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Home , 1929 in aviation, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, Boeing 247, Charles Lindbergh, Lockheed Vega, Orteig Prize

LESSON 3 Early Developments in Commercial Flight

HARLES A. LINDBERGH was one of many Quick Write young men and women learning to fl y C in 1922. He toured as a wing walker and parachutist in a act, and then as a pilot. He joined the Lindbergh did not have modern navigation Army in 1924 and graduated fi rst in his fl ying class equipment or another in 1925, but did not receive a regular commission. pilot when he made his He joined the Army Reserve and returned to civilian famous -to- fl ight. After reading the life. He then spent a year as a pilot for the new story about his fl ight across service. the , name three things that make In September 1926 he decided to try to fl y across this solo fl ight a historical the Atlantic. He had his eye on the — accomplishment. $25,000 for the fi rst pilot to fl y solo nonstop from to Paris, . Lindbergh knew that other pilots were after the same prize, so he moved fast. He had $2,000 of his own Learn About savings, plus $13,000 he’d collected from businessmen

• why ’s in St. Louis. He struck a deal with Ryan Inc. contribution to to build him a plane. He wanted a high-wing became famous with a single air-cooled 220-horsepower • the signifi cance of Wright Whirlwind engine. ’s transatlantic fl ights Just 60 days after the contract was signed, Ryan • how early developments delivered the aircraft. After a few weeks of test benefi ted commercial fl ights, Lindbergh was ready. He named the aircraft aviation the Spirit of St. Louis, in honor of the men who • the consequences of the Airmail Act had supported him. • the introduction of On 10 , he fl ew nonstop from passenger service in aviation to St. Louis. After a brief stop, he fl ew on to New York • the contributions of City. He made it in 21 hours and 20 minutes of fl ying aircraft manufacturers time. No one had ever fl own across the country so fast. to

88 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight He had set a record before he even took off for Paris. On 20 May, after waiting a while for the Vocabulary to clear, he took off from a rain-soaked runway at • milestone Roosevelt Field. • apprentice Lindbergh had no radio. He had only a to guide • autogiro him as he fl ew above the stormy skies over the North • transcontinental Atlantic. And he was alone. • circuit • equator But 27 hours after taking off, he saw a promising sight: • mainstream the green western edge of the British Isles. Circling low, • blind fl ight he spotted some boats in the water. He leaned out of • spatial disorientation his plane and called down to the fi shermen: “Which way • fl ight simulator is ?” • He was on course. And he was ahead of schedule. He • amendment crossed the Irish Sea and the . Finally • scheduled he entered the French skies. • subsidy • incentive He touched down 21 May 1927 at Airport • stressed skin outside Paris. He’d fl own 3,600 miles in 331/2 hours • retractable and won the Orteig prize. • cowling • twin-fl oat

Lindbergh’s route across the North Atlantic

LESSON 3 Early Developments in Commercial Flight 89 Why Charles Lindbergh’s Contribution to Aviation Became Famous

In times past, travelers would often see big stones or slate tablets along the road. These stones marked the distance to the next town. These were called milestones. Today people use the word milestone to describe an important event, such as a breakthrough in the advancement of knowledge in a fi eld. The ’ fl ight on 17 December 1903 was a milestone fl ight. So was Lindbergh’s transatlantic solo fl ight, which opened the door to the daily international air travel we enjoy today. In the early , the golden age of aviation, such milestone fl ights came one after another. Today, jumbo jets fl y from New York to Paris in less than one-third the time Lindbergh took. But his fl ight—which demonstrated the potential of the airplane as a safe, reliable mode of transportation—still stands as one of the greatest individual achievements of all time. The minute his plane touched down in Paris, Lindbergh became an international hero. Newspapers and magazines around the world reported on his achievement. The barnstormers had built public interest in aviation by giving farmers fi ve-minute spins over their cornfi elds. In , still piloting the Spirit of St. Louis, Lindbergh embarked on a tour of the country. A high-level kind of barnstorming, you might call it. In a little more than three months, he fl ew 22,350 miles back and forth across the . He made speeches in 72 cities. Lindbergh encouraged people to get pilot training. His efforts to promote civil aviation led to the construction of hundreds of airports. He was a true goodwill ambassador for aviation. In December Lindbergh capped off a historic year with a 3,200-mile all-American tour. He began with a nonstop fl ight from Washington, D.C., to City. He then continued southward to a dozen other Latin American countries. Over the next several years, Lindbergh and his wife, , worked in civil aviation. They made The Spirit of St. Louis at the National Air and Space survey fl ights to determine the best Museum in Washington, D.C. routes for new airlines. Martha Dean/Shutterstock

90 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 91 Charles A. Charles A. Lindbergh Library Division, of Congress, Prints and Photographs George Grantham Bain Collection, ggbain 35317 Early Developments in Commercial Flight The Right Stuff Right The Charles Lindbergh—“Lucky Lindy”— Charles Lindbergh—“Lucky life to lead a charmed appeared his life was not in many ways, but or tragedy. without controversy personal He and his wife suffered infant son was tragedy when their in 1932. kidnapped and murdered of the most The case was one rst half of the fi sensational crimes of life Weary of the 20th century. in the public eye, the Lindberghs moved to . all that peaceful wasn’t But was brewing. War in the . of Lindbergh assessed the strength in countries of different the air forces he called for the a result, As Europe. United States and its Allies to make with the Germans that an agreement He thought the would end the war. to defeat too strong Germans were in battle. for the War and made a survey States in 1939 Lindbergh returned to the United opposed that the , a group Department. He gave speeches for and he him pro-Nazi, II. For this, some people branded War the US entry into World his Army Reserve commission. resigned services to the his II, he offered War World when the United States entered But in 1941, he went on several missions as a civilian consultant to the Ford Later, Army Air Force. cially an “observer,” Although offi Corporation. Motor Company and the c. ew 50 combat missions during a tour of duty in the Pacifi he fl Eisenhower and the US Senate returned Lindbergh to the Air Force President In 1954, Reserve as a brigadier general. Lindbergh died in 1974. Charles A. A. Charles Lindbergh LESSON 3 The Right Stuff Anne Morrow Lindbergh: Aviator and Writer In 1927 Anne Morrow was in when Charles Lindbergh showed up for Christmas dinner at her parents’ house. He was on the goodwill tour of Latin American countries that he made after his historic transatlantic fl ight. Anne’s father, , was the US ambassador to Mexico. Lindbergh had stopped to spend the holiday with him and his family. Anne and Charles fell in love, and in 1929 they married. They formed a remarkable partnership. She learned to fl y. The sky was the one place they could be alone together, away from hero-worshipping crowds. She referred to herself as “Charles’s faithful page.” Anne Morrow Lindbergh Her husband said of her, “No woman exists or Library of Congress, cph 3a49159 has existed who is her equal.” As an aviator, Anne Lindbergh is best known for her 1931 fl ight to via the “Great Circle Route.” She accompanied her husband, serving as his copilot, navigator, and radio operator. The Lindberghs showed it was possible to reach from the United States by fl ying over and the North Pole, rather than across an ocean. She wrote about the trip in a book called North to the Orient. Writing was a way for her to establish her own identity and to step out of her husband’s shadow. She also wrote Listen: The Wind and Gift from the Sea. She lived until 2001.

The Signifi cance of Amelia Earhart’s Transatlantic Flights

Amelia Earhart also made two milestone fl ights across the Atlantic. The story of her achievement sheds light on the state of aviation at the time. Lindbergh’s historic solo crossing did not lead to routine air travel right away. Flying was still dangerous. In 1927, the year Lindbergh achieved fame, 19 men and women died in unsuccessful attempts to fl y across the Atlantic.

92 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 93 — apprentice

, reaching helicopter-like aircraft , an early, autogiro

—fl ight in an autogiro. —coast-to-coast—fl Early Developments in Commercial Flight transcontinental LESSON 3 But not everyone Earhart as a hero. Some critics said she’d gotten a free ride. accepted luck and the skill of her male pilot. She struggled They said she’d depended on the ights. her courage: she made more milestone fl nally she proved with self-doubt. But fi She set the altitude record for an skilled and brave aviator. But she made it. No free ride this time. She proved she was a The press hailed her as “Lady Lindy.” Like Lindbergh, Earhart gained fame overnight. Like Lindbergh, The press hailed her as “Lady Lindy.” And like him, she toured the country. she touched down at a farm outside Londonderry in Northern Fifteen hours later, clouds, and strong winds. Ireland. She had covered 2,065 miles, braving storms, heavy a broken weld in the She had coped with iced-up wings, instrument problems, and exhaust system. Stultz was one of the best pilots of that day. And Earhart, even though wedged between And Earhart, of that day. Stultz was one of the best pilots miss a thing. She watched every move Stultz didn’t two gas tanks for most of the trip, through fog and storms. And she got it all down made. She saw how he maneuvered in her notebook. from , Newfoundland. she took off in her On 20 May 1932 ight. famous fl fth anniversary of Lindbergh’s It was the fi a person who works with a skilled master to learna person who works with a skilled by practical experience. person, to make a rst woman, and second feet. Then she became the fi 18,415 the milestone that mattered most was a solo content. For her, But Earhart still wasn’t rst woman to do it. crossing of the Atlantic. She wanted to be the fi After all, she had gone along, as she later indicated in the title of her autobiography, her autobiography, she later indicated in the title of After all, she had gone along, as a great opportunity for her to be an ight was “for the fun of it.” But the fl Stultz got a $20,000 award. Gordon got $5,000. Earhart received no money. got $5,000. Earhart Stultz got a $20,000 award. Gordon The plane Stultz, Gordon, and Earhart fl Friendship—a Fokker C-2 ew was the Gordon, and Earhart fl The plane Stultz, dangerous trip. They lost paint job. It was a long, cold, ame-red fl with a gold and landed. a gallon of fuel left when they They had only the way. radio contact on of Ireland. But they made it instead in the wrong country—Wales And they landed across the Atlantic. In , however, aviator Wilmer Stultz asked her a favor. He and his navigator, and his navigator, He asked her a favor. Stultz Wilmer aviator however, 1928, In April They them as they crossed the Atlantic. Earhart to accompany Louis Gordon, wanted to Amy Phipps Guest. She wanted offered by Pittsburgh heiress were seeking a prize a passenger. if only as the ocean in the air—even get a woman across Amelia Earhart was the fi rst woman to fl went as she But the Atlantic. y across to fl woman rst the fi was Earhart Amelia yet Earhart hadn’t ight training. But some fl She’d had not a pilot. a passenger, her life to aviation. devoted Earhart reached another milestone in 1935 as the fi rst pilot to fl y from Honolulu to Oakland, . That trip took 18 hours and 16 minutes. At that point, she felt the only goal left was a “true” round-the-world fl ight. Other pilots had fl own around the world by that time. But they’d made their circuits in the , where there is more land. A circuit is a route that passes through one or more points and then returns to the starting point. Pilots could make a circuit of the globe by “island hopping”—making periodic stops to refuel. Earhart’s goal was to circle the globe as close as possible to the equator—the imaginary circle that divides Earth into northern and southern halves. Earhart took off 2 June 1937. With her was copilot Frederick Noonan. All went well for 40 days. They racked up 22,000 miles. But on the longest leg of the trip, from Lae, New Guinea, to Howland Island in the Pacifi c, the plane disappeared. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered a massive search. It was not successful. On 18 July 1937, the US Navy declared Earhart and Noonan lost at sea.

The Right Stuff Amelia Earhart: Aviation Pioneer Amelia Earhart (1897–1937) is one of the most outstanding women in aviation. Had she lived longer, she probably would have accomplished even more. Sadly, she disappeared at the peak of her career. She was born in Kansas. She learned to fl y, but didn’t have a clear career goal. She was a teacher and social worker in . She thought about becoming a doctor. But after becoming the fi rst woman to fl y across the Atlantic, she knew what she wanted to do with her life: she wanted to be an aviator. Earhart encouraged other women pilots. Like some other early aviators, she was also a writer. She published two books and even married her publisher, George Putnam, in 1931. She continued her career under her own name, however. Earhart’s disappearance during her around-the-world fl ight in 1937 remains one of the 20th century’s Amelia Earhart sitting in the of her Lockheed great mysteries. Electra, in which she disappeared in 1937 Everett Historical/Shutterstock

94 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 95 is . the act of taking off and —the act of taking Spatial disorientation blind fl ight blind fl the current of most people’s life and activities. life of most people’s —the current mainstream Early Developments in Commercial Flight FIGURE 2.1 How Early Developments Benefi ted Commercial Aviation Commercial ted Benefi Developments How Early a condition in which a person’s sense of direction does not agree with reality does not agree sense of direction a condition in which a person’s is up. In the know which end literally doesn’t A pilot who is spatially disoriented They could get confused when visibility was poor. early days, even experienced pilots left when they were banking right. This happenedsometimes thought they were banking horizon, which they used to orient themselves. because they’d lost sight of the LESSON 3 1st Doolittle’s Blind Flight Route Lieutenant Doolittle’s 1st This milestone was reached in a fl James Harold Doolittle on ight by1st Lieutenant was reached in a fl This milestone rst successful His was the fi 24 September 1929. If commercial airlines were to be a part of the nation’s commerce and transportation, and transportation, commerce nation’s a part of the were to be airlines If commercial y during fog able to fl also had to be y at night. They to fl to be able planes needed if aviation was This problem had to be solved as in good weather. and storms as well to be part of the Ocker worked with Captain David A. Myers, the fl ight surgeon at Crissy Field, A. Myers, the fl Ocker worked with Captain David of spatial disorientation. California, to solve the problem Doolittle’s blind fl ight built on the work of Sergeant William C. Ocker, the third C. Ocker, Sergeant William ight built on the work of blind fl Doolittle’s a pilot. enlisted man in the Army to become . He took off, fl ew fi ve ew fi solely on instrumentslanding relying . He took off, fl inside the cockpit for guidance work, out of the plane. Because of his safely—all without looking miles, and landed instruments and two-way radios. equipping planes with manufacturers started Ocker knew about spatial disorientation. He’d struggled with it himself. For years he had used a turn-and-bank indicator, a device created by his friend Elmer Sperry, to help him stay oriented while fl ying. But the device never seemed to work in bad weather. At such times, it often gave a reading at odds with what Ocker’s instincts were telling him. Ocker’s “lightbulb” moment came when he realized that the times when the indicator seemed wrong were exactly the times when he needed it most. When he was disoriented, the indicator was correct. Ocker failed an orientation test when Captain Myers spun him around in a special chair designed to simulate the conditions that gave pilots so much trouble. But Ocker passed when he brought along and used his trusty turn-and-bank indicator. Many early pilots took pride in their ability to “fl y by the seat of their pants.” But Ocker and Myers realized that pilots of the future would have to rely more heavily on instruments. Their work led to Doolittle’s successful blind fl ight. Ocker developed a number of devices that became critical to pilot training and aviation in general. These inventions are forerunners of today’s fl ight simulators. A fl ight simulator is a training device that simulates, or imitates, the experience and sensation of fl ight. It lets pilots train without having to go up in the air.

FIGURE 2.2 A Turn and Bank Indicator in Three Different Turning Positions Ivsanmas)/Shutterstock

96 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight The Right Stuff Lieutenant General James “Jimmy” Doolittle: Versatile Aviator Lieutenant General James Harold “Jimmy” Doolittle (1896–1993) was one of the most versatile fi gures in American aviation. Despite his name, this famous aviator could do just about anything. He was born in Alameda, California. He attended the University of California and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He got fl ight training during . He made the fi rst successful blind takeoff and landing in 1929. He left the Army Air Corps in 1930 and entered private business. But fi rst and foremost a Soldier, he returned to the Air Corps in 1940.

Early in WW II, Doolittle led a surprise raid on , Japan’s Lieutenant General James Doolittle capital, on 18 April 1942. It involved 16 twin-engine B-25 . Courtesy US Air Force For this daring raid, the planes took off from the USS Hornet. He won the for his role in this raid. Later, he served in North and Europe. He became a lieutenant general in 1944. When the war ended in 1945, he returned to private business. In 1989, President awarded him a Presidential Medal of Freedom.

The Right Stuff Katherine Sui Fun Cheung: First Asian-American Woman Pilot Katherine Sui Fung Cheung (1904–2003) left China at 17 to study music in . At age 26, she started fl ying lessons. She made her fi rst solo fl ight after only 121/2 hours of instruction. She became the fi rst licensed Asian-American woman pilot in the United States. A member of the exclusive “Ninety-Nines” club— an organization of 99 women pilots, such as Amelia Earhart and Phoebe Fairgrave Omlie, who worked to further women’s interest in aviation and aviation in general—she took part in air shows and air races. (The Ninety-Nines organization continues today.) Cheung amazed crowds with her rolls and loops in the air. Cheung planned to go to China to train pilots there. But a tragic crash that killed her cousin ended those plans. At 38, she promised her dying father she would give up fl ying. She kept her promise and in later years Katherine Sui Fun Cheung went into the fl ower business. Credit: Los Angeles Public Library

LESSON 3 Early Developments in Commercial Flight 97 The Right Stuff Sergeant William C. Ocker: A Flying Hero Moves Up Through the Ranks When William Charles Ocker enlisted in the US Army in 1898, most Soldiers were still on the ground. Ocker helped give the Army wings. He became an excellent pilot. When he took the test for his license, the examiner wrote, “It was the most remarkable series of landings ever made by a student fl ying for a pilot’s license. Ocker’s mastery of the William C. Ocker’s pilot’s license machine was superb.…” He got his license Courtesy US Air Force Enlisted Heritage Hall on 29 April 1914. But his great achievements were in laying the foundation for blind fl ight and developing testing and training equipment. Ocker was born in . He left school at the end of seventh grade. He enlisted during the Spanish-American War. He saw action in that confl ict and the Philippine Insurrection as well. On guard duty in Fort Myer, Virginia, in 1909, he’d seen the Wright brothers demonstrate their aircraft. From then on, he knew he wanted to fl y. He became the third enlisted man allowed to serve as a pilot. Later Ocker became an offi cer. Among his many aviation inventions was the 1938 development of a new type of airplane that made less noise and vibrated less. This meant less stress on the propeller blades. His ambition, he often said, was to be not the best pilot, but the oldest pilot. He was indeed one of the oldest pilots in time of service in the Army Air Corps. He retired as a and died in 1942 at age 62. His contributions to helped countless aviators live longer, saving many lives during World War II. In 1955, the Air Force presented the Legion of Merit medal to his widow, Doris Ocker. Sergeant Ocker in full dress uniform Courtesy US Air Force Enlisted Heritage Hall

98 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 99 taking on more fuel in fl ight . in fl fuel more is taking on , which g aerial refuelin

, 4 January 1929 4 January , Question Mark Early Developments in Commercial Flight Courtesy US Air Force , 4 January 1929 4 January Refueling the Question Mark, Refueling the LESSON 3 Another hurdle to mainstream aviation was providing enough fuel for long-distance long-distance enough fuel for was providing aviation hurdle to mainstream Another for needed a system runs. Pilots The First Air Refueling of the Refueling Air The First Two Douglas C-1 aircraft, each with a three-man crew, provided the fuel for the each with a three-man crew, Douglas C-1 aircraft, Two Auby C. Strickland, and 2nd Question Mark. Captain Ross G. Hoyt, 1st Lieutenant Members of the second crew served as one tanker crew. Lieutenant Irvin A. Woodring and 2nd Lieutenant Solter, 2nd Lieutenant Andrew F. Lieutenant Odas Moon, were 1st ight refueling. the practicality of in-fl Joseph G. Hopkins. Their feat demonstrated , a Fokker took off in the Question Mark Day 1929, On New Year’s had set an endurance he landed—almost a week later—he By the time C-2 Trimotor. Harry 1st Lieutenant Halverson, his crew—Captain Ira C. Eaker, record. Spaatz and up Hooe—stayed Sergeant Roy W. Elwood R. Quesada, and Staff 2nd Lieutenant They had refueled 37 times. seconds. 40 minutes, and 15 hours, 150 Two Army , 1st Lieutenant Lowell H. Smith and 1st Lieutenant J. P. Richter, Richter, J. P. and 1st Lieutenant Lowell H. Smith 1st Lieutenant lieutenants, Army Two a supply aircraft running a 50-foot hose from They tanked up by 1923. achieved this in time. about 50 gallons of fuel each a long trip. They could pump to a plane making minutes. to stay aloft for 37 hours and 15 They were able The Consequences of the Airmail Act

Aerial refueling was important for the Army. But other, everyday things brought aviation into the mainstream for most Americans. Two of the most important were airmail service and the birth of commercial airlines. The Post Offi ce Department started the fi rst airmail service on 15 May 1918. It used a few planes borrowed from the Army. Regular airmail service started 1 July 1924. Airmail not only sped up mail delivery—it contributed a great deal to the development of the airlines. The Airmail Act of 1925—also known as the Kelly Act—allowed private companies to carry mail under contract with the US government. This was a big boost for the aviation industry. Government contracts ensured a steady fl ow of money to the new airlines. In fact, the money from carrying the mail was so good for the airlines that their planes often had hardly any room for people. Most mail planes carried only two or three passengers.

Lighting the Way for the Mail

THE FIRST AIRMAIL PILOTS in the had a tough job. They fl ew in rebuilt warplanes with open . They fl ew through rain, fog, and high winds. They had no radios, weather stations, instruments, or beacons. One of the most important early airmail routes went between New York and . These planes fl ew over the Allegheny Mountains. The route was so dangerous that pilots called it “the graveyard run.” What’s more, the airmail service wasn’t holding its own against the railroads. The trains, after all, rolled on day and night. To meet the competition, postal authorities introduced night fl ights. At fi rst, Post Offi ce staff, farmers, and other people built bonfi res to light the pilots’ way at night. Then came electric beacons. These were powerful rotating lights mounted on 50-foot towers. Towers were built every 10 to 15 miles along a cross-country route. Emergency landing fi elds were built about every 30 miles. Lights for landing and navigation were soon added to planes as another safety feature. The government launched regular airmail service on 1 July 1924. At that time, the United States had the world’s fi rst regular night service on a lighted airway. The route ran between New York City and the West Coast. From this “trunk” airway, branch A rotating light beacon lines grew all over the country. This was another major advance Julie DeGuia/Shutterstock in aviation.

100 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 101 . These are airlines that scheduled airlines

—to the Air Mail Act of 1925. or change—to the Air Mail —a revision amendment

Early Developments in Commercial Flight The Introduction of Passenger Service in Aviation Service in Passenger of The Introduction LESSON 3 Competing for passengers, who worried about comfort and safety, the airlines Competing for passengers, who worried about comfort and safety, them better and better planes. But companies to build worked with aircraft feet, because there was not enough y higher than 10,000 fl these planes couldn’t also encountered more storms oxygen at higher altitudes. At that level, aircraft introduced the when and turbulence. This would be a problem until 1940, y at 20,000 feet. rst pressurized cabin and could fl which had the fi 307 Stratoliner, have fl ights that depart grew and arrive at set times. The number of passengers have fl three years later. to 173,000 from 6,000 in 1926 By the end of the decade, however, Charles Lindbergh’s vision of civil aviation was vision Lindbergh’s Charles By the end of the decade, however, of ight, the number fl a year of his 1927 Within taking form in the United States. licensed The number of to 11,000. licensed pilots in the country grew from 1,500 most the country’s ying airplanes became Building and fl planes also rose sharply. were 44 there table business. By 1929 profi In the 1920s, an air traveler might fi nd himself (or less often herself) one of fi ve nd himself (or less often herself) one of fi might fi an air traveler In the 1920s, cabin. The noise of the engines was deafening. passengers in an enclosed, unheated through turbulence, and sometimes pilots ew fl The ride was bumpy as the plane a cloud or avoid getting lost. y at treetop level to get under had to fl It took a while before the advantages of air travel would overcome the disadvantages the of air travel would overcome It took a while before the advantages ight rst scheduled airline fl cost. The fi and of passenger discomfort, bad weather, and St. Petersburg, Florida. Tampa between in 1914 in the United States took place and was soon followed by In Europe, passenger service began in in 1919 ights between Paris and . French fl The McNary-Watres Act led to United Airline’s contract to build the Boeing B-247 contract to build the Boeing led to United Airline’s Act The McNary-Watres role in air service contracts played an important Such the across and other aircraft. mail over water led to regular y the fl needed to seas as well. The oceans. The act also encouraged c passenger service Pacifi across the Atlantic and that held more passengers. y bigger planes airlines to fl In 1930 Postmaster General Arthur F. Brown got Congress to pass the McNary-Watres McNary-Watres to pass the Brown got Congress F. General Arthur Postmaster In 1930 an Act. This act was That changed with the passage of the Air Commerce Act on 20 May 1926. The act The 1926. 20 May Act on Commerce the Air of the passage with changed That pilots and aircraft. of aviation for safety regulation rst federal for the fi provided airlines. of commercial the growth It also sparked In 1926, the fi rst male stewards appeared on fl ights between and Chicago to attend to passengers and to load luggage. Then on 15 May 1930, Boeing Air Transport introduced the fi rst female fl ight attendants—then called stewardesses. Nurse Ellen Church convinced Boeing that nurses were best able to care for passengers. So at fi rst these women were nurses—they even wore nurses’ uniforms in fl ight. A stewardess had to be shorter than 5 feet, 4 inches tall, and single. She couldn’t weigh more than 118 pounds and had to be between the ages of 20 and 26. Government regulation of aviation developed along with the new industry. Until 1938, several government agencies were involved in making the rules for aviation. In that year, Congress passed the Civil Aviation Act, which created the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The new agency had the power to decide on airline fares, airmail rates, airline routes, mergers, and cooperation between airlines. Congress created a separate agency, the Air Safety Board, to investigate air accidents. In 1940 the two boards were merged into the Civil Aeronautics Board. This improved regulation and improvements in technology made the airline industry safer and more stable and ensured its fi nancial success. The number of airline passengers grew from 474,000 in 1932 to 1,176,858 in 1938. But even this was only 7.6 percent of the number of passengers who traveled by long-distance train. It would be many years before more Americans traveled by air than by train.

The Contributions of Aircraft Manufacturers to Commercial Aviation

As you read in the previous lesson, many aircraft companies fell on hard times when the government canceled their contracts at the end of World War I. William Boeing owned one such company. Despite the setback, he saw a future in aviation. He kept his company going. As a result, Boeing was in a good position when the government began to support aviation again. The opportunity came in the form of the new airmail service. When the government decided to let private fi rms carry the mail, new companies sprang up to do the job. To help these fi rms, the government offered subsidies. A subsidy is government money paid to a person or company that serves the public. When the government began to support passenger service, too, new rules gave airlines an incentive—a motivating reward— to fl y larger planes with more passenger space. The rules also encouraged the use of planes that could fl y in all types of weather.

102 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 103 . folded into the aircraft —it retractable

a covering to protect and streamline the engine. and streamline a covering to protect an outer covering that can stand up to the —an outer covering that can stand — cowling

stressed skin

Early Developments in Commercial Flight The Boeing 247The , NASM-14082 United Air Lines, National Air and Space Museum, LESSON 3 push-and-pull forces of fl ight. Its was of fl push-and-pull forces Each of its two engines had a The Boeing 247 was the fi rst all-metal . Its wings were placed low on Its wings were airliner. rst all-metal The Boeing 247 was the fi It had a body. the plane’s Soon Boeing Air Transport won a contract to build a two-engine aircraft for a two-engine aircraft won a contract to build Soon Boeing Air Transport rolled out the Boeing 247. Boeing . In 1933 Shortly after United introduced the B-247, a second airline got into the act. Shortly after United introduced the B-247, signed a contract with Douglas Airlines (TWA) and Western Transcontinental plane. The result build an even bigger of Santa Monica, California, to Aircraft It cruised It came out in May 1934. or DC-2. was the Douglas Commercial-2, passengers and several thousand pounds of mail mph. It could carry 14 at 192 up to 900 miles. The B-247 could carry 10 passengers and 400 pounds of mail. It could cruise at The B-247 could carry 10 and miles an hour (mph). “Same-day” service between New York 189 was now possible. Modern airline service had begun. The C-47—the government ordered 10,000 of these planes during World War II. Courtesy US Air Force

Meanwhile, a third airline—American Airways—was fl ying foreign-built aircraft. American was also losing money. It asked Douglas Aircraft to improve on the DC-2. The result was the DC-3. The DC-3 could carry 24 passengers, or 5,000 pounds of cargo, a distance of 1,200 miles. American Airways rolled out the fi rst DC-3 in June 1936. Douglas added soundproofi ng and upholstered seats to greatly reduce noise and vibration. The DC-3 became one of the most successful planes ever built. By 1939 it was carrying at least 75 percent of all commercial traffi c. Later, during World War II, Douglas developed a version of the DC-3— the C-47. Douglas built some 10,000 of these planes for the Army Air Force. The C-47’s offi cial name was the Skytrain. But pilots called it the Gooney Bird. (“Gooney bird” is another name for albatross, a large sea bird. Albatrosses are superb fl iers. They can fl y long distances without tiring.) Some C-47s are still in use. Another important advance was Pan American Airways’ Clippers. The Clippers came to represent a way of traveling in style and luxury. But they also marked a major step forward in aircraft development. Pan Am started out in 1927. It fl ew the fi rst airmail route between Key West, Florida, and , . In time the route extended down the Atlantic coast of . Pan Am pilots soon found themselves fl ying over water more often than over land. And in remote areas, seaplane bases were easier to build than land airports for ordinary airplanes.

104 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 105 over Oakland, California, California, California, over Oakland, over Oakland, China ClipperChina ClipperChina Clipper over Oakland, California, California, China Clipper over Oakland, in 1936 Pan American Airways American Airways Pan Pan Everett Historical/Shutterstock completed the fi rst fi completed the the China Clipper 1935, . On 29 November Early Developments in Commercial Flight They gave way to new types of land-based aircraft. The era of passenger-carrying seaplanes was short. During design made II, aircraft War World great strides. Four-engine land planes improved. New runways appeared around the world. As a result, seaplanes lost their competitive edge. There were only about two dozen There were only about two dozen seaplane Clippers. But they ned an era in air travel. They defi had an excellent safety record during their six and a half years in service. name Pan Am used the until the Clipper for other aircraft company went out of business The name of its famous in 1991. on because some lives aircraft it. other companies have adopted Regular passenger and airmail service across the Atlantic began on 20 May 1939 with and airmail serviceRegular passenger 1939 the Atlantic began on 20 May across ying boat.” the “ultimate fl Many considered this the Boeing 314. airmail fl ight between San Francisco and Manila, in the . By 1937 the route the Philippines. By 1937 San Francisco and Manila, in ight between airmail fl ying a round trip across Pan Am was fl to Hong Kong. By that time, went all the way c every seven days. the Pacifi Other airplane makers got into the fl ying-boat business. In 1934 Pan Am received a Pan Am received In 1934 ying-boat business. makers got into the fl Other airplane The airline called Glenn L. Martin Company. built by the Martin 130, larger boat, the it the China Clipper So Pan Am decided that the kind of “bigger and better” plane it needed was an it needed plane and better” “bigger kind of that the decided Am So Pan . designed Le Grand who had Igor Sikorsky, company hired seaplane. The advanced ying boat”— “fl a four-engine Sikorsky designed helicopter design.) won fame for (He later mph and carry the S-42, a Pan Am used 40 passengers. y 125 It could fl the S-40. c. the Pacifi routes across nd fi ights to survey to the S-40, for successor fl LESSON 3 The Right Stuff William E. Boeing Unlike most other pioneers of fl ight, William E. Boeing came to aviation as a businessman. He was the son of a wealthy Detroit businessman. He left Yale University in 1903 to start a timber business in the Pacifi c Northwest. A few years later, Boeing saw a public exhibition of fl ying in Los Angeles. He became fascinated with aviation. He made his fi rst fl ight in 1914. He decided he wanted to build his own planes. He thought he could build better planes than those in use at the time. He hired his friend George Conrad Westervelt, an engineer, to design and build a twin-fl oat seaplane. A twin-fl oat is an airplane with fl oats for landing on or taking off from a body of water. It was a success. Boeing launched the Boeing Airplane Company, later called Boeing Air Transport. In 1917 he sold the US Navy 50 of his Model C seaplanes for use in World War I. Like other airplane builders, Boeing lost his government contracts at the end of the war. He kept his business going by making furniture, cabinets, and boats. But Boeing didn’t lose interest in aircraft. Soon he built the Boeing-1, or B-1, a commercial . On 3 , he and his pilot, Eddie Hubbard, opened the fi rst international airmail route. They fl ew between Seattle, Washington, and Vancouver, British Columbia. A one-way trip was 140 miles. Soon Boeing won the contract for the San Francisco–Chicago airmail route. He served the route with a Boeing 40-A mail plane. Air, not water, kept the plane’s engine cool. This made the plane hundreds of pounds lighter. Boeing 40-As, he said, were designed to carry mail and people, not radiators. In 1934 Congress made it illegal for airmail carriers and aircraft builders to be part of the same company. Boeing had to break up his fi rm. But his reputation was assured. In that same year, he won the Guggenheim Medal for his contributions to aviation.

106 CHAPTER 2 Developing Flight Developing Flight 107

Early Developments in Commercial Flight

What were the roles of heroes such as Lindbergh and Earhart in developing What were the roles of heroes the US government? aviation? What was the role of Charles Lindbergh’s transatlantic solo fl opened the door to what? ight fl transatlantic solo Charles Lindbergh’s plane? of Lindbergh’s What was the name ve-year anniversary the fi did Amelia Earhart achieve on What milestone record? of Lindbergh’s to Amelia Earhart? What happened ight? rst successful blind fl Who made the fi sight of the horizon? What happened when a pilot lost other contribution what was the Besides speeding up mail delivery, of airmail service? Act? What was the McNary-Watres feet? y higher than 10,000 early passenger planes fl Why couldn’t Act? the Civil Aviation In what year did Congress pass What was the Boeing 247? were there? How many Pan Am Clipper seaplanes CHECKPOINTS CHECKPOINTS CHECKPOINTS CHECKPOINTS CHECKPOINTS CHECKPOINTS APPLYING YOUR YOUR LEARNING APPLYING 13. Using complete sentences, answer the following questions on a sheet of paper. sentences, answer the following Using complete 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Lesson 3 Review Lesson ✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔✔ LESSON 3