grazed areas around the lake ranges between 5 to 11 kBq/m 2.

In addition to these locations, a fourth area of potential contamination has been identified in the Degelen mountains. In these mountains 223 underground explosions were conducted and this resulted in cavitation of the rocks. Two main contamination areas of 24 and 12 km 2 with 137 Cs deposition of 15 kBq/m 2 and <75 kBq/m 2, respectively have been identified. A potential problem in this area is that washout of the explosion cavities by rain and flooding events has produced contaminated water which might be used as drinking water for animals.

18 urchatov

Figure 4.1 The major identified areas of '*Cs contamination within the STS

The contamination of the STS region is highly heterogeneous within the three main contamination sites noted above and at Lake Baiapan. Many scientific, military or administrative groups have performed measurements of soil contamination with various aims and using different approaches. In general, until 1963, only the total (3-

19 activity (E(3) in soils was measured. An example of data in 1958 for Sarzhal village, which is outside the STS perimeter but close to the highly contaminated area of Lake Balapan, is given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.T. Total (3-activity concentration in soil in Sarzhal village (40°56'N/78°44 ”E)

in 1958 (Kazakh Research Institute of Radiation Medicine and Ecology,

KRIRME, 1996)

Soil depth (cm) Number of samples Z(3-activity (Bq/kg) _____ 0-1 25

1-2 8 2940

3 6 800

In 1989, a commission of the Soviet government (under the leadership of Prof. Tsyb) carried out a study in the STS to define the radiological situation and the degree of risk for the population. This commission measured *Sr deposition (in the 0-5 cm soil layer) which ranged horn 480 Bq/m2 (Znamenka) to 1850 Bq/ m2 (Zimoyje Tailan).

The lowest measured value for m€s deposition of 740 Bq/ m2 (Chagan) was similar to global fallout. Chemical separation followed by alpha-spectrometry showed that the deposition of 2j9/240pu jn the 0-5 cm soil layer near the settlement of Dolon’ was 370- 740 Bq/nT, and in the 10-15 cm layer it was 7400-11000 Bq/ m2 (Tsyb et ai. 1990).

The high Pu-activity found in deeper soil layers are explained to be due to the migration of these nuclides originating from first explosions in 1949 (Tsyb et al. 1990). Radionuclide activity concentrations in different soil layers are given for Dolon” village in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: The content of radionuclides in steppe soil of Dolon” village (based on Tsyb et al. 1989) (mean values only available)

Soil depth (cm) Radionuclide activity concentration (Bq/kg)

: : : '"Os ^™Pu

0-5 22 15 7

5-10 74 21 30

10-15 70 20 170

20 ------1----- 15-20 9 9 6 20-30 | 2 - 7

Spatial and temporal data have been collated for the STS by a number of different organisations. A comparison of data sets published by some of these different institutions is presented in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Comparison of different 137 Cs soil measurements, performed in different

years, in settlements surrounding the STS.

Site Geographical ! ’7 Cs deposition (kBq/m 2) co-ordinates Dubasov et al. IAEA Tsyb et al. Disp. N4 N/E 1990-1992 1995 1989 1989 %

Beijozka 49°56Y79°44' 1.31 0.271 Akzhar 50°48Y78°28' 2.18 ~ Beisen’ 50°07Y79°li' * 0.382

Belokamenka 50°33Y79°36' - - 0.282

Bestomak 49°13Y78°21' - 1.295/2.479 - Bol.Wladimirovka 50°45Y79°29' - 1.665 0.084

Cheryomushki 50°39Y79°02' - - 0.188 Dolon 50°40Y79°18' 10.7 10.4 4.366 0.137

Grachi 50°45Y78°38' - - 0.136

Isa (Chinzhi) 50° 11779° 16' - - 1.229

Kainar 49°12Y77°24' 4.44 3.24/3.37 4.144 - Kanonerka 50°43Y79°41' - 4.255 ~ Karaaul 48°57Y79°15' 2.96 5.957

Mostik 50°41Y79°15' 2.01 - 1.961 0.116 Obaly - ** 0.327 Olzhabai - - - 4.477 ^ Sarapan(60) - 2.749 Sarzhai(2500) 49°36Y78°44' 4.44 632/4.23 6.364 0.22 Semijarka 50°54Y78°19' - - 0.191

Yubileinaya - - 2.31 z. Tailan 49°56Y78°18' - 17.61 - Zavety Ilyicha - - 0.338

Zherbakovka 50°09Y79°40' - 3.774 -

Zhurekadyr 1.778 -

Znamenka(1900)) 50°05Y79°32' - 2.035 -

Table 4.3 shows that reported values vary considerably at the few sites where more

than one institution has taken measurements. The last column, for example, gives the

21 results of the Institution of Health Centre N 4 (Dispanser N 4) in Semipalatinsk. This institution was responsible for the control of population health in connection with nuclear testing, and their reports were published to inform the population about their risk. Later, when the STS was opened and was investigated by international groups (IAEA), further data from this organisation (new name: Kazakh Research Institute of Radiation Medicine and Ecology, KRIRME) became available. This is documented in Table 4.4 and is more similar to the IAEA (Shebell et al. 1995) data extracted into Table 4.5 for comparison.

Table 4.4: Mean soil activity concentration in 1994 (KRIRME, 1996).

Radionuclide Radionuclide activity concentration (Bq/kg)

K^n^^°12V7T245 Sarzhal (49°36Y78°44')

0-5 cm 20-25 cm 0-5 cm 7-12 cm

Sr-90 14.9+3.3 12.3+2.7 12.7+2.8 8.9+1.9

Cs-137 52.0±0.2 1.4+0.03 11.9+0.2 0.5+0.01

K-40 752.4+6.7 599.6+5.3 531.1+6.3 376.6+5.02

Ra-228 25.2+0.18 21.7±0.1 17.3+0.5 10.0+0.3

Ra-226 19.9+0.6 " ~

Table 4.5: Radionuclide activity concentration in soil (Shebell et al. 1995) (mean

±SD). Radionuclide Radionuclide activity concentration (Bq/kg)

Kaynar (49»12Y77°24') Sarzhal (49°36'/78°44')

0-5 cm 5-10 cm 10-15 cm 0-5 cm 5-10 cm 10-15 cm

Ra-226 43.0+0.6 44.5+0.3 45.6+0.6 33.5+0.7 32.6+1.0 32.3+0.5

Ra-228 40.8+0.8 43.5+0.4 44.1+0.9 26.9+0.9 27.0+1.3 23.7i0.7

K-40 913.5+8.8 977.2+4.1 954.2+9.6 651.2+8.9 710.4+14.8 673.4+7.0

Cs-137 19.4+0.4 3.7+0.1 1.0+0.2 72.2+0.7 20.0+0.7 2.220+0.4

22 4.2, Experimental Field or Ground Zero

The area "Experimental Field" or "Ground Zero" (Figure 4.2) is located in the central part of the STS and was the location of the first Soviet nuclear explosion in 1949 and many others. This first explosion was conducted on a 36 m high tower and resulted in significant contamination of the nearby area and in settlements located further away.

Later, 26 above ground and 87 atmospheric explosions were performed at this site.

Figure 4.2: General view of the Ground Zero area (photo generously provided by

Prof. Logachov).

An expedition of an IAEA team performed measurements in this area in 1994, but the final report is not yet available; data on soil contamination have been published in a preliminary report (Shebell et al. 1995). Some of the IAEA measurements of radionuclide activity concentration around Ground Zero, showing elevated amounts of ^'Cs, '^Eu and are given in Figure 4.3. In addition, a single surface soil at the

23 site of the first explosion sampled in 1994 was analysed by Yamamoto et al. [1996] and had 83,300 Bq/kg '^Cs, 5,410 Bq/kg of^Co, 96,100 Bq/kg of'^Eu and 27,900 Bq/kg of 239,24&Pu. They also detected lower levels of 154Eu, 24!Am and 2?7 Np

GromW zero

-i i £ I V I s

1.1km from groaod zero S3

cx o r- <30 o tn •vD ^r 1 & 6 6 A w U pd

Figure 4.3 Radionuclide activity concentration in soil of Ground Zero and 1.1 km from Ground Zero (Shebell et al. 1995).

The inventory of fission and activation products and the external dose decreases with distance from Ground Zero (Figure 4.4) (Shebell et al. 1995).

24 1e+5

1e+2

Figure 4.4: Reduction in external dose with distance from Ground Zero (Shebell et ai.

1995).

4.3. Balapan At the confluence of the Tchagan and Ashisu rivers, an experimental excavation explosion with ground release was performed on 15 January 1965 to produce a reservoir called Lake Balapan (Figure. 4.5) (bore-hole 1004, 140kT) (Bulatov 1996). A crater was formed with a 0.5 km diameter, 100 m depth and 6 million nf volume.

Despite the aim of conducting a "clean" explosion, the contamination level around the crater is rather high as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.5: Lake Balapan .

25 Figure 4.6: Radionuclide activity concentration in different soil depths around Lake Balapan (Shebell et al. 1995).

The contamination has a high heterogeneous distribution greatest around the edge of the crater (Table 4.6). In addition, Yamamoto et al. [1996] gave values for 3 surface soil samples (1mm fraction) taken in 1994 from the top of the bank of the crater which had activity concentrations ranging from 6.6 - 22.6 kfiq/kg of m€s, 9.7-17.2 kBq/kg of "2Eu, 5.5-10.4 kBq/kg of ^Eu and 8.2-20.5 kBq/kg of**Co, and single analysis of transuranics giving 8.85 kBq/kg of 239,240Pu and much lower values or 241 Am and ^Np.

Table 4.6: Radionuclide activity concentration in soil around the crater edge of Lake

Balapan (National Nuclear Center of Rep. Kazakhstan, 1994)

Sampling Radionuclide activity concentration in soil (Bq/kg) site: "2Eu *Sr **Pu Crest 6440 7730 5700 1440 4140 3700 2850 2850 630

15280 15980 10990 10990 3850

Slope 2480 2220 2180 1550 1440

5620 4850 4770 3180 1520

26 1850 2070 2330 1440 410

Riverside 3260 3440 3700 1890 840 4290 3370 3810 1700 1440

5880 4140 3030 2550 1410

At the Balapan technical area, 123 underground explosions were conducted. With the exception of the lake area, at all other areas at Balapan external dose rates have been within typical environmental levels (70-100 nGy/h).

4.4. Degelen mountains

The arm of Degelen is a mountain massif where 223 underground nuclear explosions were conducted. The radioactive contamination of this area is generally low with !'7 Cs deposition of only 3.7 - 11 kBq/m 2 (0.1 -0.3 Ci/km 2), thought to be the result of atmospheric tests performed at other STS sites. However, during an expedition in 1990 Balapan (National Nuclear Center of Rep. Kazakhstan, 1994) 58 contaminated sites close to the test bore-holes were detected. Drainage of water from

27 bore-holes has been observed and is thought to have led to soil contamination (Table 4.7).

Table 4.7: Radionuclide activity concentration of soil in the Degelen area (National

Nuclear Center of Rep. Kazakhstan, 1994).

Radionuclide Activity concentration (kBq/kg)

Cs-137 (2.8±0.7)* 10*

Sr-90 1.1*10 2

Eu-152 (6.110.8)

Am-24! (4.0610.08)* 102

U-238 0.14*10 2

Pu-239,240 2.56* 102

27 Figure 4.7: Satellite photographs of the Degeien mountains (Provided by P. Strand NRPA)

28 5. RADIONUCLIDE TRANSFER IN THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE STS

5.1. A general survey of soil and vegetation contamination Concern has been expressed by inhabitants of the STS about the radioactive contamination of pasture grasses, because the main occupation of the population is cattle, sheep and horse breeding and production of milk and meat (Deriglazov et al 1993) In response, radiation monitoring, including sampling and measurement of vegetation, has been performed. Most results have been reported by Deriglazov et al.( Deriglazov 1990; Deriglazov et al. 1991; 1993; Gordin 1991). The route of several expeditions performed by this group is shown in Figure 5.1. Individual sampling sites are indicated by numbers.

.f 'srmAtey '

Figure 5.1; Expedition scheme and sampling locations in the studies performed by Deriglazov in 1972.

29 The data given in the report are difficult to interpret due to the sampling methodology used during the expedition and the subsequent data compilation. Table 5.1 shows soil and pasture grass activity concentrations averaged over different routes between settlements in 1972, which are indicated in a clockwise direction in Figure 5 .1.

Table 5.1: Soil and pasture grass activity concentration averaged over the

measurement sectors, in 1972 (Deriglazov et al. 1972; mean values or ranges).

Measurement sector - *Sr '

Soil Grass activity Soil Grass activity

deposition concentration deposition concentration

(kBq/m^) (Bq/kg) (kBq/m^) (Bq/kg)

Konechnaya - Budene 1.2910.92 81136.3 l 7811.67 2219.9

Budene-Chagan 3.63(1.85-5.09) 92 2.1511.96 25

Chagan - Lake Balaktykol 1.7%1.4 30 1.4111.11 8113.7

Lake Balaktykol - Chizhi 2.7412.22 85156.2 2.26±2.22 (21-1120)

Chinzhi - Sarapan (40.7-90.7) 85156.2 (28.86-96.94) (21-1120) _ Sarapan - Yubileynaya (0.78-4.70) 65128.1 2.3711.67 _ Yubileynaya - Dzhusaly (1.78-3.11) 62123.7 1.2610.70

Dzhusaly - Winter hut 2.6312.07 70142.2 2.3311.59 (10-53) Tailan

W.h.Tailan - Bestamak (11.84-148) 40122.9 2.0011.15 22112.6

Bestamak - Akbulak 2.1510.70 59114.8 1.7811.11 1513.7

Akbulak - Kainar 3.5212.11 70147.4 (9.25-46.25) 14112.9

Kainar - sovkhoz Abai 3.0311.15 70141.4 3.5511.85 19111.8

Sovkhoz Abai - Airyk 2.9611.52 87121.8 1.9211.85 2515.5

Airyk - Karashagenel 2.6310.09 78113.7 2.0010.06 2215.9

Karashagenel - Maiskoe 2.2212.11 67+54.8 1.1110.09 22113.3

Maiskoe - Konechnaya 1.6310.06 58 0.96 1614.4

30 5.2 Mobility in soil In 1996, the KRIRME carried out an expedition in the south of the STS and measured 1,7 Cs and 90Sr activity concentrations in soil at different depths. Contamination by

!37 Cs in surface layers was similar or greater than that of ^Sr, but there was evidence of enhanced movement of **Sr down the soil profile. The results are shown in Figure

5.1 (KRIRME 1996)

Cs-137 a o-5 a 5-io a 10-20 8 20-30 #30-40 @ 40-50

Q

Figure 5.2: Radionuclide activity concentrations of b7 Cs and90Sr in soil at different sites in the south of the STS (KRIRME 1996).

31 5,3. Contamination of vegetation Only one report (KRIRME 1996) acquired so far gives data about the contamination of grass during the testing period. Since it was not possible to get a complete overview, or to judge the quality of these data, it is difficult to estimate how representative the data are. Examples of the data for two villages outside the STS are given in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Activity concentrations of '^Cs and *"Sr in grassy vegetation at two sites

during the early period of weapons testing (KRIRME 1996).

Activity concentration in grass (Bq/kg)

11959

In 1994, an expedition of the KRIRME (1996) measured the contamination of vegetation in the south of the STS, where many plumes of explosions occurred (see

Figure 3 .2). The grass samples were measured using y-spectrometry and results are shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Radionuclide activity concentrations of *^Cs and *Sr in grass from two sites of the STS in 1994 (KRIRME 1996)

Activity concentration in grass (Bq/kg)

Kayiw

Cs-137

5.4. Soil to vegetation uptake

Three to five years after a nuclear explosion the soil becomes the main source for radiation exposure, either through external exposure or internal exposure through inhalation or ingestion of radionuclides. Internal exposure through ingestion depends on the rate of transfer of radionuclides in the environment. The bioavailability of

32 radionuclides is the result of the physico-chemical form of the deposit, the interaction between the radionuclide and soil absorption capacity (fixation) (which is strongly correlated, for Cs, to its clay content) and the rate of migration of radionuclides out of the rooting zone into deeper soil layers.

Studies of long-lived radionuclide behaviour in soils along the various STS radioactive traces have shown that the content of exchangeable forms of 137 Cs varied from 9-40% depending on fallout conditions and soil characteristics, **Sr was about 60-95%

exchangeable in the upper soil layer (Ratnikov et al. 1997). With time, the amount of exchangeable mCs declined because of irreversible fixation processes in soil. In

contrast, remains in a mobile form, available for uptake by plants. However, experimental observation of l37 Cs and "Sr behaviour in STS soil showed that the soil-

plant transfer factor ( (Bq/kg plant)/(Bq/kg dried soil)) after 7 years after deposition was reduced by 2.5-3 times, and 2.5-8 times respectively (Ratnikov et al. 1997).

Experimental data on the uptake and distribution of radiocaesium and radiostrontium in different crops were reported by Ratnikov et al. (1997). The activity of mCs and %Sr of various agricultural plants grown on Kazakh soils contaminated artificially with

about 1 fcBq/m2 are shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Radionuclide activity concentration in crops grown on different types of soil from Kazakhstan, contaminated with 1 kBq/m 2.

Crop Radionuclide activity concentration (Bq/kg fresh matter) **Sr * 37Cs grain, tuber Vegetative mass grain, tubes Vegetative mass Light and typical grey soil Barley 0.9 6.0 0.6 1.3 Wheat 0.6 2.1 0.4 0.5 Maize 0.03 2.0 0.4 1.6 Potatoes 0.15 11 0 0.08 0.6 Dark $prey soil Barley 0.5 3.5 0.4 0.8 Wheat 0.3 1.2 0.1 0.4 Maize 0.015 0.8 0.2 0.6 Potatoes 0.10 10.0 0.04 0.3 Chestnut soil

33 Wheat Maize Potatoes

Barley

Maize I Potatoes 0.025

Uptake of*Sr generally exceeds that of "'Cs in barley, wheat and potatoes, whereas

the reverse occurs in maize. Uptake rates were highest for grey soil categories. Other

studies in the STS have shown that acidic soils with low organic matter contents and

low CEC (cation exchange capacity), which commonly occur in unimproved semi­ natural pastures, allow rates of uptake of '^Cs and ^Sr in vegetation which are about

1.5-10 times higher than that for fertile soils (Vlasov et al. 1994).

The behaviour of 2~SU, z??Th and 2l0"Po in soil and in the soil-plant system also depends

on its physico-chemical properties and biological availability, which depends on factors

such as the type of soil and its agrochemical characteristics and the plant species

present. Table 5.5 shows that under the same cultivation conditions, was taken up by plants to a greater extent than ^**Po and ^*Pu (Ratnikov et al. 1997). The

decreasing rate of uptake was ^*U»^*Po>^*Pu.

Table 5.5 . Experimentally determined transfer factors for 2**Po, and ^Pu in

wheat for different Kazakh soils (Ratnikov et al. 1997).

Soil type Transfer factor (Bq/kg) / (Bq/kg dry soil)

TV ' TTWVV. VyWVV:: ™Po (xHT*) ^Pu(xl

. . . ■ T.:;;v;;;. ''Wyvvv/'^y grain straw grain straw grain straw

Grey earth 2.6 39.0 0.13 0.21 1.0 4.3

Chestnut 2.0 31.0 0.05 0.14 1.0 3.9

Mountain chernozem 1.5 24.0 0.02 0.04 1.2 4.1

Chernozem ordinary 1.4 26.0 ™ - 1.6 10.0

34 Transfer factors for 238 U and i47 Pm in different soil types typical for Kazakhstan and different plant species reported by Ratnikov et al. (1997) are given in Tables 5.6 and 5.7.

Table 5.6: Transfer factors of 238 U to natural grass for several soil-climatic areas and

soil types in Kazakhstan (Ratnikov et al. 1997) Ecosystem Soil type Transfer factor

(Bq/kg / Bq/kg dry soil)

Forest-steppe Leached chernozem 0.123

Steppe Chernozem ordinary 0.104

Semi-desert Dark chestnut 0.067

Brown 0.098

Desert Grey-brown soil 0.164

Foothills Sandy 0.130

Grey earth 0.070

Mountain Light chestnut 0.058

Dark chestnut 0.059

Chernozem 0.049

Meadow sub-alpine 0.039

Table 5.7. Transfer factors of '47Pm in wheat for different soils types in Kazakhstan

(Ratnikov et al. 1997).

Soil type Transfer factor (Bq/kg) / (Bq/kg of dry soil) xlG'3 grain straw

Grey earth 2.5 31

Grey-brown 4.2 130

Chestnut 3.2 44

Mountain’s chestnut 2.2 33

Dark chestnut 1.6 15

Mountain’s chernozem 1.7 21

Leached chernozem 1.7 18 Chernozem 1.0 7

35 5.5. Contamination of animal products

The annual reports of the KRIRME give data on contamination of agricultural animal products (KRIRME 1996). Activity concentrations are given for different radionuclides in milk and meat, measured at different sites around the STS. Some of the earlier results from the 1980s are shown in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8: Mean values of "Sr activity concentrations and total beta activities in milk

for 1981-1984 (KRIRME 1996)

Radionuclide Milk activity concentration (Bq/L) Sarzbal Sampan Chinzhi

Sr-90 0.4 1 6.4

Z beta 40.8 46.5 40.1

The Russian government commission of 1989 (Tsyb et al., 1989) conducted measurements of meat contamination and the data are given in Table 5.9.

Table 5.9: Radiocaesium activity concentrations in different tissues of sheep from two collective farms at the STS (Tsyb et al., 1989).

Settlement Organ Activity concentration (Bq/kg)

^Cs

Dolon’ Leg bone 92.5 <1.5

Ribs, Thigh 10.4 2.6

Sarzbal Lungs 2.3 <2

Liver 1.6 <1.4

Muscle 2.9 <0.8

Kidneys 12.2 <0.4

Leg bone 8.1 <2

Recent data on contamination of agricultural animal products from the 1990s have been reported in the annual reports of the KRIRME (1996), and some data are given in

Tables 5.10-5.13.

36 Table 5.10: Radionuclide activity concentration in milk in 1994 (KRIRME 1996).

Radionuclide Milk activity concentration (Bq/L)

Sarzhal Kainar

Sr-90 0.5 -

Cs-137 0.05 0.04

Table 5.11; Radionuclide activity concentration in pasture grass, milk and water in

1996 (KRIRME 1996).

Settlement Radionuclide activity concentration

Vegetation Milk Water

(Bq/kg) (Bq/L) (Bq/L) ...... *Sr

Kainar 1.510.2 3.9±0.4 0.110.01 0.1+0.01 0.01+0.003 -

Abraly 1.6±0.3 6.110.3 0.110.02 0.03K0.01 0.0110.002 0.0110.005

Algabas 2.810.3 5.510.3 0.210.04 0.110.01 0.0210.004 0.0210.009

Kzylzhal 2.510.5 1.6+0.6 0.210.02 0.0210.01 0.0110.001 0.0110.003

Dagalan 2.410.5 8.3±0.4 0.3+0.05 0.110.01 0.0110.001

Akbulak 2.3±0.2 1.510.1 0.110.03 0.110.01 0.0210.003 -

Dzhaiiyau 1.510.3 0.810.3 0.110.05 0.110.03 0.005+0.001 0.003+0.001

Table 5.13: Radionuclide activity concentrations in cow bones in Sarzhal village in

1994 (KRIRME 1996).

Radionuclide Activity concentration (Bq/kg)

Sr-90 12.112.2

Cs-137 -

K-40 42.618.2

Tl-208 3.110.9

Ra-228 6.410.7

Th-228 4.110.3

37 Data on the contamination of meat in 1994, but without specifying the animal species have been reported by KRIRME and are given in Table 5.13.

Table 5.13: Radionuclide activity concentration of unspecified meat from Sarzh&l

village in 1994 (KRIRME 1996).

Radionuclide Activity concentration (Bq/kg)

Sr-90 0.7

Cs-137 0.2

Be-7 0.9

Bi-214 0.3

Pb-214 0.2

Th-228 0.1

Data on activity concentrations in animal tissues have not been found so far for the period of atmospheric weapons testing. From the limited data available from the 1980s onwards, it appears that current activity concentrations of i37 Cs and "Sr in the

animals measured are low.

In some areas 60Co deposition has been measured (National Nuclear Centre of Rep. Kazakhstan 1994) which may lead to rather high 60Co activity concentrations in cattle

livers or milk (mainly integrated into 60Co Vitamin B12 (Voigt 1988)) which are

commonly consumed by the population and may lead to higher internal population doses.

5.6. Transfer from plant to animals In general, concentration ratios have been used rather than transfer coefficients to quantify transfer from vegetation to animals in the relevant Russian-language literature. In Tables 5.14 to 5.16 grass-milk and grass-meat concentrations ratios (CR) are given for different years, radionuclides and locations in and around the perimeter of the STS.

38 Table 5.14: Grass - Milk concentration ratios in 1968 (Bq/L / Bq/kg) (KR1RME

1996).

Radionuclide Concentration ratio (Bq/L / Bq/kg )

Sarzhal Sarapan Chinzhi

Sr-90 0.02 0.02 0.06

Cs-137 0.02 0.1

Z beta 0.06 0.06 0.08

Table 5.15: Grass - Milk concentration ratios (CR) in 1996 (Bq/L / Bq/kg) (KRIRME

1996).

Settlement CR Soil I37 Cs deposition

"Sr ^7Cs/^Sr (kBq/m^)

Kainar 0.04 0.02 1.2 0.34

Abraly 0.06 0.01 3.9 1.16

Algabas 0.07 0.02 2.6 1.16

Kzylzhal 0.07 0.01 1.6 0.74

Dagalan 0.11 0.01 2.4 0.89

Akbulak 0.02 0.04 2.0 0.96

Dzhailyau 0.06 0.02 1.6 0.69

Table 5.16: Grass - Meat concentration ratios tor 1994 (KRIRME 1996). Radionuclide J Concentration ratio (Bq/kg / Bq/kg)

Chinzhi Sarzhal Sarapan

zp 0.2 0.3 0.2

Sr-90 0.08 0.2 0.02

CR values for 90 Sr tend to exceed those for mCs, but there are exceptions.

39 6. EXPOSURE OF THE POPULATION

6.1. Activity intake and internal dose estimation

The amount of radionuclides released by a nuclear weapon and the resulting exposure of the population depends not only on the explosive yield but also on the completeness of the fission and the height of the explosion. The first nuclear weapons test performed on 29 August 1949 and the first H-bomb test performed on 12 August 1953 are considered to be the most hazardous explosions in terms of dose and health effects on the surrounding population (Dubasov, Krasilov et al. 1994). The first dose estimates made by Russian experts were mainly based on the measurement of released activities and a consideration of the direction of the prevailing weather conditions during these two tests (aerial gamma and gamma surveys) (Dubasov, Krasilov et al. 1994). External exposure is thought to be the major exposure pathway for the population affected by these releases (Dubasov, Krasilov et al. 1994). An overview of archived external dose measurements is given in Table 6.1 for these two explosions.

Table 6.1. Total average estimated external doses caused by two above ground nuclear explosions in 1949 and 1953 for several populated areas close to the STS (Dubasov,

Krasilov et al. 1994).

Settlement Start of Distance from Dose in open Estimated radioactive fallout the epicenter air: external dose for (h after explosion) (km) :(mSv) the population (mSv/person)

1949

Cheryomushki 3.0 76 0.7 0.5 Mostik 3.4 90 1.7 1.3 Dolon’ 3.4 118 22.4 - 1953

Tailan 1.2 100 100 - Sarzhal 1.3 110 25 4.2 Kara-Aul 2.4 200 15 1.3

40 Most of the dose estimates for the population are for external doses and are based on external dose rate measurements and mathematical modeling. The only publication currently available which takes into account transfer of radioactive contaminants to food products and ingestion rates to determine internal dose is that of the Russian commission (Tsyb et al. 1989). Their estimates are based on activity concentrations in the diet, consumed amounts, modeled distribution and retention within the human body and the use of dose conversion factors.

For the Semipalatinskaya oblast, the average annual dietary intake of *°Sr from 1979 until 1988 has been estimated to be 122 Bq for adults and 85 Bq for children. Additionally, for other regions around the STS, (Abaiskij, Zhanasemeiskij and Beskargaiskij) during the period from 1970 until 1988, the average annual intake of *"Sr was 215 Bq for adults and 211 Bq for children. On the basis of these data, the internal dose to bone tissue from *"Sr was calculated, and the values are given in Table 6.2 (Tsyb et al. 1989)

Table 6.2: Estimated internal annual doses to bone tissue for the population around the STS and the Semipalatinskaya oblast (calculated on the basis of*°Sr intake) (Tsyb et al. 1989).

Year Internal dose (pSv/a)

Around the ST'S Semipalatinskaya oblast

Adults Children Adults Children

1970 880 6270 - -

1971 890 5200 -

1972 1240 8300 -

1973 440 1850 -

1974 430 1770 * -

1975 370 1400 - -

1976 300 1190 -

1977 450 1740 ~ -

1978 500 3310 - -

1979 910 3410 570 1760

1980 590 1980 460 1510

41 1981 370 1780 280 1120

1982 280 1380 260 1930

1983 240 1040 230 840

1984 320 1770 230 890 __ 1985 380 220 " 720

1986 550 2240 380 1210

1987 700 2790 220 800

1988 570 1740 240 920

The average annual intake of'^Cs, from 1979 until 1985 and in 1988 was estimated to be 181 Bq for adults and 178 for children (Tsyb et al, 1989). Due to the fallout from the Chernobyl accident, the average annual intake of 137 Cs increased in 1986 and 1987 to 740 - 1665 Bq for adults and 1073 - 1961 Bq for children (Tsyb et al. 1989). On the basis of these data, the internal dose to the whole body for 137 Cs was calculated, and the values are given in Table 6.3 (Tsyb et al.

1989).

Table 6.3: Internal annual doses for whole body calculated on the basis of 137 Cs ingestion for the

population of the Semipalatinskaya Oblast (Tsyb et al.1989).

Yearf:.:) ( Internal dose (p,Sv/a) Adults Children

1970 4 4

1971 5 5

1972 5 4

1973 3 3

1974 2 3

1975 2 2

1976 2 2

1977 2 2

42 1978 2 2

1979 2 1

1980 1 1

1981 2 2

1982 1 1

1983 1 1

1984 1 0.5

1985 0.3 0.3

1986 19* 22*

1987 8* 12*

1988 2 1 *- increased values because of the Chernobyl accident.

In comparison to these data the average radiation dose for UK population from all sources (16% of which is ingested natural radionuclides) is 2.4 mSv/a, for Germany a similar value of 2-3 mSv/a is considered. An additional dose can be attributed to the Chernobyl accident in the first year of 0.5 mSv and in the following 49 years of 1-2.5 mSv (Muller & Prbhl 1993) mainly due to "?Cs was calculated for German conditions. At the STS mCs contributes to a lesser extent to the overall dose of the population, where as 90Sr leads to a considerable bone tissue dose especially of children.

43 7. DISCUSSION

This report gives a first overview of the available data describing the radioecological situation in the STS , based largely on published and unpublished (internal reports and private communication) literature from Kazakhstan and Russia. Different sources were identified and the quality and reliability of the collected data evaluated. A lot of information was discarded because of incompleteness or possible problems regarding the quality of datasets. Nevertheless, an initial impression about the nature and extent of the contamination resulting from the bomb testing was obtained. It is now necessary to follow up relevant sources and to complete and evaluate these data to provide a more complete description of the consequences of these tests for radioactive contamination of the environment and consequent doses to the local population.

The information collected so far, generally does not specify sampling location and methodology, therefore it is difficult to identify spatial and temporal variations in radionuclide contamination levels within the STS and to integrate them into spatial models using Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Much of the data currently assessed refers to the period after nuclear weapons testing ceased. However, the availability of data has increased since the beginning of the 1990s and some general conclusions can be drawn about current contamination at the STS. It seems that current contamination levels in biota of the two potentially most mobile radionuclides, I37 Cs and90 Sr, are generally low, with the exception of some more highly contaminated areas close to the experimental sites of the explosions. The few measurements of transuranics and other radionuclides restrict interpretation at this stage.

It is interesting to note that there seems to be considerable movement of some radionuclides, including 239,240Pu and 90 Sr, down the soil profile to considerable depths in some soils of the STS. Furthermore, there seems to be considerably greater uptake of 238 U than of 238 Pu and 210Po in the types of soil found in the STS.

It is evident that the particular ecological characteristics of the STS need to be considered when estimating current exposure to the population within and around the STS. The renewed use of the STS by nomads and collectives necessitates an evaluation of their exposure. To carry this out, information is needed on contamination levels of a wide range of radionuclides, the relevant inhalation and ingestion routes need to be identified and quantified and the dietary habits assessed.

44 & CURRENT INFORMATION DEFICIENCIES

Many deficiencies in available information can be identified. Some of these may be filled by access to information which has not yet been acquired and evaluated. Other data will need to be collected.

Because of the geographic and climatic characteristics of the STS it has been suggested that the transport of radionuclides by resuspension could be significantly altering radionuclide distribution within the STS. Kazakh scientists have also suggested that grazing animals can ingest up to lkg/day of resuspended material within the STS; therefore the direct ingestion of radionuclides during resuspension events could represent a significant pathway of contamination to grazing animals and ultimately humans. The contribution of resuspension and resuspended material to the contamination of foods (animal and plant products) and the consequences for the dose to humans

(particularly tor the alpha emitters) has not been considered to date. It can be expected that in the dry conditions within the STS this pathway may contribute significantly to the dose to man, in marked contrast to the Chernobyl accident. Therefore further research is needed to quantify transfer via this pathway.

Few transuranic measurements have been made, and therefore more information is needed on deposition, transfer in the environment and subsequent contamination of foodstuffs. The behaviour of radionuclides, including ^Cs and **Sr within the light-chestnut and saline soils of the STS also needs more quantification. Consideration of the bioavailability of radionuclides within such soils and their transfer to different plant species (specific grasses representative of the site) and particular animals (horses, eventually camels) is also needed.

In radioecological modelling and dose estimation in general, living conditions representative for West and East Europe and to a lesser extent for CIS countries (exposed to the Chernobyl fallout) are normally considered. However, within the vicinity of the STS the differing interaction of the various ethnic groups with the environment will need to be taken into account when calculating doses or recommending countermeasures. For example, differences in consumption and behaviour patterns will have a considerable influence upon internal dose.

All these factors need to be considered and appropriately modelled when predicting fluxes of radionuclides and considering the need for, and identifying, appropriate countermeasures.

45 8.1. The RESTORE approach

The aim of RESTORE is not an historical evaluation of exposure, but focuses on current contamination levels and the consequent radiation exposure of residents of the region.

A compilation of information on radioactive contamination will form the basis to create digitised maps of contamination of the test site. These maps could be combined with generic models of the spatially and temporarily varying behaviour of different radionuclides to provide predictions of contamination levels in biota. The special ecological and agricultural characteristics of the STS (soil, plant, animal species, human behaviour, climate etc.) also need to be taken into consideration. On the basis of these results reliable, practical and applicable countermeasures may, if required, be defined and recommended in the context of the development and application of an Environmental Decision Support System within RESTORE.

8.2 Interaction with ISTC

To appropriately model the transfer of radionuclides for this particular site further experimental work is necessary. Such work will be performed in collaboration with institutes in Kurchatov and Otar under the ISTC programme. The migration of various radionuclides in characteristic soils of the STS, possibilities for countermeasures, resuspension and bioavailability of ingested soil particles in different animal species (sheep, cows, hens, and horses) and its transfer into animal and vegetation will be investigated in laboratory and field (three experimental sites in the STS). To determine fluxes of radionuclides,, living conditions and consumption habits of the population (questionnaire) will be assessed together with the environmental information and compared with whole body activity measurements. 9

9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Currently available information suggest that radioactive contamination by mCs and **Sr in environmental samples and food products -with the exception of several hot spots- is low and unlikely to induce radiation health effects. The activity concentrations in biota are generally only 1-2 orders of magnitude above global fallout levels, and therefore external and internal doses should be small.

Currently available information on contamination by transuranic radionuclides is sparse: that available suggests that alpha emitters such as or241 Am are found locally in high

46 concentrations in soils or glass particles. In general, their contribution to internal dose via ingestion or inhalation is probably small since their absorption in the human and animal gastrointestinal tract is low. However, high local doses in the mucosa wall cells in lung and intestine tissues (internal) or skin (external) of animals and humans may occur from deposited material, possibly enhanced via resuspension processes.

The hygienic situation, general pollution of the STS and behavioural factors may play a more important role in increased cancer incidence rates in the population (Gusev et al.1996) than the current radioactive contamination resulting from the tests. Hence, assessments of the health of the population must take such factors into account.

10. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful for the contributions of Prof. V. Logachov, Institute of Biophysics

Moscow, Dr. A. Ratnikov, Russian Institute of Agricultural Radiology and Agroecology, Obninsk, Dr. B. Karablin, National Nuclear Center of Kazakhstan, Kurchatov and Dr. A. Savinkov, Agricultural Institute of National Center on Biotechnology, Otar in Kazakhstan. In addition we are very much obliged to ISTC offices in Brussels (Dr. D. Gambler) and in Moscow (Dr. V. Urezenchko) and especially to the support by Dr. G. Desmet EC/DG XII.

This project is funded by the European Commission under contract number F14P-CT95-0021 within the programme RESTORE (Restoration strategies of radioactive contaminated ecosystems).

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Burkart, W. Radioepidemiology in the aftermath of the nuclear program of the former Soviet Union: unique lessons to be learnt. Radiat. Environ. Biophys, 35,(1996), 65-73

Deriglazov, V. On the radiation - hygienic situation at the Semipalatinsk, Karaganda and Pavlodar regions as a result of nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk Test Site. Internal report (1972) (in Russian)

Deriglazov, V I., Gorin, V.V., Mal’tsev, A.L., Matushchenko A.M., Safonov, F.F., Smagulov, S.G., Radiation ecological situation in the Kazakh regions close to Semipalatinsk Test

Site. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the held of nuclear energy, N4, 46-51, (1991) (in Russian)

Deriglazov, V.N., Safonov, F.F., Smagulov, S.G., Yurchenko, TI, Shuklin, G.S. On the radiation-hygienic situation at the region of Semipalatinsk test site. Bulletin of Centre of

Public Information in the field of nuclear energy, Special edition, January, 20, (1993) (in Russian) Dubasov Yu.V., Kedrovsky O.A., Matushchenko A.M., Tsyr ’kov G.A. et al. Underground explosions of nuclear installations in industrial centres in the territory of USSR in 1965 -

1988: Chronology and radiation consequences. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in

the field of nuclear energy, Nl, (1994), 18-28. (in Russian)

Dubasov, Yu.V., Krasilov, G.A., Logachev, V.A., Maltsev, A.L., Matushchenko, A.M., Safronov, B.G., Smagulov, S.G., Tsaturov, Yu. 8., Fillipovskiy, V I. Semipalatinsk and North Test Sites in the USSR: Integrated Programme of radiation and ecological research on environmental concequences of nuclear tests. Atmospheric Nuclear Tests, Enviromental and Human Consequences, 10-14 January 1994, Vienna, Austria.

Dubasov, Yu.V., Zelentsov, S.A., Krasilov, G.A,, Logachev, V.A., Matushchenko, AM., Smagulov, S.G., Tsaturov, Yu.S., Tsirkov, G.A, Chernyshev, A.K Chronological list of the atmospheric nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk test site and their radiological

characteristics. Bulletin of scientific programm „Semipalatisk Test Site - Altai", N4,

(1994) (in Russian)

48 Dubasov, Yu.V., Krivokhatskiy, A.S., Filonov, N.P., Kharitonov, K.V. Radiation situation around the Semipalatinsk Test site. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the field of nuclear energy, N9, (1993) (in Russian). Dubasov, Yu.V., Matushchenko, AM., Filonov, N.P., Charitonov, K.V., Chernyshev, A.K. Semipalatinsk Test Site: evaluation of radiological consequences. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the field of nuclear energy, (1993), Special edition, January, 20 (in Russian).

Gabbasov, M.N., Zelenov, V.I., Loborev, V.M. etal. Evaluation of radioactive contamination levels at the Semipalatinsk Test Site. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the field

of nuclear energy, N 5-6, (1995) (in Russian).

Gordin, B.N. The complex investigation of the population around STS. Report of medicine

sanitary department N 167, Semipalatinsk-2I, (1991) (in Russian).

Gorin, V.V., Matushchenko, A M., Smagulov, S.G., et al. Semipalatinsk Test Site:

Chronology of underground nuclear explosions and their primary radiation effects (1961-

1989). Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the field of nuclear energy, N9,(1993), 21-32. (in Russian). Grosche, B. Benefit uber eine Diensreise nach Kazakhstan vom 18.-25.3.1996. (Mission report) - personnel communication.

Gusev, B. and Balmoukhanov, T Tumour Incidence among inhabitants of some rayons in the Semipalatinsk region exposed after nuclear testings at the Test Ground. Presentation in Second Hiroshima International Symposium ^Effects of low-level radiation for residents near Semipalatinsk nuclear test site" July 23-25, 1996, Hiroshima. Proceedings in press.

Health Center N4, Internal report, (1989), Semipalatinsk. (in Russian)

Izrael, Yu. A. Peaceful nuclear bursts and environment. Hydrometioizdat, Leningrad, (1974) (Book in Russian). Izrael, Yu. A., Stukin, E.D. and Tsaturov, Yu.S. On the possibility for identification of radioactive patterns from nuclear explosions and for reconstruction of population

exposure doses using long-lived radionuclides analysis. Meteorology and Hydrology, N12, (1994) (in Russian). Kazakh Research Institute of Radiation Medicine and Ecology (KRIRME). Dynamics of radiation and the hygienic situation resulting of nuclear tests on STS and around. Report, Semipalatinsk, (1996) (in Russian).

49 Logachov, V.A. Peculiarities in estimation of human exposure dose after atmosphere nuclear testing at the Semipalatinsk Test Site. Sth Session of IAEA, Program VAMP, (1993), Vienna, Austria. (Presentation) Logachov, V.A., Stepanov, Yu.S., Michailichina, L.A., Khakhlov, v.f. Analysis of data on Medical Biological Research Programme and inspection of the health of critical population groups living in areas in the Altai and Gorny Altai region. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the field of nuclear energy, (1993), Special edition, January, 20. (in Russian). Mikhailov, V.N., Andryshin, I. A. et al. USSR Nuclear Weapon Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions. 1949 through 1990. RFNC-VNIIEF, Sarov, (1996), 63 pp. Muller, H. and Prdhl, G. ECOSYS-87: A dynamic model for assessing radioecologica! consequences of nuclear accidents. Health Physics, 64, (1993), 232-252.

National nuclear centre of Rep. Kazakhstan Investigation of radiation situation at the former Semipalatinsk nuclear Test site, Internal report, 1994. (in Russian).

Ratnikov, A.N. etal Internal report (Subcontract report to RESTORE) (1997)(in Russian)

Sel’skoe khozyaistvo Respubliki Kazakhstan. Statisticheskyi sbornik. Almaty, 1993 (in Russian).

Shebell, P., Hutter, Adam R. Environmental radiation measurements at the former Soviet Union’s Semipalatinsk nuclear test site and surrounding villages. Report to the mission

leader. IAEA, October, 1995. (in Russian). Tsyb, A.F. et al. Around the proving grounds at Semipalatinsk: Radiological situation and exposure of population. Medical Radiology, N12, 3-11,1990. (in Russian).

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nuclear explosion on August 7, 1962 at Semipalatinsk Test Site. Bulletin of scientific

programm „Semipalatisk Test Site - Altai", N4, 64-72, 1994. (in Russian). Voigt, G. The transfer of 60Co from feed into Vitamin B12 in cow liver, milk and beef.

J.Environ. Radioactivity, 8 , (1988), 209-215.

Yamamoto, M., Tsukatani, T., Katayama, Yu. Residual radioactivity in the soil of Semipalatinsk nuclear test site in the former USSR, Health Physics, 71, (1996), 142-148. 50 Part 2

CONSUMPTION HABITS OF THE POPULATION IN KAZAKHSTAN AND AT THE SEMIPALATINSK TEST SITE

N. Semiochkina and G. Voigt GSF - Imstitut fur StraWeaschute, Germany

With contributions by V. Kuksenko (via RECLAIM) and V. Logachov (Institute of Biophysics, Moscow)

51 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 53

2. AGRICULTURE 55

2.1. Republic of Kazakhstan

2.2. Semipalatisiskaya oblast and STS

3. POPULATION 60

3.1. Republic of Kazakhstan

3.2. Semipalatinskaya oblast and STS

4. CONSUMPTION HABITS 64

4.1. Calorie intake

4.2. Special diet

4.3. Composition of food baskets for general population and STS

population groups

5. QUESTIONNAIRES 70

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 71

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 72

8. REFERENCES 73

9. ANNEXES 75

52 1. INTRODUCTION

In the context of the European Commission funded project RESTORE (Restoration Strategies for Radioactive Contaminated Ecosystems) an attempt has been made to assess the present radioecological situation at the Semipalatinsk Test Site (STS) in Kazakhstan (see deliverable:

„ Initial Evaluation of the radioecological situation at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in the Republic of Kazakhstan", May 1997). Different authors in the international literature and authorities of the Republic of Kazakhstan claim high doses received by the local population during and after the nuclear tests, and health effects due to radioactive contamination even today. In order to verify or to contradict these statements the following report has been produced which will be a basis for dose estimates of the present internal exposures of the STS population.

During 40 years (1949 - 1989) more than 470 tests of different kinds of nuclear devices have been carried out on the territory of the STS, situated in the north-east of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 118 of them (30 over ground and 88 in air) were performed between 1949 and 1962. Table 1 (Dubasov et al., 1996) shows some newer details of the 30 over-ground explosions and indicates the released amounts of some important radionuclides.

Table 1. Chronology and description of over-ground bursts on the STS performed between 1949 and 1962 (Dubasov et al. 1996) (GZ - Ground Zero)

Date of teal She Altitude, m Released radionuclides, Ci

ggggggg Cs"? Pu

29.08.49 GZ 30 500 140 360 24.09.51 GZ 30 900 2 550 300 12.08.53 GZ 30 22 000 29 000 280 05.10.54 GZ 0 100 280 105 19.10.54' GZ 15 - - 215 30.10.54 GZ 50 250 700 100 29.07.55 secret 2.5 40 100 245 02.08.55 secret 2.5 350 850 200 05.08.55 secret 1.5 35 90 215 21.09.55 secret 1.5 35 90 215 16.03.56 secret 0.4 650 1 000 240

53 25.03.56 secret 1 145 420 190 § 24.08.56 GZ 900 2 000 90 09.09.61 secret 0 17 34 225 14.09.61 secret 0 17 34 250 18.09.61 secret 1 - - 250 19.09.61 secret 0 - - 250 03.11.61* secret 0 ~ 230 04.11.61 secret 0 4.5 13 195 07.08.62 GZ - 370 870 200 22.09.62 GZ 0 7 17 280 25.09.62 GZ 0 270 610 205 05.11.62 GZ 15 16 35 190 11.11.62 GZ 8 3.2 8.6 210 13.11.62* secret 0 ~ - 210 24.11.62* secret 0 - - 140 26.11.62 secret 0 - 210 23.12.62" secret 0 - 210 24.12.62 secret 0 - - 250 24.12.62 secret 0 - ~ 295 * - nuclear device didn’t work

The total activities of the most radiological important radionuclides present on the STS in June 1994 were estimated by Dubasov et al. (1996) with values of:

- Cs-137 (y - activity) « 14.8* 1014Bq

- Sr-90 (p - activity) = 10* 10" Bq

- Plutonium (a - activity) « 24* 1013 Bq.

The STS is situated on the dry hummock steppe and has been used as grazing land before, during and after the tests. Today horses or sheep graze directly pastures located at the epicentres of explosions of Ground Zero and the Balapan area (close to the „atomic“ lake Balapan). Thus, animals have access to contaminated fodder, and radionuclides may reach man via the food chain. For dose assessments of the affected population, therefore the fluxes of radionuclides within this special environment have to be considered. Human local consumption habits play an important role in these estimation of the ingestion dose. For the Kazakh Republic with a very diverse, heterogeneous population, and according to this with different traditions and behaviours within urban and rural environment, consumption habits and diet composition can be very different, in this report a first attempt is made to present an overview of consumption and behaviour habits of the general and the local population.

54 2. AGRICULTURE

2.1. Republic of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is the second largest republic of the former Soviet Union with a 2.7 million square kilometre area. It is the most sparsely settled country of the former Soviet republics with an average of 6.2 persons per square kilometre. Kazakhstan is situated almost equidistant between the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. At its greatest distance, Kazakhstan extends over 1,600 km from North to South and 3,200 kilometres from East to West. Agriculture is the second largest sector of the Kazakh economy, employing 18% of the labour

force (in 1991). Approximately 82% of 220 million ha of agricultural area represents grazing

land, the rest is attributed to arable land. In Figure 1 different productions are indicated

(Kazakhstan: The transition..., 1993)

Figure 1. The structure of agricultural land of Kazakhstan (Kazakhstan: The transition...,

1993).

Traditionally and because of ecological conditions, the main occupation of Kazakh people in

the country site is breeding and maintaining livestock, i.e. sheep, horses and cattle property

being organised in different kinds of structures (sovkhoz, kolkhoz and private, for detailed

information see Annex A). Table 2 shows the annual agricultural production for major

55 food stuff in Kazakhstan in 1991 and Table 3 gives annual production rates of some livestock (1991).

Table 2. The agricultural production rates for 1991 in whole Kazakhstan (Strohbach, 1992).

¥md .mj/

Meat I >'i! Milk 5,530

Wool 102

Eggs 4,052(millions)

Table 3. The annual production rates in 1991 per individual animals (Strohbach, 1992).

1 Milk / cow 2,266 kg (6 L/day per animal)

Wool / sheep 28 kg

Eggs/ hen 225 (0.6 eggs/day per hen)

Due to ecological and economical reasons production rates are in general low. For

comparison, due to better feeding and maintenance conditions a European cow gives in

average 13 to 15 L/d , and hens lay about 1-2 eggs/d.

2.2. Semipalatinskaya oblast and STS

As is demonstrated in the map of Figure 2, the STS is located in the west side of the Semipalatinskaya oblast (since 1997 included into the Vostochno-Kazakhstanskaya oblast)

(54%), south of the P&vlodarskaya oblast (39%), and east of the Karagandinskaya oblast (7%).

56 **»«*»*«=»» Oblast boundary

Rayon boundary

STS boundary

Rayons:

Semipalatinskaya oblast: 1 - Beskargaiski, 2 - Zhanasemeiski, 3 - Abaiski

Karagandinskaya oblast: 4 - Karkaralinski, 5 - Egendybuiakski

Pavlodarskaya oblast: 6 - Maiski

In the past the economical situation of STS was determined by the former Semipalatinskaya oblast, which was administratively attributed to this site. The agricultural structure of the Semipalatinskaya oblast is very similar to the whole of Kazakhstan. It consists of 16.4 million ha of agricultural land: 11.4 million ha pasture (69.5%) and 1.8 million ha arable land (11%), rest is attributed to hayfields and fallow land. Average annual production rates (1.1.93) in the Semipalatinskaya oblast are as follows (for the year 1992): 59,4001 meat (mixed: sheep/horse/cow), 6,900t sausage (mixed), 35,700 t milk and milk products (mixed). Detailed production rates are given in the Tables of Annex AT In Table 5

57 the livestock number in the Semipalatinskaya and Pavlodarskaya oblast for 1.1.92 are given (Strohbach, 1994).

Table 4. Number of livestock in the Semipalatinskaya and Pavlodarskaya oblast in thousand heads (l. 1 92)(Strohbach, 1994)

Livestock Semipalatinsk Paviod&r

Cattle 735

Dairy Cows 241 254 Pigs 133 140

Sheep and Goats 3,426 1,333

Poultry 1,325 2,783

Horses 129 116

Camels 1

Figure 3 indicates the landuse around the STS. Major landuse is pasture grassland with small islands of forested and arable areas used mainly for production of cereals (wheat). On the STS

itself there is only pastured grassland. Vegetation of pasture grassland is rather sparse and

consists of only few species The quality of the major grasses of the STS are indicated by the nutrition characteristics as shown in Table 5.

Table 5. The nutrition characteristics of major STS pasture grass species (Kazakhskaya 5SR., 1988).

Kind of grass Yield, kg dry mass/M Protein, % Cellulose,% Ashes,%

Artemisia 160-600 7.56 - 10.81 25.36-29.11 6.3-9.37 6.52-8.13

lOOO-lSOOffmsh) or

Festuca sulcata 250 - 400 (hay) - - - -

2000(hesh)

Stipa or 10.5 32 3.5 7.46

800-1000 (dry)

58 Figure 3. Map of landuse around the STS (Atlas Kazakhskoi SSR, 1985).

/ ./ /

' I'

t ■Af \-

/ »X,

- ^ - Vsy A

Forest Pasture

Arable land Mayfields 3. POPULATION

3.1. Republic of Kazakhstan

The people of Kazakhs represent the transitive race between the European and Mongolian

South-Siberian races. The union of the Turk and Mongol tribes, who lived on the territory of the modem Kazakhstan approximately in the first century BC, were the ancestors of the

Kazakhs. Kazakhs are apparently the inheritors of the nomadic civilisation of the European and

Asian continent. The Kazakh language belongs to the Kipchak group of the Turk languages. In

1997 there are 16.5 million inhabitants in Kazakhstan; 48% of the population are Kazakh origin and 38% Russian origin. In addition to the two main ethnic groups more than 120 nationalities live in Kazakhstan, e g. there are more than 800 thousand Ukrainians, 500 thousand Germans, 400 thousand Uzbeks, more than 300 thousand Tatars to mention only the strongest population groups (Naselenie respubliki Kazakhstan, 1993). In Table 6 the age and gender structure of Kazakhstan in 1993 is shown; the ethnic structure is given in the Table 7 .

Table 6. The structure of the population in Kazakhstan, census data of 1993 (Naselenie respubliki Kazakhstan, 1993).

Number of inhabitants in thousand

Female

0-16 years old

16 ~ 59 years old

60 and older 12.5%

60 Table 7. The ethnic structure of the population in Kazakhstan (Naselenie respubliki

Kazakhstan, 1993).

Nationality Number of inhabitants in thousand Kazakh 7.474

Russian 6,041

Ukrainian 857

German 614

Uzbek 372

Tatar 330

Belorussian 178

Azerbaidzhan 102

Others 902

The urbanisation of the Kazakh population began in the 1930s (Meffert, 1987). The

industrialisation gave rise to the rapid growth of towns throughout Kazakhstan. According to

the first All-Russia population census of 1897 the Republic’s urban population was only 7%,

but the rate of population increase in urban centres was higher due to birth rate and migration

than in rural regions. Within the period between the All-Union censuses of 1926 and 1937, the

number of town dwellers increased 3.3 times, while the rural population showed a decrease.

That period registered the highest population growth in Kazakhstan's entire history (Mefiert

1987).

The Slavs and Europeans, in general, represent a substantial majority of the urban population whereas the Kazakh population tends to live in rural environs. In 1970 there were 1,115.3

thousand Kazakh urban inhabitants and 3,818.3 thousand Russian urban inhabitants registered

and 3,118.9 thousand Kazakh rural inhabitants and 1,703.6 thousand Russian rural inhabitants.

Moreover, the majority of Russian rural population doesn’t live in the steppe, only the semi- nomadic Kazakh inhabit this dry, arid region (Meffert 1987).

3.2. Semipalatinskaya oblast and STS.

The population structure in Semipalatinskaya oblast corresponds to the one in Kazakhstan. There were 401 thousand rural inhabitants and 391 thousand urban inhabitants in 1984

61 registered (Meffert 1987). Population number in settlements around STS are given in Annex A2. In Table 8 the ethnic distribution of the rural population in 1970 for three oblast is given

(Meffert 1987)

Table 8. Ethnic composition of the rural population in 1970 (in thousand) (Meffert 1987)

Oblast Kazakhs German Other Other Others

Karaganda 146.8 72.4 30.3 28.8 6.8 7.6

Pavlodar 133.7 107.5 51.8 47.7 8.5 9.0

Semipalatinsk 237.7 104.0 35.9 8.3 7.4 3.9

The family sizes for Kazakh and Russians are diverse too. In general Kazakh families have more children than Russians: in 1979 the average size of a rural Kazakh family was 5.70, and an urban Kazakh family 5.08 whereas the Russian family size was 3.18 for rural and 3.16 for urban, respectively. The region of STS is very sparsely populated with an average of less than one person per 1 km 2. Within the STS there are some winter and summer huts where 3 or 4 families live together throughout the whole year. For example, in the winter hut „Kzyl-Kuduk “ - “Red Well” - close to GZ, where investigations within an ISTC project are foreseen and already have started, three families live together. They look after herds of about 2000 horses, and about 4000 sheep. On the south of STS, a few kilometres from the STS-boundary there are some larger settlements: Sarzhal (49°37 ’ N, 78°44 ’ E), where the population is 2,000 keeping 1,700 sheep and 1,700 horses, and Kaynar (49° 12’ N, 77°23 ’ E) with 3,000 inhabitants. The ethnic population structure of the settlements population around the STS is shown in Figure 4 (Kuksenko, 1997).

62 Figure 4. Ethnic distribution of population around the STS: settlements with only Kazakh inhabitants (blue points) and settlements with mixed population ( points).

63 CONSUMPTION HABITS

4.1. Calorie intake

Due to historical reasons as well as to the present economic difficulties, the absence of an established nutrition infrastructure, and the lack of access to many high-priced food products, in general the population's nutrition is unbalanced.

The number of calories in the daily diet of urban dwellers is, lor example, 2,370 kcal/day in

Almaty, while among the rural population it is 2,040 kcal/day. For comparison a daily calorie intake is recommended in the US with 2,650 kcal/day (for male), a similar value is adopted for

European conditions. The caloric value deficit, accordingly, averages to 11% to 20%.

(Kazakhstan: An economic profile, 1993) The proportion of fat in the daily diet is 39.1% in

Almaty and 37.6% in rural areas; the percentage of carbohydrates of the total caloric content is

44% and 47.2. For comparison in Germany adults consume 39.5% fat, 41.1% carbohydrates and 14.6% proteins (percentage of the total caloric intake), which is very similar (Die

Nationale Verzehrsstudie, 1991). However there is a deficiency in vitamin intake.

4.2. Special diet

Kazakh use to a large extent meat, milk and farinaceous food in their food preparation. In summer all Kazakh families prepare a special kind of fermented milk, so-called ayrdM. They use it as a cooling drink diluted with water or for the groat soup Ayran is used for the preparation of curd balls dried in the sun, and /rwmsAfA, a fat cottage cheese. The favourite Kazakh drink on the country site is kumys, special fermented milk of mare.

Kwwya contains 2 - 2.5% protein, l - 2% fat, 3.5% sugar and 100 - 200 mg of vitamin C per 1 kg, and vitamins A and B. In Table 9 are shown three different fermentation stage used for drinks.

Table 9. The acidity and alcohol content in three different sorts of kumys (Kazakhsaya SSR,

1988).

Kind of kumys Acidity Alcohol, %

Weak 60 -80°T until 1

Middle 81 -100°T 1-1,5

Strong 101 -120°T until 3

64 The nutrients of kumys are assimilated very well - up to 95% - due to its content of carbonic

acid and alcohol. The yield of mare milk is 800 - 1200 kg (during 180 days of lactation), 1/3 of it is used for kumys production.

The Kazakh people belonging to the Islamic religion do not eat pork, however, they eat sheep, beef and prefer horse meat. Kazakh horses are kept outdoors on pastures throughout the whole year. The most widespread races are the Jabe and the Adaev horses. Especially at the

STS the Jabe horses are the predominant ones. Jabe horses were Weeded in the southern districts of Aktubinsk regions and then spread all over Kazakhstan. Their main characteristics are: ragged head, thick neck, wide body and deep chest. The back is straight and the croup well muscled. Legs are set correctly and are sufficiently strong. The skin is thick and dense; hair covering is rather good. Colour is bay, dark bay or red, occasionally greyish or grey.

Kazakh horses of Jabe type have a high life weight of 400 - 500 kg and are due to their characteristics well adapted to the steppe conditions (Oklahoma, 1997). Meat and milk production of Jabe horses is rather high - some mares give up to 20 kg of milk daily, and they fatten quickly thus producing valuable meat. In Table 10 the nutrition quality of meat of horse, lamb and beef consumed by Kazakh people is given (Kazakhskaya SSR, 1988).

Table 10. The nutrition quality of horse meat, Iamb and beef) produced in Kazakhstan

(Kazakhskaya SSR, 1988).

Kind of meat Chemical composition in % and calorie content

Protein Cal/IOOg

Horse 66.8 21.5 10 1.7 183

Lamb 65.8 16.4 17.0 0.8 225

Beef 70.5 18.0 10.5 1.0 171

4.3. Composition of food baskets for general population and STS population groups

Figure 5 gives average data of intake rates of different food for the whole population of Kazakhstan (all nationalities together).

65 Figure 5. The average consumption rates of the population of Kazakhstan. (Strany - chleny

SNG, 1993).

@ Meat w Kh fat and viscera @ Meat w $hou$ fat and viscera a Potatoes m Bread, nuddtes etc. gg Vegetables 63 fish mSt^er

£3 Fruits

Year

Differences between nationalities due to their cooking habits and food products usage,

however, are enormous. Especially differences between the towns and the country site dwellers

exist because of different ways of life, and the additional influences of other nationalities. The

urban population in general consumes more fruit and fish than the rural, and to a lesser extent milk, meat and bread.

The consumption habits of the Kazakh urban population is influenced by the Slavic urban

dwellers, because the Kazakh people came to the towns later, when life in the cities had

already been established. They had to learn a new way of life and they acquired the habits of Slavic people. The situation is quite different on the country site. In spite of the fact, that the

Kazakh are no longer real nomads, their life style remained according to old traditions.

A comparison between rural and urban consumption behaviour is given in Table 1 l(Selskoe

chozyaistvo, 1993).

66 Table 11. Average annual consumption rates of the population around the STS ( Selskoe chozyaistvo, 1993).

Food stuff, kg/'y Urban Rural

Meat and meat products 57.6 75.6

Bread 108.4 123.7

Potatoes 142.1 183.4

Vegetables and melons 87.8 95.4

Fruit and berries 26.4 16.3

Milk and milk products 340.7 435.0

Fish 10.6 3.9

Sugar 25.0 23.4

For comparison in Table 12 German average annual consumption rates used in ECOSYS-87 given (Muller et al., 1993).

Table 12. German average annual consumption rates used in ECOSYS-87, kg per year. (Muller et al., 1993).

Food stuff Consumption rates, kg/year

Beef 29.93

Pork 39.42

Chicken 6.2

Eggs 15.69

Milk 83.96

Butter 6.S7

Potatoes 58.4

Leafy vegetables 34.3

Root vegetables 12.0

Fruit vegetables 17.1

Fruit 43.8

Berries 5.11 Rural people of the STS live in the steppe, where drinking water is rare. The animals drink slightly salty water from the wells (only few places on the STS process its own sweet water wells), however, the salty soil and water prevent growing of own vegetables in kitchen gardens. Therefore, vegetables, potatoes, fruits and flour have to be purchased at the market or shops in the towns. Different sources on data about annual or daily diet for different population groups have been collated:

* Average data on food consumption rates for all inhabitants of this area are shown in Table 13 (Tsyb et al. 1989) ® Consumption habits of rural and urban Russian population of the STS are demonstrated in Figure 6 (Loborev et al. 1997).

* Consumption habits of urban and rural Kazakh and rural Russian population are given in Figure 7 (Logachov 1996).

• Consumption rates of people living close to the STS (Kuksenko ANNEX A4) Table 13. Annual average consumption rates of the rural population of STS (Tsyb et al. 1989).

Population Quantity, kg or 1 / year

Bread Water

Adults 101.2 109.5 146 803 Children 51.1 219 73 328.5

Figure 6. Consumption habits of rural and urban Russian population. (Loborev et al, 1997).

68 Figure 7. Annual consumption of the urban and rural population on the STS in 1958 (kg per year) (Logachov, 1996).

69 5. QUESTIONNAIRES

In the frame work of the ISTC project K-54 a study has been initialised which includes whole body measurements and interviews of people living on the STS. An example for a preliminary questionnaire is given in Annex B This questionnaire, however, needs to be improved. At present there are no questions about kind of meat, kind of milk, and it represents only a copy of a draft „Chernobyl “ questionnaire used within ECP9. The questionnaires will be extended together with NR.PA and IRTI (Balonov et al.) who have already experience in questionnaires for the Chernobyl affected areas, and who uses a similar questionnaire within the inco-

Copemicus project RECLAIM. As a consequence questionnaires will be constructed together with participants of RECLAIM and ISTC K-54 under consideration of the special STS conditions.

In the meantime about 120 interviews have already been performed (in summer 1997) which need to be repeated. They will be evaluated in the next future together with ISTC project partner participation . The results will give a better picture on present consumption habits of the local population, and will allow - together with the whole body measurements - to determine individual internal doses.

70 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

During the study it became dear that for the description of the consumption habits of the STS it is not sufficient to use official national or local (on the rayon level) statistics. The national statistics give no information about diet difference in different settlements and between different ethnic population groups. For example, combining the results given in Tables 10, 11 and figure 7 concludes, that an average rural person in Semipalatinsk oblast would eat in average 95.4 kg vegetables per year. However, on the STS, rural Kazakh families have practically never consumed any fresh vegetables. This quantity given in figure 7 relates to rural Russian population only. The rural Russians live in the north of STS along the Irtysh river bank, where water and kitchen gardens are present. Keeping gardens on the STS is impossible because there is no water for sprinkling available, and traditionally the Kazakh are mainly occupied with livestock maintenance. This means, that it is only possible to buy vegetables in the market of towns, sometimes many kilometres away from the settlement without public- transportation or other transport possibilities.

The great difference between the way of life in towns and in villages, between Kazakh and other nationalities demands a special investigation with a detailed questionnaire for the affected population. An adapted questionnaire used on the STS together with whole body measurements with provide a better understanding of the living conditions and exposures. On the basis of these data individual dose estimates will be possible, and results can be generalised for different age groups of people living on the STS. The data obtained so far on landuse, production rates and consumption rates will be integrated into a GIS (Geostatistical Information System) and the EDSS (Environmental Decision Support System) developed within RESTORE to identify sites where radiation exposures might be potential high and where actions need to be implemented.

71 7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful for the contributions of Dr. B. Karablin, National Nuclear Center of Kazakhstan Kurchatov (ISTC project K-54) and Dr. A. Savinkov, Agricultural Institute of National Center on

Biotechnology, Otar (ISTC project K-52) in Kazakhstan. In addition we are very much obliged to ISTC offices in Brussels (Dr. D. Gambier) and in Moscow (Dr. V. Urezenchko), and especially to the support by Dr. G. Desmel EC/DG XII

This project is funded by the European Commission under contract number FI4P-CT95-0021 within the programme RESTORE (Restoration strategies of radioactive contaminated ecosystems).

72 & REFERENCES

Atlas Kazakhskoi SSR, v.2, Moscow, 1985 (in Russian) Die Nationals Verzehrsstudie, Schriftenreihe zum programm der Bundesregierang Forschung und Entwickiung im Dienste der Gesundheit, Band 18, Bonn 1991

Dubasov, Yu. V., Zelenzov, S.A., Krasilov, G A, Logachov, V.A., Matuzhenko, AM.,

Smagulov, S.G., Tsaturov, Yu. S., Tsyrkov, G A, Chernyshov, A.K. Chronology of nuclear tests in atmosphere at the Semipalatinsk Test Site and their radiation characteristics. Bulletin of Centre of Public Information in the Field of Nuclear Energy,

N6, 39-46, (1996) (in Russian)

Kazakhskaya SSR, encyclopaedia, Alma-Ata, 1988 (in Russian)

Kazakhstan. An economic profile. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, 1993

Kazakhstan: The transition to market economy. Washington DC; The World Bank: 1993

Kuksenko, V.F. Report for RECLAIM, 1997

Loborev, V.M., Shoichet, Ya.N., Sudakov, V.V., Zelenov, V.I., Gabbasov, M.N. Doses of

residents of the cities of Semipalatinsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Kurchatov and the

settlements of Chagan delivered by the nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk Test She.

Bulletin of scientific programme „Semipalatinsk Test Site - Altai", Nl(13), (1997) (in Russian)

Logachov, V.A. Consumption habits of the population of the Republic Kazakhstan during the nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk Test Site. Report, Moscow, 1997 (in Russian)

Meffert, PR The population and rural economy of the Kazakh SSR. Stanford University, Dissertation, 1987

Muller, H. and Prohl, G. ECOSYS-87 A dynamic model for assessing radiological

consequences of nuclear accidents. Health Physics, V.63, N3, 1993, 232-252 Naselenie Respubliki Kazakhstan, Statisticheski Shornik, Almaty, 1993 (in Russian) Oklahoma State University, (1997), WWW page:

www. ansi. okstate. edu/breeds/horses/kazakh/index. htm Seiskoe chozyaistvo Respubliki Kazakhstan, Statisticheski Shorn!k, Alma-Ata, 1993 (in

Russian)

73 Strany chleny SNG, Statisticheski Ezhegodnik, Moscow, Finstatinform, 1993 (in Russian)

Strobach, J.U. Kasakhstan: LandwirtschaA und Agrar - Industrie - Komplex, KOln:

Bundesstelle fur Aussenhandelsinfbrmation (BfAl), 1992 Strohbach, J.U. Kasakhstan: Wirtschaftsprofil der Ostregionen, Koln: Bundessteile fur

Aussenhandelsinfbrmation (BfAl), 1994 Tsyb, A.F. et al. On the results of complex investigation of the ecological situation and population health on Semipalatinsk region of Kazakh Republic. Report, of Russian

Government commission, Obninsk, 1989 (in Russian)

74 9. ANNEXES ANNEXA The following data are represented in an interim report for RECLAIM from V. Kuksenko, J&aza&WoM, 7997.

Annex Al: Foodstuff production rates

Table 1. Foodstuff production of the areas adjoining to the Semipaiatinsk Test Site, kg per person

Meat 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 50 51 57 56 59 54 40 Pavlodar 82 84 91 93 95 99 77 Semipaiatinsk 94 109 116 117 122 119 95 Mm 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 JO‘>2 Karagandy 195 199 204 212 343 340 279 Pavlodar 404 417 410 414 276 289 220 Semipaiatinsk 304 325 339 351 200 194 192 ...... 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 348 365 374 360 361.5 340 279 Pavlodar 258 291 299 285 276 289 220 Semipaiatinsk 188 196 196 202 200 194 192 Fish 198$ 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.7 Pavlodar 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 Semipaiatinsk 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 Bread 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 89.0 88.6 80.8 78.8 74.7 78.7 90.6 Pavlodar 100.7 97.6 89.3 87.8 85.7 87.0 97.3

Potatoes 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 132 131 128 149 134 205 226 Pavlodar 219 209 196 218 208 235 299 Semipaiatinsk 140 138 119 144 112 114 142 Vegetables 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 54 71 62 58 31 41 35 Pavlodar 50 59 51 63 80 85 73 Semipaiatinsk 50 50 43 56 32 38 30 Melons/gowds 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1991 1992 Karagandy 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.2 1.0 1.0 Pavlodar 6.0 5.0 9.0 12.0 11.0 8.0 7.0 Semipaiatinsk 8.0 8.0 16.0 27.0 13.0 6.0 6.0

75 ANNEX A

Table 2.

Foodstuff production of the areas adjoining to the Semipalatinsk test site, 1993-1995 Reference: Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Statistical reference book. Almaty, 1996

Region per person per person per person (kg) (kg) (mill ton) Aktubinsk Karaganda Kzyl-orda Pavlodar Semipalatinsk Meat per person per person per person (kg) mill ton) mill ton mill ton Aktubinsk Karaganda

Semipalatinsk Potatoes per person per person per person (kg) mill Tons (mill ton) (mill ton) Aktubinsk Karaganda Kzyl-orda Pavlodar

Grain per person per person per person (kg) (mill ton) (mill ton) (mill ton) Aktubinsk Karaganda 232,2 Kzyl-orda Pavlodar Semipalatinsk

per person per person per person (kg) (mill ton) (mill ton) (mill ton) Aktubinsk Karaganda Kzyl-orda

76 ANNEX A

Pavlodar 61,1 63,0 62,8 66,0 71,3 76,0 Semipalatinsk 18,0 21,0 14,2 17,0 14,7 18,0 Melons/gourds 1993 1994 995 total(mil! ton) 1 per person(kg) total(mill ton) per person(kg) total(mill ton) per person(kg) Aktubinsk 2,8 4,0 2,0 3,0 1,9 3,0 0,4 | 0,2 Karaganda 0,4 0,3 0,7 1,0 26,3 | 80,0 Kzyl-orda 25,0 37,0 31,8 47,0 Pavlodar 0 CD i 0,2 4,0 0.3 3,0 Semipalatinsk 5,9 | 0 5,3 6,0 1,7 2,0 Berries/fruit 1993 1994 1995

totaI(mill ton) per person(kg) total(mill ton) per person(kg) totaI(mi)I ton) per person(kg) Aktubinsk 0,8 0,6 0,5 Karaganda 0,3 0,2 0,2 Kzyl-orda 1,0 0,9 0,4 Pavlodar 1,5 1,4 1,4 Semipalatinsk 2,7 1,6 2,6