Inland Saline Aquaculture

Proceedings of a workshop held in Perth, Western Australia, 6-7 August 1997

Sponsored by ACTAR, WA Fisheries Dcparlment, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, and Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

Edjtors: Bamey Smith and Chris Barlow The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (AClAR) was established in June 1982 by an Act of the Australian Parliament. Its mandate is to help identify agricultural problems in developing countries and to commission collaborative research between Australian and developing country researchers in fields where Australia has a special research competence.

Where tradenames are used this constitutes neither endorsement of nor discrimination against any product by the Centre.

ACIAR PROCEEDINGS

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© Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, GPO Box 1571, Canberra, ACT 2601

Smith, B. and Barlow, C., ed. 1999. Inland Saline Aquaculture Workshop. Proceedings of a workshop held on 6 and 7 August 1997 in Perth, Western Australia. ACIAR Pro­ ceedings No. 83, 61 pp.

ISBN I 863202226

Production editing, typesetting and layout by Matthew Stevens, ScienceScapetl Editing, Sydney, Australia. Printed by

Cover: Aerial view of serial biological concentration system at Undera, north-central Victoria, showing saline groundwater evaporation and adjacent agroforestry plot. (Photo: G. Gooley) A 20 m1 floating fish cage in a saline ground water evaporation basin. (Photo: G. Gooley) Two 10 000 L recirculating tanks used for the evaulation of snapper culture in saline groundwater within poly tunnels at Cookes Plains, SA, location of the Bedford Saline Groundwater Interception Project. (Photo: W. Hutchinson) Contents

Introduction 5 Bamey Smith, Research Program Coordinator. ACIAR Fisheries Program Overview Inland saline waters in Australia 6 Bob Nulsen An overview of the extent and nature of land and water salinisation in Asia 12 I. R. Willett Reviews from NSW, Vie, SA and WA of inland saline aquaculture activities Inland saline aquaculture activities in NSW 14 Geoff L. Allan and D. Stewart Fielder Inland saline aquaculture-a Victorian perspective 16 GeoffGooley, Brett Ingram and Lachlan McKinnon Inland saline aquaculture in South Australia 20 Wayne Hutchinson Inland saline aquaculture in Western Australia 24 Greg Paust Using serial biological concentration to combine irrigation and saline aquaculture in 26 Australia John Blackwell A national environmental management policy for land~oased fish farming 30 Jasper Trendall, Jackie Alder and Alan Lymbery Environmental considerations in the use and management of inland saline water bodies for 32 aquaculture Damian M. Ogburn Algae 35 Michael A. Borowitzka Potential of inland saline water for aquaculture of molluscs 31 C. L. Lee Potential for inland aquawater culture of crustaceans 40 Geoff L. Allan and D. Stewart Fielder Potential for inland saline aquaculture of fishes 42 Greg Jenkins Summation of outcomes of day 1 41 Ned Pankhurst Economic considerations in setting research priorities for inland saline aquaculture 48 Perry Smith

3 Summary of workshop plenary sessions Key environmental constraints for research 51 Alan Butler Key opportunities for systems management of species, groups, areas and technologies 53 Geoff Allan Research priorities within Australia 55 Ned Pankhurst Coordinating mechanisms for research and development in Australia 58 Patrick Hone

Workshop participants 60

4 Introduction

Barney Smith *

AUSTRALIA HAS enormous underground reserves of The Perth workshop brought together selected water, much of it saline. Across large areas of the specialists in aquaculture, soil and water scientists, country, groundwater constitutes a serious and resource managers from all Australian states challenge for agriculture: rising water tables and and territories, and representatives from the increasing salt content contribute to a worrying Fisheries Research and Development Corporation loss of fertility, leading to reduced productivity and the Cooperative Research Centre for Aqua­ and alienation of valuable farm land. On the other culture, to discuss issues and priorities for research hand, these saline water reserves represent a in these areas. This proved to be a particularly potential opportunity for the development of timely and productive exercise; the deliberations inland aquaculture. of the meeting benefited from the broad mix of The concept of this workshop had its genesis skills, disciplines and experience of the parti­ in a proposal submitted to ACIAR by the secretary cipants. The workshop sessions covered key of the Aquaculture Committee of the Standing technical and environmental issues and tried to Committee on Fisheries and Aquaculture. This define major opportunities for and constraints on drew attention to the high level of interest in inland the development of inland saline aquaculture. aquaculture, evidenced by a number of exploratory Operational guidelines for environmentally projects in the planning stages or in progress sustainable production were drafted, and a around Australia. It also raised the possibility of preliminary list of priority research topics was ACIAR-mediated research collaboration with produced. These outcomes provide a solid starting developing countries, several of which face point for further action. The group recognised the salinisation of farm land and which share a need to maintain a national focus on future potential for inland aquaculture. Subsequent activities and the value of continuing the consultation with aquaculture researchers and multidisciplinary perspective so evident at the managers from a number of state and national workshop. To this end, participants agreed to form agencies indicated two areas of primary interest: a National Working Group on Inland Saline • the development of aquaculture as a component Aquaculture to help coordinate action on research of an integrated agricultural production system and development in this area. that could optimise and maintain the long-term The success of this ACIAR workshop owes productivity of inland, salt-affected lands and much to the support received from many indiv­ waterways iduals and several sources, including supple­ • the use of inland saline ground waters for the mentary funding from the Fisheries Research and culture of marine fish and aquatic products. Development Corporation and the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Mr Chris Barlow of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries expertly coordinated the workshop, and • ACIAR Research Program Coordinator (Fisheries), Fisheries WA generously hosted it. NSW Fisheries, PO Box 21, Cronulla, NSW 2230; TeI: 02 9527 8462; Fax: 02 9523 5966; e-mail: [email protected]

5 Inland saline waters in Australia

Bob Nulsen*

SALINE WATERS in inland Australia occur as rivers, this additional recharge causes a net rise in the lakes and ground water. With few exceptions the ground water levels of 50 to 1000 mm a year. rivers and lakes are ephemeral and thus unreliable Most Australian regoliths (weathered material as a water supply for aquaculture. The ground from the surface to the bedrock) have a significant waters occur in major basins, such as the Great storage of soluble salts. These salts are generally Artesian Basin, the Perth Basin and the Canning of marine origin, having been deposited over Basin, and in shallow aquifers, many of which millennia by rain. For example, rainfall currently have developed since the introduction of Euro­ deposits about 40 kg/ha/yr in Bendigo, Victoria; pean-style agriculture. about 18 kg/ha/yr at Merredin, WA; and 340 kg! Objective 1 of the Inland Saline Aquaculture ha/yr in Perth, WA. In inland areas, where drainage Workshop was 'to review the current information and leaching are poor, these salts have accum­ on and potential role of mariculture in manage­ ulated to levels exceeding 1000 tlha in 20 to 40 m ment systems for controlling saline ground of regolith. The salts are stored in the soil water, waters'. The greatest adverse impact of saline very rarely in crystalline form. Because of the ground waters is on agricultural land and water marine origin of the saIts, many inland saline bodies, wildlife habitats, and remnant native waters have ionic compositions not too different vegetation that receive water from agricultural from sea water. As a result of agricultural practices, catchments. There are also considerable effects on however, they can have elevated phosphate and many rural towns and on rural infrastructure such nitrate levels. as roads, bridges and railway lines. In the Loddon Ground waters that cause salinity problems are and Campaspe catchments in Victoria, local not necessarily highly saline. Total salt concen­ councils spend at least $1.2 million per year on trations of 3 g/L can quickly accumulate to toxic repairs and maintenance of roads and bridges levels in the plant root zone. Most saline ground because of salinity (AB ARE, 1997). waters have concentrations of less than 35 g/L.

Origin and nature of saline ground Extent of inland saline waters waters The extent of salt-affected land in Australia is a Saline ground waters that increase land and stream reasonable surrogate measure of the extent of salinity result from the replacement of perennial, saline ground waters. It was estimated in 1996 that deep-rooted natural vegetation with annual, about 2.2 million ha of once-productive agri­ shallow-rooted agricultural crops and pastures. On cultural land was affected by salinity, some 70% average, this change results in an additional of that in WA (Robertson, 1996). If there is no recharge to ground waters of 5 to 25 mm a year. significant change in land use, it is predicted that Depending on the characteristics of the aquifer, the area will increase to 3.5 million ha by 2050 (Table 1). If we assume that each hectare of saline land is * Agriculture WA, Locked Bag No. 4, Bentley Delivery fed by a catchment at least 10 times its area, we Centre, WA 6983; Tel: 0893683484; Fax: 0893683355; e-mail: [email protected] are dealing with a catchment area of some 22

6 Table 1. Estimated area of salt-affected land in Variability of supply quantity and quality Australia (data from Robertson, 1996). Although there is a large total supply of saline Area (ha) water, individual sources and their aquifer yields State 1996 2050* are relatively small, and their quality and quantity Western Australia 1609000 2400000 are highly variable in both space and time. Table South Australia 401 000 600 000 2 shows the variation in water quality over a 6 km Victoria 120000 240000 transect of a catchment near Merredin, WA New South Wales 25000 250000 (George and Frantom, 1990). Note that the quality Tasmania 20000 30000 varies both along the transect and at different Queensland 10000 35000 depths in the aquifer. Although the salts respon­ Total 2185000 3555000 sible for land salinisation are largely of marine * Assumes no change in current land use origin, there can be large deviations from the million ha. At a recharge rate of 5 to 25 mm a Figure 1 (over). Ten conceptual hydrogeological year, this gives a total recharge of between 1 and models that describe the occurrence of saline ground 5 billion m3 a year. (Lake ArgyJe, which supplies waters in the agricultural lands ofWA. Models A to the Ord irrigation arca, has a capacity of 5.6 billion H have a length scale of 1000 m. Thus there is a high degree of spatial variability within a catchment, as m3.) Thus there is no shortage of saline ground several models can be applied to different parts of a water in inland Australia. But can it be obtained catchment. and used for aquaculture?

Table 2. Ionic composition (mg/L) of ground water along a 6 km transect in the Merredin catchment, WA. (Data from George and Frantom, 1990)

Bore Depth pH Total soluble Ca Mg Na K Cl SO. NO, Si01 Br (m) solids 33 6.3 20500 318 556 6630 127 11 400 1390 1 34 36 2 17 4.7 25000 409 750 7790 155 14000 1830 0 92 51 45 6.3 15600 508 442 4710 89 8700 1000 0 30 28 3 9 4.4 32000 452 895 10300 202 17800 2310 3 56 56 26 3.9 38400 153 1080 12700 331 21500 2550 98 66 4 6 3.9 17700 308 524 5510 147 10000 1 120 90 33 19 6.1 3070 28 35 1030 26 1360 401 57 5

Table 3. Ionic ratios of sea water and ground water in the Merredin catchment (data from George and Frantom, 1990).

Bore Depth (m) Cl:Ca Cl:Mg Cl:Na CI:K CI:SO~ Cl:Br Sea water 48 15 1.8 50 7 288 1 33 36 20 1.8 90 8 316 2 17 34 19 1.8 90 8 275 45 17 20 1.8 98 9 311 3 9 39 20 1.7 90 8 318 D 26 150 20 1.7 65 8 326 4 6 32 20 1.8 69 9 303 19 48 40 1.3 52 3 272

7 ..... A Seepage over bedrock highs "'m B Sandplain seeps

f ~ ... .~.------~------~~• ,coo .. 0 ,coo .. $Om C ..,'" 0 Break-of-slope seeps Seepage from sediment•

.. ..,. . .~ ~ xxx .' ..... ~,xx ..,. t:-.- \- . ~ .:J • ,0000\ .... 's 60m F Oolerite dykes - Fractured-rock aquifers

,..... ,.... H G Capillary discharge in valley floors ""' .. Semi-confined sedimentary aquifers

.~ . ""

• • 'coo,. ""' .. I , ..... J Regionallractured-rock aquifers (e.g. faults) Regional aquifer discharge

...... , ..

,. lOo • 60 ...

Qgranitic dole rile .... sand fractured water + + saprolite saprolite D sediment bedrock table

granitic dolerite clay ~roundwater direction D· . bedrock bedrock ~ sediment ischarge [2] of flow

8 marine ionic ratios over small distances and depths the type and placement of treatment that might be (Table 3). appropriate to ameliorate the salinity. The potential yield of an aquifer is dictated by its transmissivity, which is the product of the Sustainability of the ground water hydraulic conductivity and thickness of the resource aquifer. In some landscapes, thickness can vary In most catchments the size of the resource is still by tens of metres in tens of metres. Similarly, the increasing (Fig. 2). However, if land managers hydraulic conductivity can vary by orders of apply appropriate treatments, the resource can magnitude over short distances in geologically diminish (Fig. 3). complex terrains. Quality variations in even small So there is a potential conflict of interest catchments can be large. For example, in a 77 ha between land managers who want to stop recharge catchment in South Australia the chloride to the ground water system and mariculturists who concentration ranged from 2 to 8 g/L; in some want to invest in a resource in the longer term. bores it was increasing at 0.2 glL/yr while in others it was decreasing at 1 g/Llyr (Henschke et al., Obtaining the ground water 1994). Three options exist for obtaining ground water for Hydrogeology of saline ground waters saline aquaculture: pumping the water from the aquifer, draining the water from the aquifer, and Saline ground waters occur in a range of excavating directly into the aquifer. hydrogeological settings. The hydro geology largely dictates the quantity, quality and access­ Pumping ibility of the sa1ine water resource. For example, In most catchments, shallow aquifers « 30 m) can in Western Australia, ten conceptual hydro­ be found that will yield at least 20 m) a day when geological models have been developed (Figure pumped. Modelling has shown that this extraction I) (George et al. 1997). Being able to associate rate is often sufficient to reduce, or at least the correct model with the landscape enables maintain, water table levels near the bore. The prediction of the likely quantity and quality of the radius of effective water table draw-down is site­ water and how it might best be reached. From a specific and is dictated not only by the trans­ land management perspective the models indicate missivity but also by the presence of any remnant

Figure 2. A typical hydrograph showing a steady rise in ground water levels. date 23.11.90 11.6.91 28.12.91 15.7.92 31.1.93 19.8.93 7.3.94

I"0 -9.5 c ::J e -10.0 Cl ~ -10.5 Q) ..c..0 -11.0 Cl. ~ -11.5

-12.0

9 Figure 3. Hydrographs showing decline in ground water level under alley farming.

Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Or------~~~~ g ~ J!1 -0.5 ! S! -1.0 t ~ (water levels lower in late (bore dries to 2 m) -1.5 summer and autumn)

or extant geological structures such as dykes, shear the very low hydraulic gradients in most valley zones and fractures. floors, where direct excavation is an option, the Drainage flow rate will be low and salt will accumulate unless good management is used. Drainage is restricted to drains about 2 m deep, and yields are variable. A 13.5-km-long drainage Environmental constraints system in the sediments of the North Stirlings . Basin in WA was yielding 170 m3 a day 12 years Disposal of water extracted from aquifers must after construction (Ferdowsian et ai., 1997). Other be environmentally benign. Evaporation basins, drainage systems have ceased to flow, except in if they don't leak or overflow, are relatively the wet season, after 1 or 2 years. So the supply benign, and the increasing salinity in them could from drains is not necessarily reliable. be used by a sequence of saline aquaculture The North Stirlings drain is in a 2200 ha species. However, the eventual result is salt or catchment with a high salt storage of about 135 tI extremely salty water. ha/m. When the drains were installed in 1984-86 Disposal of saline waters can cause significant there was 224 ha of saline land. By 1996 this had downstream problems. The water can infiltrate been reduced by 27 ha, of which 8 ha was into the soil and recharge downstream aquifers; croppable (the other 19 ha was too close to the thus we shift the problem from one area to another drain to crop). A net present value analysis and there is no net gain. Saline water entering indicated that 40 ha would need to be reclaimed streams or wetlands can obviously affect their to cropping to break even over 20 years (drains ecology. Even putting fresher water into naturally $30 000; growing barley with a gross margin of saline water bodies can have undesirable ecol­ $130/ha and a discount rate of 8%). Alternatively, ogical effects on ecosystems adapted to saline an enterprise such as mariculture that gave an environments. annual net return of $3600 would also make the system break even over 20 years. Potential effects of saline aquaculture on land and stream salinity Direct excavation Direct excavation into the water table presumes Opportunities for large-scale saline aquaculture that there will be no lowering of the water table. using saline ground waters appear limited. The flow rate through the system must exceed the Similarly, the use of saline ground water for evaporation rate to prevent salt accumulation. With aquaculture is likely to have little effect on the extent of land and stream salinity. There may be

10 small-scale opportunities for farmers to diversify Department of Agriculture. Western Australia. their income sources and use the income generated Division of Resource Management Technical Report to offset the costs of other remedial measures for No. 89. land salinisation. George, R., McFarlane. D. and Nulsen. R. 1997. Salinity threatens the viability of agriculture and References ecosystems in Western Australia. Hrdrogeology ABARE 1997. Salinity and high water tables in the Journal 5: 6-21. Loddon and Campaspe catchments: costs to local Henschke, C. l .. McCarthy, D. G. and Evans. T. D. councils. government agencies and public utilities. 1994. Investigation and management of dryland Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource salinity in a catchment at Narroonda, Kangaroo Economics. Canberra. Island. Adelaide: Primary Industries South Australia Ferdowsian, R .• Ryder. A. and Kelly, J. 1997. Technical Paper No. 36. Evaluation of deep. open drains in the North Robertson, G. 1996. Saline land in Australia, its extent Stirlings area. Perth: Agriculture Western Australia and predicted trends. Proceedings of the 4th national Resource Management Technical Report No. 161. conference and workshop on the producti ve use and George. R. J. and Frantom, P. W. C. 1990. Preliminary rehabilitation of saline lands, Albany, Western groundwater and salinity investigations in the Australia. 25-30 March 1996. Canning Bridge, eastern wheatbelt. 2. Merredin catchment. Perth: Western Australia: Promaco Conventions Pty Ltd.

11 An overview of the extent and nature of land and water salinisation in Asia

I. R. WiIJett*

THE EXTENT OF salinisation of inland water and land for locating research projects related to salinity in resources in Asia can be most readily estimated these countries. from the areas of salinised land in particular China has extensive areas of inland salinisation countries. Salinisation is generally associated with in its north, where about 15% of its 44.8 million the development of irrigation areas. Table 1 ha of irrigated land is degraded by salinity. Inland indicates that the Asian countries most affected southern China is not salinised. In the north-east, by salinisation are China, India, Pakistan, Iran and natural salt deposits result in saline rivers draining Thailand. The table underestimates the total area from the Minngan Mountains. Some of the rivers of saIt-affected land, particularly for Australia and flow westward (inland) and cause salinisation in Thailand, as areas of dryland salinity are not the Inner Mongolian steppes. To the south and east included. of Beijing large areas of the North China Plain Table 1. Estimates of irrigated areas and the extent, of are subjected to salinisation caused by shallow salinisation in the most affected countries. (From water tables and the use of ground water for Ghassemi et a1. 1995, Salinisation of Land and Water irrigation. The semi-arid desert region of the upper Resources, UNSW Press, Sydney) Yellow River has large areas with sulfate-rich ground waters and surface salinisation where the Country Irrigated area % salt-affected (million ha) land is irrigated. The far west of the country has ephemeral rivers that drain inland to the Gobi China 44.8 15 Desert, and there are numerous saline lakes, often India 42.1 17 high in nitrate and borate, in the remote highland former USSR 20.5 18 areas of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In general the USA 18.1 23 salinised areas of China have cold winters and Pakistan 16.5 26 highly seasonal rainfall with summer maxima, and Iran 5.7 30 range from semi-humid to arid. The most Thailand 4.0 10 prospective areas for inland saline aquacuhure Egypt 2.7 33 would appear to the intensely cultivated areas of Australia 1.8 9 the north-east and North China Plain. Ground Argentina 1.7 34 waters are frequently of poor quality for irrigation South Africa 1.1 9 (> 2 glL total dissolved salts), but this is relatively China, India, Pakistan and Thailand are low in comparison with marine salinity. The North important collaborators with ACIAR. As it has China Plain frequently suffers summer flooding always been ACIAR's approach to base its with fresh water «0.45 glL), and marked seasonal research where it will have the greatest results, changes in the salinity would be expected. ACIAR can be expected to show strong preference Inland salinity in Thailand is located in the Khorat basin in the north-east of the country. Surface expressions of salinity are associated with • ACIAR, GPO Box 1571, Canberra, ACT 2601; large-scale groundwater systems in contact with Tel: 02 6217 0532; Fax: 02 6217 0501; saline strata, including halite domes. In addition, e-mail: [email protected]

12 secondary salinisation occurs because of excess may be diluted with fresher surface water and used recharge in upland areas after forest clearing, in a for irrigation. Ground water with salt con­ manner analogous to secondary salinisation in centrations greater than 5 gIL is avoided where dryland areas of Australia. Salt-making activities possible. by villagers have also exposed groundwater salt India also has extensive salinisation, having at the surface, but this has been discouraged and about 7 million ha of salinised land. Salinisation confined to larger operations that do not discharge is extensive in the Indus-Ganga plains of north­ salt to surface waters. Numerous small reservoirs western India and in the states ofHaryana, Punjab, have been dug, and some of these have shown Rajasthan and Gujarat. The western part of this trends of increasing salinity from the inflow of area (Rajasthan) is arid, and the rivers are saline ground water. Some have reached salinities intermittent. Smaller but significant occurrences of 16 g/L. Inland saline aquaculture could be are found in irrigation areas in southern India. feasible in existing salinised water bodies and, Surface water quality in north-western India is perhaps, in association with salt-making. The generally good, but ground water quality is strongly seasonal rainfall can be expected to cause variable. Water salinity generally increases from seasonal variation in salt concentrations. north to south and with depth. Very saline water Pakistan has the world's largest irrigation (16 g/L) can be found below 200 m. system, based on the Indus River system. The area Ground waters of sufficient salinity for inland is subject to widespread waterlogging, sodicity and saline aquaculture are available in each country salinity. Some 5.8 million ha of land are salt­ discussed, and in very large supply in waterlogged affected. Surface water quality is generally good areas on deep alluvium in Pakistan, north-western for irrigation (0.15 to 0.47 g/L), but excess India and the North China Plain. When pumped irrigation with inadequate drainage has resulted for vertical drainage or to supplement surface in surface salinisation. Surface water salinity water supply, the water is discharged to surface varies widely according to location in relation to drainage systems; evaporation ponds are rarely discharges of ground water, and during the season. used in Asia. The extraction of saline (> 3 g/L) Surface water salinity is diluted during monsoonal ground water is undesirable because of its rains and by snow melt in the north. The river contribution to downstream salinisation of surface system has little artificial regulation, there are few water. Inland saline aquacuIture could provide surface storages, and evaporation ponds are not additional income by using water associated with used. Ground water pumping is common for lowering water tables, increasing water supplies vertical drainage and to increase water supplies or salt-mining, but from an agricultural and in the tail ends of irrigation schemes. Ground water resource management point of view it appears salinity is extensive and generally increases from too risky to encourage deliberate extraction of north to south and with depth. Salt concentrations saline ground water in inland areas solely for are typically around 3 g/L, but higher concen­ aquaculture. trations are available at depth. Saline ground water

13 Inland saline aquaculture activities in NSW

GeotTL. AlIan* and D. Stewart Fielder*

ALTHOUGH THERE ARE no large, inland saline lakes Table 1. Composition (g/L) of sea water and of in NSW, approximately 20% of the total Australian ground water at 3 locations in the Murray basin. brackish and saline groundwater resources are Sea Wakool Wakool Grong found there (Ruello 1996). There are more than water Stage Ib Stage 2" Grongd 50000 licensed bores, and ground water provides Cl 19.640 7.343 19.700 11.418 the single largest source of water in NSW (Ruello Na 10.860 3.410 9.150 6.200 1996). The 2 largest underground basins are the 2.700 1.553 1.910 1.200 Great Artesian Basin in the north and the Murray 8°4 Mg 1.340 0.623 1.680 0.027 Basin in the south. Ca 0.370 0.365 1.230 1.500 Water from the Great Artesian Basin is K 0.310 0.049 0.081 0.050 available in many regions in northern NSW. In HCO, 0.150 0.182 0.209 0.133 Moree, low-salinity alkaline water is discharged P0 0.008 at 41°C, but water at higher temperatures is drawn. 4 Salinity 35 14 34 25 in other areas (e.g. 98°C at Birdsville). Salinity is pH 8.2 6.9 7.7 7.1 predominantly from sodium salts. The water is abundant and costs an estimated $1.50IML (Ruello a. 8potte (1979) 1996). b. Analysis of solutions from evaporation basins, Murray Valley Irrigation Ltd manages a large June 1985 (pers. eomm. W. Pereival. Murray saline water resource primarily to control and Irrigation, Wakool, 1997) remove salt from land used for agriculture. The e. Analysis of solutions from evaporation basin, company controls approximately 1600 ha in October 1987 (pers. comm. W. Percival, 1997) approximately 30 basins (Ruello 1996). Salts are d. Analysis of solutions from bore, September 1991 mainly sodium chloride, but magnesium chloride (pers. comm. B. Gawne, Barraclear, Grong Grong, and calcium sulphate are also present (Ruello 1997) 1996). Approximately 13 000 MLlyr is pumped into large holding basins and then into smaller, shallower evaporation ponds. Water from the bore NSW in 1991 at Grong Grong (near Narrandera) is at a fairly constant 22°C, although the to farm barramundi. This operation pumps saline temperature can vary depending on depth and groundwater from approximately 177 m. Salinity water flow (Ruello 1996). It costs an estimated is approximately 25 g/L (Table 1). The farm $0.30/ML (RueHo 1996). Table 1 shows the produces up to 18 t/yr of high-quality barramundi composition of this ground water and sea water. (pers. comm. B. Gawne, Barraclear, Grong Grong, The first commercial aquaculture operation to 1997). rely on saline groundwater was established in A second, much more preliminary trial with saline groundwater is under way near Maitland. Here, a local turf farmer has constructed a 0.1 ha * NSW Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre, Taylors earthen pond and filled it with groundwater of Beach Road, Taylors Beach, NSW 2316; Tel: 02 49821232; approximately 23 gIL salinity. Australian bass and Fax: 0249821107; e-mail: [email protected] mulloway have been stocked, and both species

14 have survived and grown for 5 to 6 months. Both in large indoor recirculation tanks at Grong Grong operations currently have permits for farming fish and Meningie. If the experiments are successful, in NSW. work to optimise culture of snapper will continue. NSW Fisheries scientists are about to embark Mulloway bred at PSRC will also be evaluated as on a collaborative project through the Aquaculture time and resources permit. Cooperative Research Centre. The project will Inland saline aquaculture is an attractive involve a number of commercial fish farmers and prospect in NSW. Abundant water resources are industry and government partners and will available, preliminary trials with temperate fish investigate the use of saline groundwater in are encouraging, and a commercial operation using snapper culture. In NSW, research will involve saline groundwater has been operating suc­ evaporation ponds at Deniliquin (part of the cessfully for several years. Current research will Murray-Darling drainage basin) and the com­ evaluate saline water from fish culture in existing mercial fish farm at Grong Grong. evaporation ponds and in purpose-built, indoor, Collaborative experiments with scientists from intensive fish-farming facilities. If the first option the South Australian Research and Development is successful, capital costs for constructing fish Institute will take place in a commercial recir­ farms will be very low. culation tank in a solar poly tunnel at Meningie, SA. Initially water from different sites will be References taken to the Port Stephens Research Centre Ruello, N. 1996. Use of inland saline waters for (PS RC) and used in static experiments to aquacuIture in NSW. A preliminary (desktop) determine the growth and survival of juvenile appraisal. Unpublished report to NSW Fisheries. snapper at different salinities (15-50 glL, diluted Ruello and Associates, Henley, NSW. where necessary with rain water from PSRC). Spotte, S. 1979. Fish and invertebrate culture: water Following this, in-situ experiments will be carried management in closed systems, 2nd ed. New York: out in cages in an earthen pond at Deniliquin and John WHey & Sons.

15 Inland saline aquaculture-a Victorian perspective

GeoffGooley*, Brett Ingram* and Lachlan McKinnon*

Inland saline water in Victoria-tbe resource significant wetlands) and their shallow, ephemeral nature (particularly in the west and north-west of Surface waters (inland lakes and coastal Victoria). embayments) Ground waters (shallow and deep aquifers) Permanent saline lakes are typically limited in extent, although notable examples include Lake In contrast to surface waters, saline ground water Corangamite (23 000 ha; 30-35 gIL total dissolved reserves (both shallow and deep aquifers) are solids, or TDS), an effectively closed, naturally relatively extensive. These reserves are mostly saline drainage system in south-western Victoria, concentrated in the western, south-western, north­ and a number of smaller, modified saline lakes central and north-western areas of the state, in within the Goulburn-Murray Irrigation District association with areas of major dryland and (GM ID) in north-western Victoria. The most irrigated agricultural development within the significant coastal embayment that fits loosely into Murray basin and in the semi-arid areas of the the definition of inland saline waters is the Wimmera and Mallee regions. Within the Murray 2 Gippsland Lakes (400km ; 0-36 g/L TDS; av. 15- basin, shallow « 15 m) saline aquifers (> 1.8 gIL) 16 g/L TDS mid water-surface). Features that often tend to be concentrated towards the lower reaches characterise inland saline surface waters include of their catchments, whereas the deep saline variable water quality (often tending towards aquifers are mostly restricted to the Wimmera­ eutrophication), high environmental value (often Mallee. Table I summarises the salinity, yield,

Table 1. Characteristics of the ground water basins of Victoria. Basin No. Salinity range Range of bore Divertible Ground water uses (Irrigation, Stock bores (glL TDS) yields (Usec) volume watering, Domestic supply, Urban supply) (MUyear) Gippsland 6000 <0.5-2.5 <2-150 325000 45% for ISDU and coal face stability Highlands 8000 0.1-10 0.1-125 100000 19% for ISD and commercial sale (mineral Province water); mostly unused Murray 10 000 <0.5-40 2-125 240000 80% for ISDU and salinity control Otway 14000 0.1-8 0.1-115 300000 9% for ISDU; mostly unused Port 4000 0.1-8 < 0.2-40 10000 80% for lSD, golf courses and salt Phillip production Western 5000 0.3-5 2-40 25000 40% forlSD Port

* Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Private Bag 20, AIexandra, Victoria 3714; Tel: 03 5774 2208; Fax: 03 5774 2659; e-mail: [email protected]

16 volume and use of the extensive network of application of cage culture techniques, and existing bores in Victoria. increasing overall farm productivity (as opposed The shallow aquifers are mostly readily to production of anyone species). accessible, particularly in irrigation areas with The largest project, the Inland Mariculture high water tables, and are often supported by Scoping Study, is funded by Fisheries Victoria extensi ve infrastructure, including pumps, (Victorian Department of Natural Resources and reticulation systems and holding basins. Water Environment) and the Natural Resources Man­ temperatures typically reflect close-to-ambient agement Strategy of the Murray-Darling Basin conditions, and water quality is often highly Commission, and is being done in collaboration variable. Apart from high salt concentrations, the with Agriculture Victoria (DNRE). The main risk of nutrient enrichment and pesticide residues objectives are: in shallow aquifers is an issue. • to investigate small-scale, on-farm, saline In the GMID, rising water tables are a major aquaculture production in evaporation basins problem for irrigated farm production. Saline as part of a serial biological concentration ground water being pumped from these aquifers system (SBCS) within the GMID is generally disposed of through community drains • to evaluate the suitability of potential aquatic (subject to state salt credits as measured at Morgan species for commercial production in such in South Australia) or to evaporation basins, or is systems reused (sometimes after being diluted with fresh • to characterise key water quality parameters in irrigation water). The Goulburn Irrigation Area such systems. (OIA) alone pumps approximately 221000 MU The strategy involves cage culture of a range yr of mostly saline water from 850 pumps to of euryhaline species (species able to tolerate a mitigate the effect of rising water tables and wide range of salinities) in each of 2 ponds associated salinity. Closed evaporation basins (up supplied with pumped water from a shallow to several hectares in surface area) are being aquifer at differing salinities (10-15 gIL and 15- developed as a more environmentally sustainable 25 glL). The pumped water is first used to irrigate disposal option. Indeed, more than 50 basins are an agroforestry plot consisting of some 20 varieties proposed to be constructed in the GIA within the of salt-tolerant poplars and nati ve trees, shrubs and next decade. grasses, after which the residual leached water The abundant, deep, saline aquifer reserves are increases in salinity and is collected by subsurface largely unexploited but are generally thought to tile drains and pumped into the evaporation basin. be relatively high quality, high yielding and Table 2 summarises the ionic composition of the warmer than ambient in many areas. 2 ponds. Progress to date indicates that silver perch, Australian bass and Atlantic salmon have Inland saline aquaculture-the activity given the best performance, and that temperature Opportunities for use of inland saline water and salinity are the principal determinants of resources for commercial aquaculture have been growth and survival. The ionic composition and identified within Victoria, primarily as a means natural productivity of the ponds are also thought of offsetting the costs of salinity effects and to have had an effect on some species. Staff from associated mitigation costs, but also as a means the Tatura Institute of Sustainable Irrigated of increasing inland aquaculture production. Agriculture (Agriculture Victoria) are evaluating Several research projects are being done by the the SBCS and associated agroforestry trials. Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute Other MAFRI research projects are currently (MAFRI) as part of an initiative to integrate in progress: aquaculture and agriculture. The main aims of this • Use of low-conductivity (approx.. 1-2 gIL TDS) initiative are multiple water use, on-farm ground water being diverted through fish tanks diversification, use of ex.isting infrastructure, stocked with silver perch before being re-

17 Table 2. Concentrations of the major ions (gIL) at 3 commercial cage culture of some species in the locations at the Inland Mariculture Site, Undera GMID, at least on a seasonal basis. However, such (GMID), compared with those in seawater at corres- production would need to be integrated into ponding salinities, 2 June 1997. Salinities are given existing farming operations in order to be cost­ in column heads. effective. Socioeconomic benefits are likely to Ion Inlet Pond 1 Sea water Pond 2 Seawater include increased revenue and the opportunity for (10 glL) (10 glL) (10 g/L)* (18 glL) (18 g/L)* all family members to participate in on-farm Cl 4.13 4.20 5.53 7.96 11.0 production. Although the irrigation industry has F <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 been receptive to date, access to training and S04 1.28 1.30 0.775 2.15 1.55 education services will be critical to long-term Br <0.001 <0.001 0.019 < 0.001 0.038 viability. 0.041 0.170 0.081 Cage culture may also be suitable for semi­ HC03 0.190 0.170 B 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.018 0.003 intensive aquaculture in saline lakes, whereas deep Ca 0.350 0.320 0.118 0.560 0.235 saline aquifers are likely to be most suitable for K 0.025 0.025 0.114 0.045 0.228 purpose-built aquaculture production in the semi­ Mg 0.470 0.500 0.370 0.900 0.739 arid areas of Victoria. Water quality for the latter Na 2.70 2.70 3.08 4.90 6.16 option is likely to be more consistent and perhaps Sr 0.005 0.004 0.002 0.007 0.005 at higher-than-ambient temperatures, but saline effluent would still need to be directed to * From Riley and Skirrow (1975). evaporation basins or reinjected back into the aquifer. directed back onto an existing agroforestry plot. (Funded by Fisheries Victoria and the Rural Future direction Industries Research and Development Corp­ Inland saline aquaculture trials in the GMID are oration.) currently in their third and final year and are now • The production of cage-cultured silver perch being done as a commercial-scale pilot using the and rainbow trout in a saline lake in the GMID 'best' species under 'optimal' conditions. Other (Lake Cooper; 1100 ha surface area; approx. proposed tasks include the development of a 3 g/L TDS). This is being investigated in an conceptual nutrient mass balance model for the attempt to enhance fisheries production from basin, an economic cost-benefit analysis, taste existing Victorian lakes and reservoirs. panel appraisal of the produce, and the devel­ (Collaborative study with Deakin University opment of management guidelines and associated and funded by Fisheries Victoria and ACIAR.) policy to define the conceptual framework for At least one commercial operation, based at industry development. Technology transfer and Pyramid Hill in north-central Victoria, is also associated training and education requirements investigating commercial aquaculture in saline will be needed. ponds supplied from an adjacent shallow aquifer. The main objective is salt production, but the Further reading operation has also grown Artemia for the aquarium Ingram, B., Gooley, G. and McKinnon, L. 1996. trade. Approximately 300 GL/yr is pumped from Potential for inland saline aquaculture in Victorian about 12 m depth at a constant temperature of 18°C saline groundwater evaporation basins. Austasia and a salinity of 33 g/L. Aquaculture 10(2): 61-3. General observations Heuperman, A. E, Heath, J. and Greenslade, R. 1996. Serial biological concentration of salts: a man­ In general, evaporation basins supplied from agement system for saline drainage effluent. shallow aquifers within existing irrigation areas Proceedings of the 16th Congress on Irrigation and appear to have potential for economically viable

18 Drainage; Workshop on Managing Environmental Changes due to Irrigation and Drainage, Cairo, Egypt, 1996, pp. 33-43. Riley, J. P. and Skirrow, G. (eds) 1975. Chemical Oceanography, 2nd edition, Volume 2. London: Academic Press.

19 Inland saline aquaculture in South Australia

Wayne Hutchinson*

IN A NUMBER of agricultural areas of South water, although some developments are planned Australia, shallow saline ground water has reduced or are at the research stage. As in other states, the quality of irrigation and municipal water saline water for inland aquaculture can be supplied supplies and has degraded arable land. Aqua­ from surface water, shallow aquifers and deep culture is being investigated as a means of aquifers. These water sources offer a number of reducing the problem or deriving an income from options that could be be suitable for the production use of the problematic saline ground water. of aquatic organisms (Table I), although the In SA there are currently no commercial economics of production are yet to be established. aquaculture operations that use saline ground

Table 1. Types of production systems to be evaluated for inland saline aquaculture in SA.

Water source Level of production Extensive Semi-intensive Intensive

Saline surface • Stock and harvest with no • Stock and harvest with • Floating cage culture water bodies additional feeding additional feeding • Stock and harvest as 'put and take' recreational fishing attraction

Shallow aquifers • Pond culture at low • Pond, tank or raceway • Pond, tank or raceway stocking density with no culture at moderate stocking culture at high stocking additional feeding density density • Integrated 'polyculture' • Integrated 'polyculture' • High-density culture in systems at Iow stocking systems at moderate stocking polytunnel-type structures density density

Deep aquifers • Pond, tank or raceway • Hatchery facilities culture at moderate stocking • Pond, tank or raceway density culture at high stocking • Integrated 'polyculture' density systems at moderate stocking • High-density culture in density recirculating systems

* South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDl), South Australian Aquatic Science Centre, 2 Hamra Ave, West Beach, SA 5022; Tel: 08 82002400; Fax: 0882002481; e-mail: [email protected]

20 Use of inland saline water bodies for Use of shallow saline aquifers for aquaculture aquaculture Inland saline water bodies (e.g. Lake Eyre) are In the Coomandook and Cooks Plains area common in SA and are characterised by high approximately 30000 ha of agricultural land has productivity over a short duration. Because of been degraded by the rise of saline ground water, conservation considerations, their ephemeral and a further 30 000 ha is threatened. The rise in characteristics and their remoteness, they are not saline ground water is attributed to the con­ targeted for aquacuIture use. tainment of water for irrigation and domestic Salinity increases substantially along the course consumption by a system of barrages near the of the Murray River within SA. Between Overland mouth of the Murray River. This artificial reservoir Corner and Waikerie (Woolpunda Reach), a has blocked the seaward migration of saline distance of approximately 30 km, saline ground ground water, which previously surfaced near water contributes 170 tonnes of salt a day, what is now Lake Alexandrina. The change in equivalent to 8% of the salt load in the river (SA hydrology combined with extensive clearing of E&WSD 1994a). In the next 20 km section a natural, deep-rooted vegetation has resulted in the further 105 tonnes a day is added (SA E&WSD degradation of agricultural land by the combined 1994b). To reduce this, the Woolpunda and effects of high soil salinity and waterlogging. Waikerie salt interception schemes have been The Coorong District Council and local implemented to divert intruding saline ground Landcare groups have recently initiated the water to salt evaporation basins. Together these Bedford Ground Water Interception Project, schemes use a total of 66 bores, 70-] 25 m deep,. funded by the Rural Industries Research and arranged in a line either side ofthe Murray to pump Development Corporation, to develop ways of 32 ML of saline water each day by pipe to the using saline ground water removed to lower the Stockyard Plain disposal basin 15 km west-south­ water table (Fig. 1). The project is investigating west of Waikerie. The salinity of water within the the potential of po)ytunnel technology for the basin ranges from 10 to 35 g/L. The basin itself is culture of Artemia, Dunaliella salina (for beta recognised as a significant wetland site of 305 ha carotene production) and finfish species. This within a 1870 ha site. Forty-one waterbird species would be part of a serial biological concentration use it as a drought refuge, feeding area and loafing process that would ultimately produce industrial area, and it supports flora and fauna that normally salt and bittern (a bitter oily liquid) for road live in marine environments (Blackley et al 1996). stabilisation. The production of these saleable Because of this established significance it products should help to offset the cost associated would seem to be more appropriate to divert the with pumping down the water table and may even incoming water to purpose-built aquaculture return a profit. facilities before treating it and then discharging it The project uses 3 poly tunnels (1 @ 46 m x 10 into the Stockyard Plain disposal basin. This m,2 @ 20 m x 10 m) supplied with saline water approach would also allow any aquaculture system pumped from 1 m below the soil surface. Water is to be managed more effectively. drawn from an open 2.0 m x 3.0 m pit through a A number of smaller basins along the Murray geotextile-covered intake. Pumping 8000 Lover receive drainage water from irrigated land, but 1 hour will drain the pit, which refills in the variable supply and salinity and possible approximately 5 hours (a recharge rate of 1600 U nutrient and chemical contamination are likely to hr). The salinity of the ground water varies from make these basins unsuitable for the needs of 27.2 g/L (SG = 1.020) to 33.7 g/L (SG = 1.025) at aquaculture. ambient temperature.

21 Figure 1. Schematic outline for components of the Bedford Groundwater Interception Project at Cookes Plains, SA. BRINE CONCENTRATING POND BORE

POLY TUN El FO Dunaliell s al in a PRODU TION

POLY TU NNEL FOR Artemia STORAGE AND FINFISH TANKS PRODUCTION SALT MAGNESIUM BRINE CRYSTALISING CONCENTRA TING P0r-N_D_--'--_-. POND

The largest poly tunnel houses a lined, O.5-m­ seawater systems (Needham 1988), but this is deep pond arranged in a continuous raceway generally easy to correct with vigorous aeration configuration for DunalieLla salina production. to remove residual CO2 (Prickett 1996). Chemical Another poly tunnel currently houses two 10 000 analysis of deep saline water supplies commonly L fibreglass tanks and recirculation system gives a chemical profile similar to that of sea components to assess the suitability of the saline water; in most case. such water sources are water for the growth and survival of a range of suitable for a range of saline aquaculture finfish spe ies. To date, tommy rough (Arripis operations. georgiannus) has been stocked with no mortality. In SA. Fish Protech Developments Pty Ltd has It i intended that black bream (A canthopagrus used saline ground water to supply a number of butcheri), napper (Pagrus auratLIs), grccnbacked land-based culture systems for grow-out of flounder (Rhombosolea taparilla ), King George barramundi (Lales calcariJer) and silver perch whiting (Sillaginodes punctata), yellow-fin (Bidyanus bidyanus) . These systems have been whili ng (Sillago schombergkii) and ll1 ulloway sold under community title and are located at the (Argyrosollllls hololepidotus) will also be trialed. Australian Aqu aculture Technology Export Park at Pelican Point, near Port Adelaide. Earlier Use of deep sali ne aquifers examples of these recirculating systems arc also Deep saline aquifers offer a number of advantages being used to ulture barramundi aL a similar to aquaculturi sts. If such water is available il aquaculture park at Kangarilla. south of Adelaide. usually contains a very low bacterial and vi ral load, Each culture system uses 2 holding basins and the wale I' temperature is stahle throughout the supported by a recirculating water treatment year. Salinity can be a problem, as it is siLe­ system. The treatment system uses biological and specific; iL can range fro m low « 5 g/L) to mechanical filtration to maintain optimum water hypersaline (> 40 g/L ). The pH of saline bore water qual ity. It is anticipated that local marine species can be I ss than 7.4, which is regarded as a such as snapper and King George whiting will be minimum acceptable level for aquaculture in suitable for culture in these systems as fingerling

22 supplies are established. The controlled envir­ References onmental conditions may also provide the Blackley, R., Usback, S. and Langford, K. 1996. A possibility for the culture of other marine species directory of important wetIands in Australia (2nd such as tropical snapper (Lutjanus sp.) and grouper edition). Canberra: Australian Nature Conservation (Epinephilus sp.). Agency, 964 pp. At the Pelican Point site, water used in brood stock holding, hatchery and nursery facilities Needham, D. 1. 1988. Practitioner's approach to a fish and in grow-out systems will be drawn from a case. In: Fish Diseases: Refresher Course for saline aquifer at a depth of 520 m. This aquifer Veterinarians, 23-27 May 1988. Post Graduate supplies water at 35 gIL salinity, a maximum flow Committee in Veterinary Science, University of of 25 Llsec (90000 Llh), and a temperature of Sydney, pp. 419-428. 40°C. Only 5.5 Llsec of this capacity will be used Prickett, R. and Iakovopoulos, G 1996. Potential gains in the park. Salinity control will be achieved by through the careful management of current adding low-salinity water (3 g/L at 27°C) taken technology. In: Seabass and seabream culture: from another deep aquifer and storm water problems and prospects. Proceedings of an collected from the roofs of all buildings on-site. International Workshop, Verona, Italy, October 16- All water used will be treated, contained and 18 1996. European Aquaculture Society, pp. 206- possibly reused on-site.The recirculation systems 211. will exchange approximately 3% of the total SA E&WSD 1994a. Woolpunda Salt Interception volume per day. Effluent will be discharged into a Scheme. Information leaflet. Adelaide: South sedimentation basin before being filtered and Australian Engineering and Water Supply De­ disinfected, and run into a saline wetland system. partment. SA E& WSD 1994b. Waikerie Salt Interception Scheme. Information leaflet. Adelaide: South Australian Engineering and Water Supply Department.

23 Inland saline aquaculture in Western Australia

GregPaust*

THE DEVELOPMENT of inland saline aquaculture is Present and future development activities one of a number of objectives of Western Kimberley Australia's aquaculture development strategy. Commercial inland aquaculture in WA is Following the release of the Kimberley Aquacul­ currently based on the production of yabby ture Development Plan, the Fisheries Department (Cherax albidus), marron (Cherax tenuimanus), and the Kimberley Aquaculture Development trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), barramundi (Lales Commission are preparing a strategy for the calcarifer) and beta carotene from the alga development of a significant aquaculture industry Dunaliella saUna. In terms of value, the largest in the Kimberley region. The first focus of the sector is the production of beta carotene at Hutt work is Lake Argyle and the Ord River irrigation Lagoon near Port Gregory, some SOO km north of system. The objective is to develop a significant Perth. This venture uses part of a salt lake system finfish industry in the area. There is also and supplements water requirements with sea considerable interest in production of redclaw water. The yabby, marron and trout industries were (Cherax quadricarinatus). valued at about $2m, $O.Sm and $O.5m res­ Preliminary assessment has been completed. pectively in 1996-97. The first significant Ground water reserves exist in the Kimberley, and production of barramundi will occur in 1997-98. the potential to use them to develop prawn and Following the success of the Fremantle other fish production will be considered in the next Maritime Centre in developing hatchery tech­ few years. Further assessments of the technical, nology for the euryhaline (able to tolerate a wide environmental and economic feasibility of range of salinities) black bream (Acanthopagrus developments are being done or planned. butcheri), several hundred thousand fish have been Gascoyne stocked in water bodies on farms for domestie or Following the release of the Gascoyne Aquacul­ recreational use. The salinity of the water stocked ture Development Plan, the Fisheries Department ranges from freshwater farm dams to saline lakes and the Gascoyne Development Commission and ponds. The apparent success of this species established the Gascoyne Aquaculture Develop­ has resulted in considerable interest in its use for ment Group to support aquaculture development commercial saline aquaculture in inland waters in in the region. the south-west of WA. A recently established The group is investigating the potential for the industry group, the South West Inland Fish use ofthe artesian bore waters of the region. Water Farmers Association, attracted 1600 visitors to a temperatures range from about 35° to 60°C and recent field day. salinity ranges from brackish to very saline. Following the completion of a feasibility study, the Aquaculture Development Fund has provided funds to identify the best sites for the establishment of a pilot production unit and to test the survival * WA Fisheries Department, 3rd Floor SOlO Atrium, 168- of barramundi juveniles in the water available at 170 Oeorges Terrace, Perth, WA 6000; Tel: 0894827333; Fax: 0894827363; e-mail: [email protected] these sites. An investor will later be sought for a

24 proposed pilot phase. Further assessments of the aquaculture ventures. If suitable water and land technical, environmental and economic feasibility resources are identified, the potential from a of developments are being done or planned. technical, economic and environmental point of South-west view may be considered. The benefits sought include diversification opportunities for farmers The agricultural region in the south-west of WA and catchment benefits from aquifer draw-down. is facing significant land degradation problems. Another benefit could be the farming of species The main cause is salinisation of land as a result that normally would not be approved for marine of rising water tables following the clearing of culiture. perennial vegetation for agriculture. Future work is planned to identify the location If sufficient saline ground and surface waters of inland saline water supplies in the volume and are available (of a quality suitable for economic quality necessary for saline aquaculture. In areas fish production) and the bypass or effluent waters where sufficient water exists, the suitability for can be managed in an environmentally acceptable earthen pond construction will also be assessed. way, an opportunity may exist to develop saline

25 Using serial biological concentration to combine irrigation and saline aquaculture in Australia

John Blackwell*

Irrigation Australia has more than half a million water bores (Lau et al. 1987). Most are near Perth and Irrigation is essential in meeting the basic food Adelaide, throughout south-east SA, in WA, and needs of billions of people. It grows more than along the central Queensland coast. In a large part half of the world's 2 most important basic staples of the country the ground water resource is {rice and wheat) and nearly a third of all food underdeveloped, but in some areas supplies are crops. In Australia, irrigated agriculture produces being overdrawn (O'Driscoll 1979). 25% of total agricultural production, worth $6- Overall, irrigation accounts for 80% of all water 8000m a year, from 2 million hectares. used in Australia. To keep pace with population increase, food There are 3 potential sources of 'natural' saline production must also increase. One answer is to water in Australia: lakes, deep aquifers and increase irrigation. However, most of the world's shallow aquifers. fresh water is already committed, and irrigation is responsible for sa!inisation and waterlogging Saline lakes of much irrigated land: Salinisation of land on a Many Australian lakes are very shallow (1.5-2.0 global scale is occurring at a rate of 1-2 million m), and hence ephemeral, and this leads to wide hectares a year (Uma]i 1993). flucluations in salinity. In WA the salinity of these The scarcity of suitable water resources lakes is variable and is often 2-3 times that of sea therefore necessitates other solutions, including water (pers. comm. D. R. WiIliamson, CSIRO better management of existing resources, the reuse Land and Water, Perth, 31.7.97). Depending on of waste water, control of water pollutants, and the location and quality of the source water they the careful use of saline ground water. may have specific pollutant problems. They may This paper considers the potential of three also have specific ionic imbalances; for example, sources of saline water in Australia for use in a in selenium, fluoride, iron, lead or zinc. serial concentration system that starts with Rising water tables in unconfined aquifers can irrigation and ends with salt production, with cause seasonal lakes to become pennanent. aquaculture as one of 5 intermediate stages. Deep aquifers Australian water resources Generally speaking (particularly in the Murray­ Darling Basin), the deeper aquifers tend to be less 3 Total runoff in Australia amounts to 440 km a salty than the shallower ones. However, as depth year, of which 123 km' is potentially useable. The increases, so do the costs of drilling, installation, full extent of ground water is not known, but 2.46 maintenance, pumping and running. km} is used each year for irrigation (66%), urban Ground water recharge is likely only in very and industrial uses (20%) and stock wateri ng wet years (when rainfall exceeds transpiration) and (14%) (Jacobson 1983). is often remote from discharge points. Most ground waters are very old; water moves very .. CSIRO Division of Land and Water, Private Mail Bag 3, slowly through the aquifer (1-11 m laterally per Griffith, NSW 2680; Tel: 02 6960 1500; year). The sustainable resource is equivalent to Fax: 02 6960 1600; e-mail: [email protected]

26 the throughflow under prevailing conditions CSIRO 'Filter' system used to remove nutrients (O'Driscoll 1979). Some resources have been from secondary treated sewage. overused; for example, the peak flow in the Great Figure 1 shows how it works. Low-salinity Artesian Basin was reduced by 25% between 1918 water is applied to a saIt-sensitive crop. The and 1980. drainage, which has increased in salinity, is then Sedimentary river basins cover 60% of applied to a moderately salt-tolerant crop. The Australia. Natural recharge should allow an drainage from this, with a still higher salinity, is estimated exploitable yield of 72 000 GL a year applied to a highly salt-tolerant crop. The drainage (DNRJAWRC 1975). from here is then used for aquaculture. (It is Shallow aquifers important to note that if there is no drainage, then salt rapidly builds up in the soiJ.) Human activities change the natural hydrological Because the salinity of any surface water body cycle; they have caused rising water tables over increases by net evaporation loss in most of much of Australia. The introduction of agriculture Australia, the aquacuJture production pond must (clearing deep-rooted perennials and replacing drain to another pond so that its salinity can be them with shallow-rooted annuals) initiates a kept constant (Fig. 2). The final product is salt. period when the storage and distribution of The net result is the sustainable use of a potential subsurface salts move towards a new equilibrium threat to irrigated agriculture to generate further (Peck et al. 1983). Irrigation accelerates the rate Income of change. The time taken for salt to reach The philosophy behind the idea is based on not equilibrium is usually much greater than for water allowing drainage to flow to a sink until it is totally because of the characteristics of soils and aquifers unusable for any productive purpose (Keller et al. (Peck et al. 1983, O'DriscoIl1979). 1996). Gooley et al. (these proceedings) describe In dryland areas the high water tables create a serial biological concentration system in lakes in localised depressions. The water salinity operation in Victoria. tends to be variable and to increase with time (Fig. 2). In irrigated areas rising water tables threaten References crop production through waterlogging and salinisation (ABS 1997). Abdullah (1995) suggests Abdullah, S. 1995. Irrigation status-a worldwide that 24% of irrigated land in the world has lost perspective. Annual General Meeting of the productivity from these 2 threats, especially in arid Australian National Committee for Irrigation and and semi-arid regions. Drainage, 9-11 October 1995, Mildura, Victoria, pp. 1-15. Concentrating saline drainage water for ABS 1997. 1997 Australian Year Book, no. 79. use in aquaculture Catalogue no. 1301 .0. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australia's low relief means a restricted number of good dam sites for the expansion of irrigation, DNRI AWRC 1975. Review of Australia's Water and maintaining irrigation areas with high or rising Resources. Canberra: Department of National water tables requires surface and subsurface Resources and Australian Water Resources Council. drainage. To protect the root zone in these areas, Lau,1. E., Commander, D. P. and Jacobson, G. 1987. shallow bores or tile drains are often used. This Hydrogeology of Australia. Bulletin 227. Canberra: produces a saline effluent that must then be Bureau of Mineral Resources. managed. Inland saline aquaculture is an example Jacobson, G. et al. 1983. Australia's groundwater of how this 'waste' water can be used to generate resources. Department of Resources and Energy, income, as one of the later stages in a serial Canberra. Water 2000 Consultants Report 2. biological concentration system with improved Keller, A.. Keller, J., Seckler, D. 1996. Integrated water internal drainage. The concept is based on the resource systems: theory and policy implications.

27 Figure 1. A serial biological concentration system using modified soil plots to produce crops while increasing the salt concentration to that suitable for inland saline aquaculture. The final product is salt.

2500 ha (e.g. lucerne) 1000 ha (e .g. barley) 300 ha (e .g. dates) aquatic production 25000 ML pond, 46 ha (e.g. fish) ~

32.4 dS/m

electricity production that tile drainage effluent 8333 ML 2777 ML 925ML ., may power entire , 400 ML system , ? I Soils in each block are treated to improve infiltration rates. , . Combination of deep ripping and application of gypsum. ,

y- y--t=j solar pond, 5 ha

------;;;re:;;tu-;-;rnbrine to solar t=j pond to create gradient evaporation pond, 5 ha

Figure 2. Salinity levels in 3 community evaporation ponds at Girgarre in the Shepparton area of Victoria (pers. comm. F. Leaney. CSIRO Land and Water. Adelaide. 22.7.97). The salinity in bays A and B is kept steady by continual transfer of water to Bay C. where the salinity continues to rise.

180

160

140

:[ 120 In terminal bay :!:!. ~ 100 > ..u -5 80 c:o o 60

40

20

o June June June June Apr 1988 1989 1990 1991 1997

28 Research Report 3. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Inter­ Technological Sciences: 95-131. national Irrigation Research Institute. Peck, A. J., Thomas, J. F. and Williamson, D. R. 1983. O'Driscoll. E. P. D. 1979. The underground water Salinity issues-effects of man on salinity in resource outside the Great Artesian Basin. In: Land Australia. Canberra: Department of Resources and and Water Resources of Australia (eds E. G. Energy. Water 2000 Consultants Report 8. Hallsworth and J. T. Woodcock), Proceedings of the Umali, D.L. 1993. Irrigation-induced salinity: a Second Invitation Symposium, Sydney, Australia, growing problem for development and the en­ 30 October - 1 November 1978. Academy of vironment. World Bank Technical Paper 215.

29 A national environmental management policy for land-based fish farming

Jasper Trendall*, Jackie Aldert and Alan Lymberyt

Changes in rural economies Assessment Panel and the South Coast Regional Initiative Planning Team evaluated the specific The traditional base for agricultural economies in requirements for sustainable agricultural pro­ Australia is declining. The south coast of Western duction on the south coast of WA and the most Australia, which covers an area of 5.4 million ha appropriate way of managing changes. The result between Walpole and Esperance, is a good is detailed regional land and water management example of these changes. Farms in the region strategies (LWMSs) covering the entire south coast produce more than a quarter of Western Australian region. Two of the most important regional issues wool, and the value of agricultural production to emerge from extensive community consultation exceeds $500 million annually. However, the are increasing farm profitability, diversity and region has the state's lowest annual average management skills, and keeping people in rural income, and the populations in inland shires and areas. It is now generally accepted that en­ towns are falling. vironmental and social needs underpin sustainable The economic base is declining at the same time economies. as environmental changes are reducing the productivity of large areas of farmland. The Recognition of the catchment as the basis environmental changes include salinity, erosion for aquatic resource management and eutrophication. In 1995 it was estimated that almost 10% of land in the south coast region was The environmental management of agriculture in lost to salinity, and that up to 24% of the region Australia is now focused on river catchments. could be potentially affected (Ferdhowsian et al. Catchment management groups range from large 1995). The loss in agricultural production is organisations, such as the Murray-Darling Basin compounded by associated losses of water Commission, to community-based groups that resources, wetIands, vegetation and public work in single catchments or areas within reserves. There is a direct relationship between catchments. This is recognised in the LWMSs for these environmental changes and land and water the south coast. The single most important issue management practices in agriculture. The future identified in the planning process was that salinity of agriculture on the south coast will also and related water management issues must be determine the future of the environment. considered on a catchment basis. On the south coast there are now 20 land conservation district SustainabiJity means meeting economic, and catchment committees and 102 small catch­ environmental and social needs ment groups. Between 1994 and 1996 the South Coast Regional Farm diversification is based on new industries with new management needs * WA Fisheries Department, Stirling Terrace, Albany, The future of primary production in areas such as WA 6330; Tel: 0898425346; Fax: 08 9842 1112; e-mail: [email protected] the south coast of WA lies in new production t Edith Cowan University, WA systems, which allow farms to use water and land : Agriculture Western Australia better and to diversify their economic base.

30 AquacuIture has been identified as a potential new management agencies and identify and take into production system for farms on the south coast, account differences in production processes. The but there is very little practical information that model could then be used to analyse the effects of farmers can use to plan the integration of aquaculture development on a catchment. aquaculture production into a farm business. Environmental risk analysis using networks, Equally importantly, established catchment event-tree analysis and life-cycle analysis can management groups do not have the information identify potential environmental impacts for the necessary to incorporate aquacuIture development process model and selected case studies. These into existing catchment management plans. The methods are commonly used to investigate risk development of new industries, such as inland associated with a development or activity and can aquaculture in WA, creates an opportunity for help identify measures to mitigate some potential government to define clear, practical management effects. Social effects can be considered through guidelines for sustainable production before, rather surveys, interviews, workshops and direct liaison than after, the industry is established. with catchment management groups.

Aquaculture management of as a part of National environmental management catchment management guidelines for land-based aquaculture Aquaculture production has a unique dependency A preliminary analysis of the cost to industry of on the water resources of a catchment. It can also implementing the operational requirements of the directly affect those resources in a variety of ways. process model ean be done by using existing The necessary links between aquaculture and the economic data. Once the specific operational aquatic environment make catchment management requirements, policies and estimated cost to the most appropriate way of managing devel­ industry have been determined, best practices, opment. If aquaculture development is to be policies and guidelines can be recommended. The integrated into catchment management programs ability of the guidelines to meet best practice, such then we need more detailed information about the as ISO 14000 standards, can also be incorporated production systems. This information gives the into the assessment by using the process model. basis for informed and equitable management The results of the economic analyses, en­ guidelines. It should include analyses of the vironmental risk analyses and data from case production economics, environmental impacts and studies give the basis for defining a national social implications of aquaculture production. environmental management policy that allows The most effective basis for the development land-based aquacuIture to be incorporated into of a sustainable aquaculture industry would be catchment management programs. This will environmental management guidelines that allow minimise potential environmental impacts, while aquaculture to be incorporated into catchment maximising any competitive advantages that management programs. might exist for the industry.

Process model, risk analysis and case Reference studies Ferdhowsian et al. 1995; Proceedings of the Fourth A general input-output process model for land­ National Conference on the Productive Use and based production systems that would be developed Rehabilitation of Saline Lands using existing information on identified envir­ onmental risks and established production technologies would give a basis for detailing performance standards. The model would include contributions from aquaculture operators and

31 Environmental considerations in the use and management of inland saline water bodies for aquaculture

Damian M. Ogburn*

Two FUNDAMENTAL objectives of aquaculture Table 1. Environmental considerations for inland development are that it be environmentally saline aquaculture developments. sustainable and that it be economically viable. Stage Issues These issues are closely tied. It has been proved in numerous other human activities that if Market Demand, requirements, economics, development is not sustainable then it is not viable. selection proximity For any proposed aquaculture development, Species Closed cycle, exotic, diseases, proponents must pay attention to planning selection performance principles, assess potential effects, and establish Site selection Water source, climate, land processes to minimise these effects through good aquaculture practices. System design Containment, control. failure risk, The use of saline water for inland aquaculture performance. predator risk allows an opportunity to circumvent some of the Management Training, good practices, health conflict and environmental issues currently facing design protocols, contingency plans, food traditional coastal aquaculture. However, a number safety of significant issucs need to be dealt with in Waste stream Containment, treatment, considering aquaculture development proposals economics, failure risk (Table 1). Five major areas of concern are discussed below. Alternative Species or activity if venture fails, opportuni ties clean-up costs Waste water disposal methods Increasing salinisation of land and waterways in mainly of hygroscopic magnesium salts). The agricultural areas due to irrigation and deforest­ proposed quantity, quality and fate of these ation is a global problem. Any aquaculture products also need to be considered. development using saline water must not increase • Reinjection of the saline water into the aquifer, salinisation and must minimise the release of usually into saline aquifers that are deeper than nutrients to waterways. Consequently, the disposal those from where the water is initially of saline water from aquaculture systems needs extracted. The water quality (such as introduced to be carefully considered. There are two main pollutants and pathogens) and the hydrological methods of disposal: characteristics of the aquifer need to be • Closed-circuit systems, which concentrate the considered. salt by evaporation. The products are various salt precipitates and bittern (the residual liquor Site contamination from the precipitation process, consisting The storage of saline water and salt at the aquaculture site could contaminate the surround­ ing water table, land and catchment. Containment * NSW Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre, Taylors Beach Road, Taylors Beach, NSW 2316; Tel: 0249804919; and retieulation infrastructure and the risks Fax: 02 49819074; e-mail: [email protected] associated with it therefore need to be considered.

32 Issues include the water-holding capacity and Conclusion physical characteristics of the soil in the case of Aquaculture has a strong tie with the environment earthen ponds, and secondary containment through its prerequisite for good water quality. Not infrastructure in the case of pond failure and only can it provide considerable benefits to the flooding. community in terms of jobs and economic Alienation of land opportunities, but it can also act as a sentinel for some of the less observable effects of human Soil contamination with salt might preclude activity that affect our water catchments. alternative uses for the site if the venture fails. Aquaculture development that is planned with Proposals must consider how a site would be good-practice principles in mind must be rehabilitated in that event. sustainable if it is to be viable. The scope for integrating aquaculture activities into remedial Introductions of exotic species or solutions for salinisation of inland agricultural associated pests or diseases lands provides a new frontier for the modern Aquaculture often depends on non-indigenous systems approach to agriculture. plants and animals. To evaluate proposed introductions requires a process for risk ident­ SeJected readings ification and assessment. The aim has to be risk Geddes, M. C. and Williams, W. D. 1987. Comments minimisation and containment. Minimisation can on Artemia introductions and the need for conserv­ be established through health protocols that the ation. In: Sorgeloos, P.• Bengston. D. A., Decleir, stock must achieve before translocation. Contain­ W., Jaspers, E., eds, Anemia research and its ment needs to apply not only to the species to be . applications, vol. 3, p. 19-26. Wefteren, Belgium: cultivated but also to potential vector paths for Universal Press. associated disease and pests that may not be Jumalon, N. A. and Ogburn, D. M. 1987. Nutrient flow identified in the protocols. Given the imprecise and physico-chemical profile studies of an integrated knowledge about and lack of diagnostic capab­ poultry-salt-Artemia-milkfish-seagrass-prawnl ilities for certain potential pathogens, particularly shrimp pond production system. In: Sorgeloos, P., viruses, clear containment and operational Bengston, D. A.. Decleir, W., Jaspers, E., eds, protocols to minimise potential contamination of Artemia research and its applications, vol. 3, p. 239- the adjacent catchment need to be established 51. Wefteren, Belgium: Universal Press. before the development proceeds. Jumalon, N. A.• Estenor, D. G. and Ogbum, D. M. 1987. Management programs for animal Commercial production of Artemia in the Philip­ pines.In: Sorgeloos, P., Bengston, D. A., Decleir, interactions W., Jaspers, E., eds, Artemia research and its Establishing an aquaculture operation may involve applications, vol. 3, p. 231-38. Wefteren, Belgium: interactions with resident animals or attract new Universal Press. and unwanted ones. Management programs to deal Ogburn, D. M. 1994. Site selection for aquaculture. In: with this must be clearly established at the outset; An Introduction to Aquaculture (Seminars), p. 5. for instance, how to manage bird populations that TAFE Rural and Mining Training Division, National could prey on the fish. Potential interactions Fishing Education Centre, TAFE. between the aquaculture species and resident Ogburn, D. M., Rowland, S. J., Mifsud, C. and species need to be identified; for example, between Creighton, G. 1995. Site selection, design and cultured Artemia sp. and native anostracan species operation of still water ponds for fish farming. Silver such as Parartemia sp. Perch Aquaculture Workshop, 15-17 April 1994, Grafton, NSW. Sydney: NSW Fisheries.

33 Ogburn, D. M. 1996. Site selection for marine finfish farming. Marine Fish Farming Workshop, 16 June 1995, CronulIa, NSW. Sydney: NSW Fisheries.

34 Algae

Michael A. Borowitzka*

ALGAE ARE GROWN AS food, animal feed and sources of the algal species that can be grown and their of valuable fine chemicals. The microalgal salinity requirements. It does not list all possible industry is one of the largest commercial species, but rather serves to give an overview of aquaculture industries in Australia. The main alga the wide variety of species and products. Many grown is the halophilic green alga Dunaliella other species are being studied for their potential satina, grown as a source of beta-carotene. It is for commercial culture. produced by two companies, Western Biotech­ The technology for large-scale commercial nology Pty Ltd in Western Australia and Betatene algal culture varies depending on the species Pty Ltd in South Australia. These two producers grown. D. satina is grown in very large, unstirred, are the largest in the world. The algae are grown shallow ponds, and S. platensis is grown in paddle­ in large (up to 150 ha), shallow (20-30 cm deep) wheel-mixed raceway ponds. The other microalga ponds in water with salinities of 200-250 g/L NaCI species cannot be grown in open-culture systems (i.e. up to 10 x seawater). Proprietary methods are as they are easily contaminated and overgrown by used to harvest and extract the beta-carotene. The other species. These algae require closed photo­ beta-carotene is formulated into a range of bioreactors such as the helical tubular system, the products (e.g. 1.5%-30% in oil, water-dispersable Biocoil™, developed by Biotechna Ltd and beadlets, dried algal powder) and is exported to Murdoch University. These closed systems also Japan, the USA and Europe as a health food have the advantage of giving much better control supplement and a natural pigmenter for products over the culture conditions than open ponds, so such as margarine. Depending on formulation the that a higher quality, more consistent product is beta-carotene sells for US$300-$600lkg. produced. Their disadvantage is that they are more Australia is very well suited to large-scale capital-intensive and thus require a more valuable commercial algal culture, having a sunny warm product. The existing production costs for climate, large land areas and generally unpolluted microalgae in fish and crustacean hatcheries air and waters. Inland saline water sources, around the world range from about US$60/kg dry including ground water sources, are a valuable weight to more than US$1000/kg dry weight resource for this industry. The fact that these (average US$400/kg). A dedicated, large-scale ground water sources are generally found in low­ production facility would be able to produce the rainfall, sunny warm locations is an advantage, as algae at significantly lower costs and would then algal culture requires a continuous reliable source ship them to the hatcheries. NSW Fisheries and of sunlight. Australia also has extensive expertise Murdoch University are developing the tech­ in commercial algal aquaculture and in the nology for producing algal concentrates with a marketing of the algal products. Table I lists some good shelf life and high nutritional quality, suitable for shipping. Saline ground waters have a potential advan­ * School of Biological and Environmental Sciences. tage over sea water for the culture of algae for Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150; food and feed; the quality of seawater often varies Tel: 0893602333: Fax: 08 93606303; significantly through the year and can, at times, e-mail: [email protected]

35 Table 1. Algal species that could be grown in saline ground water sources.

Alga Product or market Salinity (in Status glL NaCI) Dunaliella saUna Beta-carotene >200 Commercial Aphanothece Polysaccharides, phycobilin > 200 R&D halophytica pigments Isochrysis. Tetraselmis, Feed used in the aquaculture of about 30 Presently produced in various Chaetoceras, Pavlova molluscs, crustaceans & fish hatcheries Spirulina platensis Health food up to 30 Commercial (in USA, Thailand, China, India) Porphyridium cruentum Polysaccharides, pigments for up to 30 R&D cosmetics Gracilaria spp. Feed used in aquaculture of about 30 Mainly wild harvest, but also some abalone; source of agar culture overseas Ulva spp. Feed used in aquaculture of about 30 Some small-scale production abalone overseas Caulerpa spp. Luxury food (sold mainly in about 30 Presently farmed in the Philippines Japan) be unsuitable for algal culture. A reliable, clean Another possible system using saline ground source of saline water can improve the commercial water is an integrated algal brine shrimp farm. viability of an algal culture facility. The brine shrimp Artemia is in high demand as a The macroalgae VIva and Gracilaria are grown feed source for fish culture, especially for free-floating in stirred tanks, whereas Caulerpa ornamental fish. and demand is significantly is grown on the bottom of shallow (50-100 cm greater than available supply. One of the preferred deep) ponds. Onshore cultivation of marine food sources for Artemia is Dunaliella salina. The seaweeds is becoming more and more popular combination of a Dunaliella plant with an Artemia because of the limited availability of nearshore production facility could be an attractive com­ sites suitable for algal farming and because of the mercial proposition. One advantage of this would high cost of building and maintaining structures be that the overall facility could be smaller than a for these farms in the sea. Although all existing Dunaliella plant for beta-carotene production, farms are near the sea, there is no reason why farms which requires economics of scale to offset the could not be located inland near a suitable saline high capital investment required for the harvesting ground water source. and extraction equipment.

36 Potential of inland saline water for aquaculture of molluscs

C. L. Lee*

THERE IS LITTLE information on the aquaculture of saline water in recent years: the Pacific oyster, the molluscs in inland saline waters nationally and Sydney rock oyster and the trochus. internationally. Ingram et al. (1996) reported that a preliminary In Australia, at least two groups of molluscs trial on the culture of the Pacific and Sydney rock (Gastropoda: genus Coxiella and Bivalve: genus oysters in inland saline water from the Goulburn Corbiculina) are known to be endemic to inland irrigation area of Victoria showed poor growth saline lakes (McMichael 1967). Both groups are rates, and attributed the result to the poor nutrients small molluscs with no aquaculture potential, but found in the water. In contrast, Peter Rankin (pers. many species that are non-endemic to inland saline comm.) reported good growth rates for Pacific water may have potential for culture in these oysters cultured in coastal salt ponds in Victoria waters. Table 1 lists species with potentiaL using seawater. Table 1. Mollusc species with potential for In the Northern Territory, the Northern Territory aquaculture in inland saline waters. University (NTU) trochus hatchery obtains its water from a saline bore sunk to a depth of 56 m. Edible oysters The bore water has a salinity of 51-52 gIL, and Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas the salinity has been constant throughout the last Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea commercialis five years of operation. The water has been Tropical oysters S. amasa and S. echinata successfully used in spawning trochus; during the Flat oyster Ostrea angasi last four years, mi Ilions of postlarval trochus have Pearl oysters been produced in the hatchery. The hatchery has Silver-lipped oyster Pinctada maxima also closed the life cycle oftrochus after 2.5 years, Black-lipped oyster P. margaritifera and the hatchery is currently carrying mature F2 Winged oyster Pteria penguin troehus. This is the first reported case of closing Abalone the life cycle of a marine mollusc using saline bore Blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra water. A full description of the design and Greenlip abalone H. laevigata operation of the NTU's hatchery is given by Lee Roes H. roei (1997). Tropical abalone H. asinina In 1997 the NTU hatchery began a trial on Other molluscs holding and spawning the giant clam Hippopus Blue mussel Mytilus edulis hippopus. Future work will include the spawning Scallops Pectenfumatus and Amusium spp. and juvenile production of the tropical abalone Trochus Trochus niloticus and study of the growth rate of the black tiger Giant clams Tridacna spp. and Hippopus spp. prawn, Penaeus mandan, maintained at different Among the species listed, only three have been salinities. investigated for their potential for culture in inland Table 2 shows an analysis of the NTU's bore water. After the water is treated and diluted to 35 * Faculty of Science, University of the Northern Territory, g/L salinity, its composition is similar to that of Darwin, NT 0909; Tel: 08 89466358; Fax: 08 8946 6690; seawater. In WA, the Tropical Aquaculture Park e-mail: [email protected]

37 Table 2. Quality of saline water for mariculture in NTU, Victoria (Goulburn irrigation area) and Western Australia (Tropical Aquaculture Park, Broome).

Ionic concentration (mgIL) NTU raw bore NTU treated Victoriab WAc Sea water water bore wateca Na 16400 10700 9450 9536 10500 Mg 2059 1349 1645 I 150 1350 Ca 689 447 1225 357 400 K 514 339 87.5 357 380 Fe 20 0.30 0.02 Si 20 15 8.6 Cl 30250 20000 14455 19392 19000 F 0.0 0.4 1.3 S04 4800 2850 4480 2393 2560 Salinity (gIL) 51 35 35 35 35 Turbidity (NTU) 2 18 pH 6.2 7.9 7.4d 8.2 a: 24 h aeration, 72 h sedimentation and dilution to 35 glL b: Data provided by Brett Ingram, Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute, Victoria c: Data provided by WA Fisheries. Salinity (gIL) calculated as 1.806 x [Cl-] (gIL) and adjusted to 35 gIL d: pH at 49 glL salinity. Could be different after aeration and dilution to 35 glL in Broome has a saline bore water supply (35 m of non-filter-feeding and benthic grazing molluscs deep; 49 g/L salinity). The chemical composition such as abalone, clams and trochus, and for of the water is similar to that of the NTU water. culturing molluscs in polyculture with finfish or The water is therefore suitable for aquaculture but crustaceans. its potential is yet to be tested. In contrast, the NTU's results indicated that the potential for composition of the saline water from the Goulburn using saline water from deep aquifers for hatchery irrigation area of Victoria is different from that of production is excellent. Bore water of marine seawater. For example, its magnesium, calcium origin could have many advantages over raw and sulphate concentrations are much higher than seawater for hatchery work, including the those occurring in seawater and its potassium and following: chloride concentrations are lower. The differences • Consistently high water quality. in the ionic composition of inland saline waters • Free of organic matter contamination. of different origins are likely to have large effects • Free of bacteria and other infectious agents. on the growth and survival of euryhaline mollusc • Does not require UV, chlorination or other species and hence determine their suitability and treatments. potential for inland saline aquaculture. • Natural filtration, resulting in negligible TDS Based on current information, it appears that and water turbidity. inland saline water has potential for monoculture • Requires minimal treatment for microalgal

38 culture. References • Could be retained in reticulation pipe for Ingram, B., Gooley, G. and McKinnon, L. 1996. extended period without odour or other Potential for inland mariculture in Victorian saline problems. ground water evaporation basins. Austasia Aqua­ • Gives a high level of quarantine to the hatchery. culture: 10(2): 61-63. • Hatchery system is cheaper and easier to set up, maintain and run. Lee, C. L. 1997. Design and operation of a land-based closed recirculating hatchery system for the topshell, Saline water has potential for grow-out Trochus niloticus, using treated bore water. ACIAR production of various mollusc species. However, Proceedings 79: 27-32. its suitability is likely to depend on the compos­ ition and nature of the saline water and the species McMichael, D. F. 1967. Australian freshwater Mollusca to be farmed. Saline bore water from deep aquifers and their probable evolutionary relationships: A has great potential as a water source for hatchery summary of present knowledge. In: Weatherley, A. production of aquacuIture species. Its potential is H. ed. Australian Inland Waters and Their Fauna. yet to be fully investigated and developed. Canberra: ANU Press.

39 Potential for inland saline aquaculture of crustaceans

GeoffL. Allan* and D. Stew art Fielder*

IN AUSTRALIA, crustacean aquaculture is dominated the water, the other aspects influencing culture by penaeid prawns, mainly the giant tiger prawn potential are similar in both inland saline areas (Penaeus monodon) and the Kuruma prawn (P. and areas traditionally used for culture operations japonicus). A number of other species have been and will not be covered further here. cultured in small quantities, including school The quantity of water available in different prawn (Metapenaeus macleayi), greasyback locations will need to be assessed. Although saline prawn (M. bennetae), banana prawn (P. mer­ ground water is plentiful in many areas, obtaining guiensis), brown tiger prawn (P. esculentus), the appropriate salinity may require mixing waters eastern king prawn (P. plebejus) and the western from different sources, which could prove a king prawn (P. latisulcatus). Freshwater crayfish, limitation. If evaporation ponds where salt is to including red claw (Cherax quadricarinatus), be harvested are to be used for aquaculture, the yabby (c. destructor) and marron (c. tenuimanus) potential for waste water containing organic matter and small quantities of mud crabs (Scylla serrata) and nutrients to contaminate the salt needs to be are also farmed. Total production of crustaceans assessed. increased from 1.1 ktin 1990-91 to 1.9ktin 1995- Water quality encompasses physical factors 96. such as temperature, salinity. dissolved oxygen and Attempts have also been made to culture other gases, ionic composition, pH, nutrients (such freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), as ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and phosphorus) and brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) and sand crabs any contaminants such as pesticides or hydro­ (Portunus pe/agicus). More recently, the culture carbons. It also includes biological factors such potential of Balmain bugs (lbacus peronii) and as bacterial composition and content (e.g. E. coli marine crayfish has been discussed. In NSW, P. counts) and the presence and concentration of monodon, P. japonicus and C. destructor are the algae and yeasts. All of these variables need to be most commonly farmed crustaceans. considered when looking at aquaculture of any Although intensive culture of at least some species anywhere. For inland saline water, ionic crustacean species in tanks and race ways has been composition and salinity will have a large bearing investigated, commercial production is almost on its suitability for culture of crustaceans (Table entirely based on culture in earthen ponds. I). To evaluate the potential of inland saline water Probably the best candidate for inland saline culture of crustaceans, information is needed on water culture is penaeid prawns, although P. the quantity and quality of the water, the monodon performed poorly in preliminary trials composition of sediment, the cost of constructing conducted in Victoria (pers. comm. Brett Ingrarn). ponds, and the cost of supplying infrastructure Ruello (1996) reports that P. vannamei has been such as electricity, transport and staff. Apart from successfully cultured in saline groundwater in southern Texas, and that three penaeids (P. kerathus, Metapenaeus monoceros and M. * NSW Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre, Taylors stebbing) were growing faster in an inland saline Beach Road, Taylors Beach, NSW 2316; Tel: 024982 1232; lake in Egypt than in the Mediterranean . .Fax: 024982 1107; e-mail: [email protected]

40 Table 1. Salinity tolerance and optimum conditions for crustaceans.

Species or group Salinity tolerance or optimal concentration Freshwater crayfish Cherax destructor 6-8 g/L upper level for growth, 22 glL upper lethal level (8 d) C. tenuimanus 20 gIL upper lethal level (85 d) C. quadricarinatus Can reproduce in water up to 18 glL. Can tolerate> 12 g/L for extended periods All three species Optimum likely to be 0-5 glL Freshwater prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii Requires 12-15 gIL to reproduce. May be grown in ponds at about 10 gIL M. australiense Does well in freshwater only Penaeids Penaeus monodon Isosmotic value 23-25 glL. Optimum for culture 15-25 g/L. Cultured successfully at < 5 glL in Thailand P. japonicus I sosmotic value close to 35 g/L. Lower lethal level 19.3 gIL at lOoC, 12.1 glL at 14°C, 5.4 glL at 25°C. Optimum 27-31 gIL Metapenaeus macleayi Isosmotic value 27 g/L. Has been successfully farmed at 5-35 gIL Other species Marine crayfish and bugs Stenohaline--require oceanic-strength seawater Mud crab (Scyl/a serrata) Best at 28-34 glL. Can tolerate fresh water for extended periods (days) Sand crabs (Portunus pelagicus) Prefers higher salinity and can tolerate hypersaline conditions Brine shrimp (Artemia spp. and Endemic in inland saline lakes. Tolerates hypersaline water Parartemia spp.)

Artemia spp. were introduced into Australia in humans or livestock, although the cost of the 1970s. They grow well in Western Australian production and processing will obviously be saline lakes and have considerable commercial critical considerations. potential as an encysted live food for the aquarium Freshwater prawns may be a suitable candidate trade and fish hatcheries. Endemic Parartemia in more tropical regions in Queensland, the spp. may also have potential. The quality of the Northern Territory and WA. Freshwater crayfish nauplii from Australian Artemia is apparently quite are likely to be suitable candidates only in low­ high. Artemia spp. also have a market as frozen salinity waters ($; 5 g/L). Marine crayfish and bugs adults for the aquarium trade. This product has a are likely to be too stenohaline to tolerate the high value, and a market opportunity remains fluctuations in salinity likely to occur in facilities unfilled. using inland saline waters, and as culture Because of their very high growth and technology for these species has not been reproductive potential, Artemia may also have developed they have low priority for investigation. potential for production as a protein source for

41 Potential for inland saline aquacuIture of fishes

Greg Jenkins*

SIGNIFICANT INTEREST exists in the use of inland unknown. Consequently, field and laboratory trials saline waters in Australia for aquaculture. This will be vital in the early stages of assessing the interest has been generated as a result of the lack potential of inland saline waters for aquaculture of suitable coastal sites, the availability of saline until a database of the ionic tolerance of a range water through salinity control programs, and the of species bas been established. presence of saline reserves in deep aquifers. Once the water is found to be suitable for The prospect for commercial culture of fish in commercial fish culture, the next step is to these waters appears, on face value, to be good. determine the production methods and to judge Numerous examples exist throughout the world the likely costs, benefits and possible cost offset where ground water is used for the culture of fish. for the venture. This water is usually extracted from deep aquifers. There are two methods by which the potential Saline water sources of a saline water source can be assessed for fish Saline lakes production: These are usually extensive and vary constantly • Correlation of the water characteristics with in salinity and volume. Most dry up in summer. parameters conducive to the survival of Species cultured will need to be euryhaline. brackish or marine fish. The parameters include salinity, ionic composition, temperature, pH, Potential: Low overall potential for Australia, volume and presence of contaminants. This although commercial culture may be possible in assessment would need to take into account some lakes. There may be potential for intensive technologies available to improve undesirable production in cages or for extensive put-and-take parameters such as low dissolved oxygen production in some of the larger lakes. levels, excessive metals or the presence of Salinity control programs sulfides. Saline water pumped from shallow aquifers for • Field trials (or trials with water samples land protection or reclamation is usually directed collected from the field) to test species to evaporation basins, although many farmers still tolerance to and performance in each potential drain it onto adjacent land. The salinity of the water water source. At the Fremantle Maritime Centre produced varies over time, and the sustainable in Western Australia the initial test for a water volume is directly related to the aquifer recharge sample's suitability for black bream or snapper rate. The salinity and volume of water are site­ survival has been a 'bucket' bioassay. specific and may vary considerably within a very The tolerance of various fish species to waters short distance. with varying ionic compositions is largely Fish would be raised in the evaporation basins. Euryhaline species will be required. The invest­ ment should be small until the salinity and • Aquaculture Development Unit, Fremantle Maritime sustainable volume are established. Centre, South Metro College of TA FE, 1 Fleet St, Production methods could include floating Fremantle, WA 6160; Tel: 0892398030; Fax: 089239 8081; e-mail: [email protected] cages within the evaporation basin, extensive pond

42 production, intensive production in purpose-built • It is free of wild fish eggs. and drainable ponds, and intensive tank systems. • It is free of predators and parasites. The latter two methods would be hard to justify • It is less polluted than surface water. for commercial culture until results from on-farm • It has a more constant temperature than surface research trials are available. water. There are four major limiting factors for fish Deep artesian water is also frequently warm. culture in evaporation basins: This allows the production of tropical fish in • Ambient temperatures. Temperature fluctu­ temperate areas or the culture of fish at optimum ations in temperate regions may restrict the temperatures for growth by cooling of the water number of species that will grow to a saleable to the desired temperature. size in an acceptable period of time. Saline aquaculture operations using deep saline • Low flow rates. These are common for all but waters are unlikely to be integrated with saline very large evaporation basins. land control measures or to be able to offset • Difficulty of waste removal. The key cost offset infrastructure and operating costs against salinity for an evaporation basin is the production of control programs. They will require intensive salt. Wastes generated by commercial fish production methods for good economic returns, culture within an evaporation basin would be and the risk is correspondingly increased. detrimental to the production of high-quality Potential: Medium to high. Depends highly on salt. water quality, species and economics. • Required depth of water for fish culture. This will place additional pressure heads on water Endemic fish species tables and may require a higher-quality pond lining than would otherwise be necessary. Short-term candidates Integrating commercial fish production with There are several fish species with reasonably wen land protection or reclamation works is attractive known culture technologies and for which from an economic point of view, as much of the juveniles are available for inland saline aqua­ capital costs associated with earth works may be culture projects in the short term. All are justified by the potential benefits associated with euryhaline to varying degrees-an important increased agricultural production. consideration for inland saline aquaculture. Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata) Potential: Low to moderate. Many developments will probably be small-scale activities such as This eastern Australian species is highly prized extensive production for local markets or put-and­ by sports fishers for its fighting qualities. Culture take tourist ventures to help with farm divers­ methods have been developed in NSW. The ification. Opportunities for larger-scale activities species is reared in green water ponds for stocking may be less common, and development will as juveniles for recreational fishing opportunities. depend on economic considerations. The commercial culture of this fish in inland saline waters would be primarily for put-and-take. Deep saline water reserves Barramundi (Lates calcarifery These are likely to offer the best options for inland The barramundi is recognised as an excellent saline fish production. If the water quality is sports fish and a premium table fish. Barramundi suitable for marine or brackish fish then the major has been commercially cultured in Australia since limitations will be the costs of capital, production the mid 1980s. The culture methodology and cost and marketing. of production are well known, and a domestic Water from deep aquifers has several ad­ market exists for the product. vantages: A commercial barramundi farm in inland NSW • It is more dependable and uniform in quality is sourcing saline water at approximately 20 g/L and quantity than surface water.

43 salinity from a deep aquifer. The barramundi are mulIoway as a food fish may be justified in the grown in an intensive tank system, and the waste eastern states of Australia. water is directed back to the aquifer. Greenback flounder (Rhombosolea tap/rlna) Black bream (Acanthopagrus butcher/) The ability of the flounder to be cultured The availability of black bream juveniles has intensively and exported alive relatively easily generated an enormous amount of interest in the makes it a potential candidate for inland saline aquaculture potential of the species. Black bream aquaculture. are now growing in farm dams from Carnarvon to Pink snapper (Pagrus auratus) Esperance in WA. Fingerlings have also been sent Researchers and industry in NSW, Victoria, SA to fisheries researchers and farmers in South and WA have shown interest in growing the pink Australia, Victoria and Queensland for aquaculture snapper in inland saline water. trials. The Cooperative Research Centre for Aqua­ Black bream is well adapted to freshwater culture supported NSW Fisheries in a project to environments and has been observed in hyper­ investigate the potential of pink snapper for inland saline lakes with salinities up to 140 g/L with no saline aquaculture, and the Marine and Freshwater physical signs of stress (pers. com. Gavin Sarre, Resources Institute (MAFRI) at Snobs Creek in Murdoch University Fish Research Group, Perth, Victoria has tested snapper in cages in an WA, July 1997). A study supported by the evaporation pond. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation Ex.periments in WA have established that pink has begun in WA to determine the survival and snapper juveniles will survive in salinities as low growth rates of black bream at a range of salinities as 8 mglL. Growth trials are planned at a range of and temperatures. salinities. Five hundred juvenile snapper are The remarkable euryhaline nature of the black growing in a cage in a salt lake at Watheroo, bream makes it suitable for consideration for 300 km north of Perth. The salinity of the lake is inland saline aquaculture. However, the economics 29 mg/L. The snapper survived a record-breaking of production and marketing is unknown. cold spell during July 1997 when the lake Eel (Angull/a australis) temperature reached 8°C. Although most eel culture in Australia is extensi ve, Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus myklss) and using elvers captured in Tasmania, there may be Atlantic salmon (Salmo salal) possibilities of culturing them in intensive systems Research by MAFRI in saline evaporation ponds in inland saline waters. However, the level of skill at Undera, Victoria, has shown that both species involved in intensive eel culture, the absence of have potential for culture in inland saline water breeding technology and the 'Houdini' reputation (pers. comm. GeoffGooley, MAFRI, July 1997). of eels are deterrents for potential investors and Trials have indicated that acceptable growth rates government regulators. can be achieved during winter. Additional Mulloway (Argyrosomus hololepidotus) commercial trials are planned in the near future. Mulloway is a fast-growing euryhaline species. It Silver perch (Bidyanus bidyanus) will tolerate a wide range of salinities and is a The salinity tolerance of silver perch and the recognised sports fish. It is accepted as a table fish promising results achieved by MAFRI in Victoria in some states. NSW Fisheries has developed the makes it good species for further investigation. culture methodology for the species and is Sand whiting (Sil/ago ciliata) and Trumpeter currently refining the techniques to reduce costs whiting (SilJago malucata malucata) for a mulloway stock enhancement program. The preference of whiting for silty or muddy Put-and-take tourist ventures would be popular bottoms may make them suitable for extensive in WA, where inland fishing opportunities are culture in evaporation basins. limited; commercial ventures to produce the

44 Mullet (Mugi/ cepha/us) Growout opportunities and markets Although mullet are not cultured in Australia and One problem that aquaculture developments have juveniles are not available from hatcheries, the faced in Australia is in positioning product in the species may have potential for culture in inland competitive domestic or international marketplace. saline water. Mullet will tolerate extremes of Much of this problem has been due to the relatively salinity and temperature, and a lucrative market high cost of production of fish in Australia. exists for mullet roe. Opportunities to offset costs of production against Longer-term candidates saline control programs will make the product Fish with potential for inland aquaculture in the more competitive. However, the aquaculture longer term (as reliable culture methods are venture must still make money. The biggest costs developed) include mangrove jack (Lutjanus of a projeet are capital, feed and labour; the argentimaculatus), estuary cod (Epinephelus proportional cost of water is generally small. coioides), King George whiting (Sillaginoides Three points need to be considered when punctatus) and various other marine and estuarine planning a project: species. • Ensure that capital costs can be justified economically, or use existing facilities such as Non-endemic fish species evaporation ponds. The use of inland saline waters creates possibilities • Increasing labour costs may be associated with for the introduction of non-endemic species from increasing intensity. outside Australia for aquacuIture. The aquaculture • Optimum conditions for fish growth are industry could have tighter controls over such required, or feed costs will be higher because species than the aquarium trade presently has over of longer growout times or a higher feed species allowed to be introduced under current conversion ratio. quarantine regulations. It is well recognised that the international A strong case for translocation eould be market for fish is expanding, but local oppor­ established where the area of culture is in an tunities should not be ignored. Small-scale farm­ internally drained catchment and the species could diversification aquaculture projects are more likely be shown to be produced economically for the to target local and state markets than export benefit of the nation. Such species would be markets. The potential for tapping into the ever­ required to have known culture technologies, expanding recreational fishing market may also excellent market prospects, and either a very high be a bonus for aquaculture projects assoeiated with market price (for export) or a very low cost of saline control measures in which fish are grown production (for import replacement). extensively in ponds for put-and-take fishing. Aquarium (or ornamental) fish culture in Advantages of put-and-take and ecotourism Australia is increasing and will present excellent ventures when associated with inland saline business prospects if live aquarium fish imports control measures could include use of existing are banned in the future. Although most imported ponds, lower feed costs, higher return on product, species are cultured in fresh water, several popular greater range of species, and additional social species will tolerate increased salinity (e.g. benefits such as farm-stays. mollies, white-clouds and various cichlids). Several species of native Australian fish will also Recommended actions tolerate salinity, such as blue-eyes (Pseudomugil • Develop a data base of characteristics of inland spp.), hardieheads (Craterocephalus spp.) and the saline water sources. desert goby (Chlamydogobius spp.). • Test survival and growth of a range of fish species on-farm. The initial screening of water suitability for fish survival may be a 'bucket' bioassay.

45 • Do not exclude species that have performed poorly in trials at one site as possible candidates at other sites.The ionic composition of water at each site will vary, and species suitable for culture may vary. • Explore the option of recreational activities in association with evaporation ponds.

46 Summation of outcomes of day 1

Ned Pankhurst

WE HAVE THREE resources-natural saline lakes, • End use (salt production) may not be com­ shallow aquifers and deep aquifers-and two main patible with aquaculture. problems-management of saline groundwater and constraints on coastal aquaculture sites. Deep aquifers Putting them together gives us some options. Advantages Natural saline lakes • Consistency of water quality. • Water often of high quality for aquaculture. These tend to be ephemeral and to have their own Disadvantages natural ecosystems. They are generally not • Groundwater management programs cannot relevant in terms of groundwater management. support the infrastructure cost. Aquaculture options are not attractive because of • Deep extraction does not contribute to ground­ the inconstancy of the resource, and there are water management; it could even exacerbate potentially the same resource consent problems problems. as at coastal sites. Conflicting requirements Shallow aquifers There is a potential conflict between the re­ Advantages quirements of groundwater management and • Numerous sites. aquaculture. Water from a shallow aquifer is the • Engineering infrastructure is often in place. least desirable for aquaculture but the most • Any extra use offsets management costs. desirable for land management, whereas water Disadvantages from a deep aquifer is the most desirable for • Highly variable composition, temperature and aquaculture but potentially detrimental for land salinity. management. This conflict suggests that the subset • May be contaminated. of conditions where both land management and • Flow rates may not support aquaculture aquaculture requirements can be met is con­ operations of any size. siderably smaller than the size of total resource. • Where ground water management is successful, However, does this matter given the potential water supply may not be sustainable, or the income from a relatively sman resource volume? character of the water may change with time.

School of Aquaculture, University of Tasmania, PO Box 1214, Launceston, Tasmania 7250; Tel: 03 6324 3818; Fax: 0363243804; e-mail: ned,pankhurst@utas,edu,au

47 Economic considerations in setting research priorities for inland saline aquaculture

Perry Smith*

IT IS VERY DIFFICULT to identify any aspects of Consideration of production systems brings research management that do not have at least together a range of factors, including biological some economic element involved. Setting research characteristics (reproduction, growth rates and priorities to consider an area of potential density considerations, food conversion rates, and development includes identifying the oppor­ site requirements). Different technologies may tunities and constraints. defining potential research have quite different effects on these factors. programs needed to realise those opportunities. The market potential factors include the and setting the research budget. Economic issues availability of existing markets for the output, their are involved in identifying and pursuing the most seasonality and their ability to absorb higher effective means of doing the core research. Later volumes at different price levels, the form of the in the research process come opportunities for product, market-specific requirements and the reviewing the priorities within a program. the level of cost involved to meet those requirements program itself and the commercialisation pro­ (including handling, transport and processing cesses. and maximising the value of those results. costs), and the existence of barriers to marketing All have a major economic component. (such as tariff or non-tariff impediments). Resource use considerations include alternative Defining opportunities and constraints uses of the resource and the potential trade-offs In setting research priorities we are attempting to between development and preservation options. define the opportunities and constraints facing Defining constraints individual industries and to rank them in terms of Appropriate skills, technologies, feeds, economies their respective payoffs. This allows us to define of size, infrastructure, government policies and the the most efficient means of working on specific availability of finance are all key elements in problems or to establish the most efficient use of establishing any industry. All need to be incorp­ research and development resources. orated into the priority-setting process at an early Defining opportunities stage; their absence is likely to act as a constraint In assessing the potential for productive in­ to the adoption of research. For example, the vestment in any aquaculture development there absence of financial information on the likelihood are a range of perspectives to be considered, of commercial viability will act as a major including production systems, market potential constraint to private-sector interest. and resource use (What is the best use of an A key background issue in relation to estab­ available resource?). But the key criterion for lishing product opportunities in saline aquacuIture assessing potential is whether the target species is the relationships with government policy can be profitably produced. given these factors. frameworks. Land tenure, land use and water use Only profitability brings these elements together. issues are all areas where policy will have a great effect on the opportunities and approaches that may be most productive. For example, salinity is * ABARE, GPO Box 1563, Canberra, ACT 2601; Tel: 02 6272 2024; Fax: 026272 2344; a major national issue, and the economic e-mail: [email protected] frameworks being developed to resolve salinity

48 problems will have a large bearing on the subjective assessment based on the best available feasibility of inland saline aquaculture. In its advice on biological and technical production general form the poliey framework is increasingly systems, farm economics and marketing, through based on economic resource use principles to to rigorous benefit-<:ost analysis (which encom­ ensure that resources are applied to their most passes a range of techniques). Even when using valued use. If activities result in significant benefit-<:ost approaches, subjective assessment is external costs or benefits then mechanisms should needed to reduce the available options to a feasible exist to ensure that these are reflected in the set for further examination. activities that generated them. Conversely, the Some form of benefit-cost framework is benefits of activities that lessen the negative effects needed to assess the attractiveness of different of other sectors' activities should also be reflected research options, so that we may define the likely in the charging structure. rankings of projects and the total investment that Water use policies, including charges for water should be made in an area based on the likely use and discharge, may be an important element return to the marginal project. However, it is in relation to development opportunities for inland generally infeasible to pursue the benefit-<:ost saline aquaculture. An efficient water use policy option completely because of the lack of infor­ ensures that resources are applied to their most mation, time and resources; a more general valued use. Charging policies for water use framework is needed. The Fisheries Research and increasingly reflect the costs of providing that Development Corporation combines subjective water, including the forgone opportunity of using assessments of both the feasibility of research and the water in other ways. If such charges also reflect its relative attractiveness based on benefit-<:ost the differences in water quality before and after principles to rank projects within an area. use, activities that increase salinity would be A benefit-cost framework is valuable as a charged for the quality deterioration, and activities systematic means of guiding research decisions. that decrease that salinity would be credited. Their Identification of the effects of varying the existence may well provide a range of oppor­ parameters on the economic outcomes gives vital tunities for saline aquaculture activities that may information, including the economies of size help in ameliorating the physical damage necessary to achieve best outcomes and the associated with increased salinisation or its identification of the costs associated with different economic effects. Similar interactions may occur constraints. For example, the feasibility of a with land use policies being developed to reduce project based on exporting its output needs to be the problems caused by various practices. assessed in relation to a range of exchange rates. The availability of specific and general The question implicitly asked is whether the infrastructure can also have a major effect on the project is likely to be feasible over the range of viability of inland saline aquacuIture. Any industry exchange rates likely to prevail over the life of that improves the use of existing infrastructure will the project. obviously have advantages over one where the Benefit-<:ost techniques are based on ident­ existing infrastructure does not meet the needs of ifying the additional profitability to the industry the project. Moreover, the existence of more resulting from the research (the total revenue from general social infrastructure will have indirect the activity less the costs involved-including the influences on aspects such as the availability and opportunity costs of both capital and labour-less willingness of skilled staff to work on remote the revenue they would return in their next best projects. application) and changes in consumer surplus (the difference between what consumers are prepared Setting priorities to pay and what they actually pay) to take account There are several ways to compare and rank the of the benefits to consumers of the increased identified opportunities. These range from a production. Both the income and cost flows are

49 amortised to provide a single value of the project major problem, not only in terms of identification that can be compared with other like projects. of the likely yields involved but also in terms of The main challenge in relation to benefit-cost estimation of farm gate prices. Yields, mortality techniques is to be able to assess the revenue and and feed conversion are all operator-dependent, cost streams realistically. For comparisons to be and operator skills have had a large effect on the made across projects, consistency in application commercial viability of aquaculture operations in is an important issue. A common basis for analysis Australia. Very often there are few guidelines in allows research priorities to be established and also relation to expected yields. The only assessments allows for development of strategic approaches have been based on the experience of overseas to research and project implementation. operators in different conditions using different species (for example, snapper farming). For these Opportunity costs, yields and returns reasons, sensitivity analysis is an important Identification of the opportunity costs of the element of any project assessment. resources involved is an important aspect of Market returns represent a similar challenge. assessing inland saline aquaculture activities. It is difficult to identify a benchmark price for a Incorporating opportunity costs (identifying the range of species, either because of the absence of next best use of those resources) provides a comparable species in regular trade or because the weighting to the benefits of development in an likely effect of the additional supplies on prices area where there are few other options over a received is understated. For larger projects the project that uses a range of resources with a large costs of marketing are also invariably understated. number of alternative uses. The development of Nonetheless, an evaluation of market feasibility saline aquaculture in highly popular areas involves is extremely useful because it also defines many greater opportunity costs than in inland areas. aspects of the target market that farming may have Similarly, the advantages of using saline water a comparative advantage in supplying, such as fish should be reflected in the low opportunity costs of a particular size or supplies at a particular time of that water in other uses. of the year where alternative supplies are low. Estimation of revenue flows also prescnts a

50 Key environmental constraints for research

Session coordinator: Alan Butler*

THIS WORKSHOP plenary session identified three changed composition (nutrients, temperature, salt categories of saline water resources: shallow content etc.). We have to ask how this changed aquifers, saline lakes and deep aquifers. We water will interact with the rest of the serial attempted to treat these separately by identifying biological concentration (SBC) system; in key researchable environmental constraints, particular, whether it will affect the production of spending most time on shallow aquifers. Major high-purity salt. Development of systems for researchable issues (without specific detail) are scrubbing nutrients and particles from water identified in bold type below. (perhaps themselves culture systems) is therefore With regard to shallow aquifers, members noted a research issue. the spatial and temporal variability of the supply, If effluent does not go on to further stages in a quality and temperature of the water. Research on managed, closed system (but goes, for example, ways to control this was mentioned. Inland into a river), then we must add conservation aquaculture operations are likely to consist of a issues to the list of research topics. (Some large number of small operations with different members felt that no effluent in rivers should be parameters. Among other things this has impli­ tolerated, from either aquaculture or irrigation.) cations for species selection and economics. The Other researchable issues concerned risk discussion led to the proposal that there needs to management-the development of policy and be a water and land resource inventory. Much techniques to minimise risks. Risks include those of the material for this is already held by the States. from genetics, translocation of species and This would allow sites to be identified and suitable accidental introductions to the natural eco­ fish to be chosen. It might also identify oppor­ system, and interactions involving pathogens. tunities to use water in large land management Pathogens may affect not only the aquaculture schemes. stock but also the natural ecosystem. Given that An alternative suggestion was to identify fish some pathogens are extremely difficult to detect with aquaculture potential and then to look for and that their host-specificity is unknown, it is sites. This drew attention to the question, already much more difficult to lay down a policy for raised earlier in the meeting, of whether we are disease management than it is for genetic issues. talking primarily about aquaculture as such or Release of only sterilised water might be feasible seeking to integrate it with, and thus to ameliorate, in some culture systems but probably not in the problems (salinity, rural economics) that have to kinds envisaged here. Therefore, the whole issue be solved in any case. of disease management was identified as a major Integration with serial biological concen­ research issue. tration systems was discussed as a major research Although we had started with the case of opportunity. The major issue here is that water shallow saline aquifers, and paid most attention goes into the culture system and emerges with a to SBC systems, members felt that the general issues discussed would apply to the other two • CSIRO Division of Marine Research, PO Box 20, North water resources. In the case of saline lakes, Beach. WA 6020; Tel: 089422 8229; Fax: 08 9422 8222; conservation issues would loom larger, and e-mail: [email protected]

51 guidelines would be much like those already investigations. Specific points in such a policy applicable to coastal mariculture operations. Use should be that there would be no export of salt of deep aquifers would raise issues similar to those from aquaculture to freshwater systems and that above, especially the question of preventing net aquaculture would add no extra nutrient load to addition of salt to the surface. freshwater systems. A policy framework con­ To conclude, it was felt that there need to be a taining those kinds of general specifications would policy framework and guidelines for future then guide research into ways of meeting them.

52 Key opportunities for systems management of species, groups, areas and technologies

Session coordinator: Geoff Allan*

THE TABLE ON the following page is divided into ranges from < 5 g/L to about 30-35 g/L. The third three columns, one for each of the major sources source of inland saline water is deep aquifers. of inland saline water in Australia. The first is These are often > 50 m below the surface. saline lakes, usually shallow lakes with water that Although composition can vary from area to area, can vary greatly in salinity and can become temperature and salinity are usually very stable. extremely hypersaline at times. The second source This workshop plenary session endorsed the is shallow aquifers. This includes rising saline points in the table as being important opportunities ground water, which is pumped into large, specially for research on the saline lake, shallow aquifer constructed evaporative ponds at some locations and deep aquifer water sources. Those in italic in eastern Australia in an attempt to prevent type were felt to be particularly important. Another salinisation from reducing producti vity in opportunity crossing the categories in the table is agricultural areas (this is a major problem affecting the compilation of a national inventory of available many of the large irrigation areas in south eastern resources. Australia). Salinity of water from this source

.. NSW Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre. Taylors Beach Road, Taylors Beach, NSW 2316; Tel: 024982 1232; Fax: 0249821107; e-mail: allang@fisheries,nsw.gov,au

53 Saline lakes Shallow aquifers Deep aquifers Criteria for selecting species for use in feasibility studies

Know how to culture---existing Know how to culture-existing Know how to culture-existing technology technology. Ease of culture technology, including availability offlngerlings (intensive recirculation) Very euryhaline Euryhaline Market value Market value Market value -including sale as product or -including sale as product or -including sale as product or catch catch catch -recreational enhancement -recreational enhancement -recreational enhancement Production performance Production performance Production performance Disease & pathogen translocation Disease & pathogen translocation Disease & pathogen-translocation issues; broodstock availability issues; broodstock availability issues; broodstock availability Effect on environment Effect on environment Tolerant ofenvironmental Tolerant of environmental conditions, especially temperature conditions, especially temperature (fnaybe less) Reproductive performance (closed Reproductive performance (closed Reproductive performance (closed cycle on site) cycle on site) cycle on site) Salmonids, barramundi, prawns, Barramundi, abalone, salmonids freshwater crayfish; Australian (temp. major consideration), bass, mulloway, black bream. silver flatfish, eels, snapper, aquarium perch, carp species Not able to maintain breeding Hatchery supply of spat & . population fingerlings Recreational species Carp. algae, artemia Tilapia, abalone, artemia, aquarium Algae, flatfish species, oysters Technology Extensive (unlimited) System--choice of design Economical system design Cage culture (limited) Economics & pricing Water & waste disposal or alternative use Production for sale versus fish-out Issues Property rights Ability to use existing infrastructure Harvesting technology Harvest teehnology Maintaining environment Waste disposal Water and waste disposal (conservation issues)

54 Research priorities within Australia

Session coordinator: Ned Pankhurst*

FOR THE PURPOSES of this workshop plenary session, Pathogen management research was considered in the general sense of Aquaculture operations bring the possibility of information gathering as well as information introduction of pathogens into inland waters. The generation. This reflects the fact that there is research base for examining this concern is already a considerable data base available with probably currently inadequate. respect to some questions; the challenges are to Salt organise this and to generate new information. Priorities for this exercise were assessed against The cost of saline water management is often the following likely research issues (see 'Sum­ offset by the sale of salt as a product. Anecdotal mation of outcomes of day 1', Pankhurst, these reports by workshop participants suggest that this proceedings) . is not compatible with alternative water use, particularly with respect to nutrient loading. It is Physical resources not clear yet whether this is a serious impediment to aquaculture development. Characterisation of the resource Other users The task will vary from collation of existing data to new descriptions. Current data on chemical Aquaculture may have implications for other users composition may not be adequate. (e.g. serial irrigation using low-salinity waters, or in relation to fixed structures in ponds or natural Availability lakes). These have yet to be assessed. What volume and flow rates are available for aquaculture? Species Infrastructure Species selection Economic aquacuiture operation may rest on the The success of inland aquacuiture will rest use of existing infrastructure for water delivery. strongly with the selection of appropriate species. Water resources need to be assessed in relation to Species should be chosen for which there is this infrastructure. already husbandry experience or technology available and that are appropriate for the range of Environment environmental conditions at the site. Nutrient load management Performance assessment Aquacuiture generates waste water that is loaded Will the species chosen perform at a commercially with nutrients. It is not clear yet how compatible acceptable level in inland waters? This is this is with existing use or management of saline essentially unknown at present for all but ground water. barramundi at a single location.

* School of Aquaculture, University of Tasmania, PO Box 1214, Launceston, Tasmania 7250; Tel: 03 63243818; Fax: 03 63243804; e-mail: [email protected]

55 Technologies developing inland aquaculture industry if policy development could be encouraged in advance of System type and design commercial interest. rather than being driven by This is dictated largely by site constraints, but the it. Policy initiatives in Australia will be relevant transfer of generic aquaculture technology will be elsewhere. possible. Harvest technology Priorities A price advantage often rests on small advantages General discussion suggested that the order of in product quality. Much of this is generated by priorities equates with the order of timing. harvest practice. Inland sites may offer special Short·term priorities advantages in this regard. 1. Collation of resource data and infrastructure Waste management availability. This involves creating solutions for the problems 2. Preliminary species selection. outlined under Environment, above. 3. Appropriate match of species with resources. 4. Preliminary performance assessment of target Economic species. Market research 5. Development of operational guidelines. 6. Development of feasibility and environmental This is essential. management plans for specific operations. Economic effects Medium-term priorities The introduction of a new industry into depressed L System design. rural economies has potentially high economic and 2. Optimisation of species performance. social effects. Market research and feasibility 3. Assessment and management of environmental analysis will be needed. effects. Offshore implications 4. Marketing strategies. 5. Disease management. Aid Longer-term priorities Management of inland saline waters is a large 1. Issues associated with increases in production problem in Asia. Approaches for establishing scale. aquaculture ventures based on the Australian 2. Product refinement and delivery. experience could contribute markedly to the 3. Mechanisms for technology transfer. effects of Australian aid programs. Technology export Operational guidelines for Associated with the above point is the potential environmentally sustainable production for export of technology developed in Australia. from inland saline waters This will happen anyway if inland aquaculture is Consideration of probable research priorities successful, so strategies for capturing the benefit identified the need for a set of generic operational need to begin with the early stages of project guidelines for all aquaculture developments using development. inland saline waters. Policy development 1. Operations should not in any way exacerbate existing inland salinity problems, and should Slow evolution of management and development preferably offset costs of of saline water policies by regulatory authorities for mariculture management. has acted as a brake on development. This has not 2. Release of waste water and nutrients from always been desirable. It would be helpful to a aquaculture operations should be minimised at

56 least to conform with water management practice in the industry. regulations and at best to return water in as near 5. Operations should include management as possible to its original state. programs for animal interactions and, in near­ 3. Operations will have to conform with existing natural or natural waters, accidental release of regulations or policies for translocation. farmed organisms. Sensible consideration needs to be gi ven to 6. It is highly desirable that inland saline whether inland operations might fall outside the aquaculture be integrated with existing range of conditions for which translocation multiple-use water strategies. This does not policies were developed. preclude single-use strategies where they 4. Operations must manage disease and contain comply with guideline I and where they confer pathogens in ways that at least meet legislation a significant advantage for aquaculture over requirements and at best reflect current best traditional techniques.

57 Coordinating mechanisms for research and development in Australia

Session coordinator: Patrick Hone*

THE RESEARCH TOPICS we discussed in this workshop successful development. Further, the two groups plenary session can be split into two distinct are suited to different client bases. The devel­ groups: development of new inland saline water opment of new saline resources using deep resources and development of existing saline water aquifers is more suited to fish farmers, whereas resources. As shown in Figure I, these two systems existing saltwater exploitation is suitable for either have different R&D requirements to achieve their land-based farmers wanting a diversification in

Figure 1: Inland saline water development for aquaculture.

"'" BENEFIT/COST ($) FRAMEWORK NEW USAGE ---I .-. _._. _. _.- ._._._ ..... 1---. , , , , , DEEP-WATER , , , , , AQUIFER , HATCHERY ENVIRONMENT , ~ ~ ~ • Iow volume ~, EFFECT? , • constant • proven technology , • Minor , water quality I...... ' • good flow .-'"'''''''''''''''''''''''' " • pathogen-free ·, ,. ,· ,. • internal GROWOUT ENVIRONMENT , management ~ ~ • high volume ~ .--+' ,~ , EFFECT , , • developing technology , ? , , -- I, ...... _-.!

EXISTING RESOURCE ,·,-'"'''''''''''''''''''''''' " ., SHALLOW IN-LINE , ENVIRONMENT , AQUIFER ____(I?~~~ 5>!: S:?9~L ______! uu ~EE!=_~~ u_>: ,.. OR , , ? ! SALINE LAKE • no control ! , I, ...... 1 ,ut, --t. I , ,_ ...... '''-''''''1 • variable quality I · . I I I I ! I I I • flow problems I OFF-LINE I I ENVIRONMENT i I • spatial (e.g. tank) I~ ~ EFFECT ~ distribution I I I I , • partial control I I ! ? ! I • external I 1I ____ I, ...... management ---_ ..

* Program Manager, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, PO Box 222, Deakin West, ACT 2600; Tel: 0262854485; Fax: 0262854421; e-mail: [email protected]

58 crops or water regulatory agencies. In both these limited supply because of the age of the cases the cost of development can be discounted industry. against other economic considerations. It is • No R&D plan exists to guide funding agencies. important to note that both groups will employ Several agencies have an interest in the the techniques of aquaculture, and so aquaculture development of inland saline water. Without the should always be seen as a technique and not development of an R&D plan there exists the necessary equated with a type of person. possibility of duplication of r ~.,;earch. A collab­ By identifying two groups with different R&D orative approach will allow best usage of the requirements it is possible to further determine limited funds available from the funding sources. an appropriate mechanisms for coordinating To achieve this it is important to quantify the R&D. Before this is done, some of the limitations benefits and outcomes that each agency seeks in should be stated: its strategy for the development of inland saline • Only limited research funds are available, from waters. a variety of different sources (RIRDC, The following mechanism for coordinating LWRRDC, ACIAR, CRC for Aquaculture, research is suggested: FRDC, state agencies, catchment authorities). 1. Document the available information and • Funding sources have no overall development current R&D (this workshop). plan for saline water use for aquaculture. 2. Develop an R&D plan that identifies research • Each development agency has different priorities, research providers, economic objectives that are not necessarily com­ benefits and clients (RIRDC and others). This plementary. plan should clearly identify a development • The saline water resource is diverse and is schedule and responsible agencies. separated by vast distances, making coord­ 3. Develop an integrated agriculture-aquaculture ination costly and difficult. program and a standalone aquaculture program • People with aquaculture R&D skills are in to use inland saline waters.

59 Workshop participants

Geoff All an Patrick Hone Research Supervisor (Aquaculture), NSW Program Manager, Fisheries Research and Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre, Development Corporation, PO Box 222, Deakin Taylors Beach Road, Taylors Beach, NSW West, ACT 2600; Tel: 026285 4485; Fax: 02 2316; Tel: 02 4982 1232; Fax: 024982 1107; e­ 62854421; e-mail: [email protected] mail: [email protected] Glen Hurry Chris Barlow Manager (Aquaculture), Fisheries Policy Manager, Aquaculture (North), Department of Branch, Department of Primary Industry and Primary Industries, Freshwater Fisheries and Energy, GPO Box 858, Canberra, ACT 2601 ; Aquaculture Centre, Walkamin, Queensland Tel: 026272 5037; Fax: 026272 4215; e-mail: 4872; Tel: 074093 3733; Fax: 07 4093 3903; e­ [email protected] mail: [email protected] Wayne Hutchinson John Blackwell SARDI Aquatic Research Centre, 2 Hamra Ave, Assistant Chief, CSIRO Division of Land and West Beach, SA 5022; Tel: 08 82002400; Water, Private Mail Bag3.Griffith. NSW 2680; Fax: 08 8200 2481; Tel: 0269601500; Fax: 02 69601600; e-mail: e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Greg Jenkins Michael A. Borowitzka Project Manager, AquacuIture Development School of Biological and Environmental Unit, Fremantle TAFE, I Fleet St, Fremantle, Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA WA 6160; Tel: 08 9239 8030; 6150; Tel: 0893602333; Fax: 0893606303; e­ Fax: 08 9239 8081; e-mail: mail: [email protected] jenki g@smc_aquaculture.devetwa.edu.au Alan Butler Leonie Jenkins CSIRO Division of Marine Research, PO Box ACIAR Fisheries Program Assistant, NSW 20, North Beach, WA 6020; Tel: 08 9422 8229; Fisheries, PO Box 21, Cronulla, NSW 2230; Fax: 08 9422 8222; Tel: 029527 8462; Fax: 02 9523 5966; e-mail: e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Geoff Gooley John Keesing Manager, Inland Systems Division, Marine and SARDI Aquatic Research Centre, 2 Hamra Ave, Freshwater Resources Institute, Private Bag 20, West Beach, SA 5022; Tel: 08 8200 2400; Alexandra, Victoria 3714; Tel: 03 5774 2208; Fax: 08 8200 2481 ; Fax: 03 57742659; e-mai J: keesing.john @pi.sa.gov.au e-mail: [email protected]

60 Ch an Lee Greg Paust Faculty of Science, University of the Northern Program Manager (Pearling and Aquaculture), Territory, Darwin, NT 0909; Tel: 08 89466358; WA Fisheries Department, 3rd Floor SGIO Fax: 08 8946 6690; Atrium, 168-170 Georges Terrace, Perth, WA e-mail: [email protected] 6000; Tel: 08 9482 7333; Fax: 0894827363; e­ Bob Nulsen maiJ: [email protected] Agriculture WA, Locked Bag No. 4, Bentley Barney Smith Delivery Centre, WA 6983; Tel: 0893683484; ACIAR Research Program Coordinator Fax: 08 9368 3355; (Fisheries), NSW Fisheries, PO Box 21, e-mail: [email protected] Cronulla, NSW 2230; Tel: 02 9527 8462; Damian Ogburn Fax: 0295235966; e-mail: [email protected] Manager (Aquaculture), NSW Fisheries, Port Stephens Research Centre, Taylors Beach Road, Perry Smith Taylors Beach, NSW 2316; Tel: 024982 1232; Principal Economist, AB ARE, GPO Box 1563, Fax: 02 4982 1107; Canberra, ACT 2601; Tel: 02 6272 2024; Fax: e-mail: [email protected] 026272 2344; e-mail: [email protected] Professor Ned Pankhurst Jasper Trendall Program Leader, CRC for Aquaculture, Key WA Fisheries Department, Stirling Terrace, Centre for Aquaculture, University of Tasmania, Albany, WA6330; Tel: 08 9842 5346; Fax: 08 PO Box 1214, Launceston, Tasmania 7250; Tel: 9842 1112; e-mail: [email protected] 03 6324 3818; Fax: 03 6324 3804; e-mail: lan Willett [email protected] ACIAR Research Program Coordinator (Land and Water Resources One), ACIAR, GPO Box 1571, Canberra, ACT 2601; Tel: 0262170532; Fax: 0262170501; e-mail: [email protected]

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