A Study of Intersectional Identities of Young Muslim Women in Swansea
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Copyright: The author, Shehla Khan, 2020. Between Nation and faith – A Study of Intersectional Identities of Young Muslim Women in Swansea Shehla Khan Submitted to Swansea University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Swansea University 2019 Abstract: Over the past two decades, Muslim women have been seen as either oppressed or socially incompatible with wider Western society. The hijab has been a topic of political debate and a physical marker of the “other”, making the study of Muslim women’s identities vital in order to counter discrimination. This is especially important when considering the second generation of Western Muslim young women. It is important to explore these identities not in isolation, but within the context of their multiple intersectional elements of race, ethnicity, gender, and faith. Identity has to be looked at within the wider spatial framework of how it is practiced in everyday life. In order to develop a better understanding of how these identities are formed, practised and understood within a social context and the broader framework of national identities, it has to be looked at within the wider spatial framework of how it is practised in everyday life. This thesis examines how identities of second generation Muslim Welsh women are constructed and expressed within everyday spaces and places. By using a mixture of approaches in methodology, findings were gathered by questioning 30 participants through interviews as well as focus groups, and by asking participants to collect visual images. The thesis investigates three key themes: the construction and embodied experiences of national and religious identities; gendered identities and feminism; and finally the sense of belonging to a collective religious or/and national Welsh identity. Through this we can access contemporary experiences of how young Muslim women living in Wales balance their identities when faced with the wider political, and social challenges of the society. DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ...................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed ..................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ..................................................................... (candidate) Date ........................................................................ Content page Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 The study of young Muslim women 1 1.2 Placing the study 2 1.3 The structure 7 Chapter 2. Literature Review 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Social construction of Identity 17 2.2.1 Ethnicity and race 19 2.2.2 Gender 22 2.2.3 Class 26 2.3 Muslim Identities 26 2.4 Belonging 29 2.5 Conclusion 33 Chapter 3. Methodology 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Questionnaire surveys 36 3.3 Focus groups 38 3.4 Data Analysis 44 3.5 Visual imagery 46 3.6 Sampling 49 3.7 Ethics and Positionality 55 3.8 Conclusion and Limitations 61 Chapter 4. Muslim Identity in Relational Context 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Muslim Identity 65 4.3 Intersectional Identities 68 4.4 Factors influencing Intersectional identity formation 69 4.4.1 Friends and family 70 4.4.2 Gender 72 4.4.3 Ethnicity & Culture 77 4.4.4 Social Class 85 4.5 Conclusion 86 Chapter 5. The Embodied Experience of Islam in everyday lives 88 5.1 Introduction 88 5.2 Dress 91 5.3 Experiences private spaces and places (home/ food /the entertainment) 101 5.4 Experiencing it in public spaces and through places 108 5.4.1 Attending mosques/ Halaqas 109 5.4.2 Work and School/ university 113 5.4.3 Street 118 5.4.4 Beach 120 5.5 Cyber space and identity 122 5.6 Conclusion 128 Chapter 6. Feminism and Islam 130 6.1. Introduction 130 6.2 Feminism in Islam 132 6.3 Hijab 139 6.4 Equality between genders 144 6.4.1 Inheritance 148 6.4.2 Divorce and Polygamy 149 6.5 Conclusion - Are You a Feminist? 151 Chapter 7.0 Belonging 153 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Home is Swansea and Wales 155 7.3 Experiences of Islamophobia and Racism 161 7.3.1 General Experiences of Islamophobia/ Racism 162 7.3.2 Dress/ appearance (Hijab/ Veil and Gender) 165 7.3.3 Role of Media and Education 168 7.3.4 Hijab, Niqab and Burkini in media 170 7.3.5 Wider community/ society 173 7.4 Revisiting Home under the shadows of Islamophobia and racism 175 7.4.1 British & Islamic Values 177 7.4.2 Revisiting home and identity 184 7.5 Conclusion 186 Chapter 8. Conclusion 189 8.1 Place and space 190 8.2 Positioning when constructing identities 193 8.3 Home and Belonging 195 Bibliography 199-231 Appendices 232 Participant Consent Form 232 Information Sheet 234 Transcription of an Interview 237- 240 Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Primary Supervisors, Dr Amanda Rogers and my second supervisor Dr Keith Halfcaree, for continuous support and guidance in helping me to complete my research. I am especially thankful to both for encouraging me and having belief in me to complete this thesis. I would also like to express my deep appreciation to my parents Dr Abdul Rahman Khan and Mrs Surriya Khan for being extremely supportive and always encouraging through difficult times through this period. To my beautiful daughters Hafsa and Sundas for being my inspiration through this journey. To my husband Nasir, my sister Dr Aroba Khan, and my brother Dr Khalil Khan for always being encouraging and extremely patient over the years. Finally my two guardian angels, my best friends Fatiha and Dina for your love and motivation in every step of the way. List of tables and figures Figure 3.1 – Focus group 1 images of females wearing the hijab 41 Figure 3.2 – Islamophobia definitions 42 Figure 3.3 – the Media’s coverage of Islam 42 Figure 3.4 – Islamic values identified by the focus group 43 Table 3.1 – Coding themes for data analysis 45 Figure 3.5 – Henna painted hand of participant 47 Figure 3.6 – Image of items relevant to identity of participant 47 Table 3.2 – Image categories 48 Figure 3.7 – Swansea Map 50 Table 3.3 – Ethnicity break down of respondents 51 Table 3.4 – Brief biographies of participants 52-54 Figure 5.1 Religious and traditional clothes 100 Figure 5.2 Prayer mats 102 Figure 5.3 – Holy Quran 103 Figure 5.4 Images with family members 107 Figure 5.5 Eid prayers in St Helen’s Vetch field 110 Figure 5.6 University Mosque 113 Figure 5.7 ID badges showing identity at work 114 Figure 5.8 University hoodie 118 Figure 5.9 Images of the beach 122 Figure 5.10 Prayer timetable app and Quran app for phones 126 Figure 5.11 Picture of National identity portrayed on Social media 127 Figure 5.12: Selfie images 128 Table 7.1 – Islamic Values 177-178 Table 7.2 – British Values 179-180 Table 7.3 – Contrasting Values 182 Table 7.4 – Shared Values 184 Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 The study of young Muslim women As a Muslim woman who has lived in Wales for most of my life, I have grown up negotiating my identity within the context of faith, gender, ethnicity and nation. At times it was hard to balance the intersectionality and combat the discrimination and inequalities that result from being very visually a Muslim woman, wearing a hijab. Having an extremely supportive family gave me the strength to combat difficult situations. However, I was aware of others who did not have the same privileged background as myself, and their struggle against discrimination from mainstream society whilst simultaneously combating cultural oppression at home. This awareness was the catalyst for a career in this field. I worked for 20 years in the Black voluntary sector, supporting Muslim women and youths who were combating cultural issues, stemming from a crisis of identity. My work centred around supporting young women suffering from domestic abuse, forced marriages, honour based violence, and female genital mutilation as well as experiences of mental health issues, self-harm, depression and others. When they came to seek support and assistance from wider society, many of these women then faced racism and discrimination which made them question every aspect of their identity and their sense of belonging. Through my professional capacity as a lecturer, I began researching these issues, as I was often asked by other professionals why it was so difficult for women to leave oppressive situations and how such a strong medium of control existed within the culture. There was always so much confusion over the cultural and religious boundaries for these women, leaving them feeling confused between their identities and not aware of their position. The confusion seemed to stem from a lack of clarity between culture and religion. In pursuit of answers I began researching, only to find that much of the existing literature on Islam and Muslim women had been written by Western feminists and Western white men. Very few Muslim women had contributed to these topics. I was inspired to conduct this research, which can go some way toward the production of academic work written about Muslim women, by a Muslim woman. This is a cause very close to my heart, as I am passionate about Islam and the position 1 of Muslim women and would like to ensure they are given an even platform from which to have their say and be represented fairly.