your heads.’” (Fisher 2015) heads.’”your (Fisher one be of it will time a note: prayer center with Corsica Islamic ‘Next in a mosque...ated with outside [and] were left an a boar’s entrails head and at amosque... adjacent Abombthrown at blast arestaurant to associ and grenades training “Three included took attacks spaces These place. Islamic and on Muslims attacks seventeen people, various killed extremists Islamic where three Paris in events of December In 2014, tragic the soon after Introduction identity studies, media Islam, religion online, islamophobia, Keywords: are crystalized. “Islamophobias” of apparatuses religious and political the the of sources, analysis thematic and careful Through dichotomies. against ‘Them’ ‘Us’ an from away stepping uses, over-simplified its sometimes and thegence of term the emer problematizes the article Furthermore, in that media. occur may the term of understanding and uses that varying and exist “Islamophobias” localized tiple, that mul suggested Itis Muslim online media. in Arab and Islamophobia of notions to Islamophobia(s) singular exploring plural by Islamophobia from amove supports article This fact. a concrete observable as definable and insimilar all its occurrences aglobal phenomenon, as to tend Islamophobia present attempts Those etc. symbols, and artifacts Islamic Muslims, of abuse legal verbal or physical, of incidents counter to in order Islamophobia attempted to define have scholars various and think tanks social Governments, media. news and policy government diplomacy, public work, in academic discussion heated of a source been it has to define difficult is lamophobia’ Although ‘Is of the concept rarely it is scholarly clearly texts, and defined. speeches politicians’ articles, newspapers many among term Apopular Islamophobia? is What Abstract: Texas University A&M Tsuria Ruth Islamophobia Media inOnlineArab yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 , pp. 57–83 - - - -

57 CorrespondingHelga Tawil-Souri author: Ruth Tsuria, Texas A&M University, 102 Bolton Hall, 4234 TAMU College St., TX 77843, USA. E-mail: [email protected] hering to Huntington’s Clash of Civilization (1996). to Huntington’shering of Clash vein Civilization to in a similar Thus, riskad we Man, global by a West/White suffering/oppressed/beaten lim, Islam/Mus aglobal By them. assuming between unavoidable the clashes and cultures of theunconsciousassumption purity the of might make term unified or attempts academic to Islamophobiause define or global, as a political the However, some of discourse. apolitical for aconstructing it such, is useful As Islam. or people/spaces or with spaces, associated symbols Islamic Muslims, Arabs, violence against psychical and verbal cultural, of incidents of legal, for acommonfor (United Nations, discussion term It 2004). the allowed has lamented theneed who Annan, Kofi as such figures, scholarly and political key been notedhas several by term use The of universal Islamophobiaas a concepts the for it whatquestion are stands? which (2012:674). to Islamophobia, Ido to but not like quibble with Iwould wish concept the from for -becomes aquibble.” it stands which it distinct -as with might we have that quarrel the of its own, alife a word come has of acquired ‘come “Once has thus term and the of is made that age’ assertion the Klug, an Islamophobia of term the offered by arecentBri In term. review universal the 2011) of problematizing 2010; Islamophobia thus Scalvini (Iqbal locality the for argues that trendscholarship in growing to join a like would article This fact. observable as aconcrete definable and its occurrences all in phenomenon,global similar etc. Those attempts tend to symbols, present and a Islamophobiaas artifacts Islamic of abuse Muslims, order verbal to counter legal incidents of physical, attempted have to Islamophobia define in scholars or various and tanks think Governments, media. publicwork, diplomacy, news and government policy academic source in discussion abeen of has heated and todefine is difficult phenomena, concept‘Islamophobic.’ the of social many ‘Islamophobia’ Like events such termed have scholars and Some 2006). leaders 2002, EUMC, 1997, (see over Europe Report, for Runnymede example: all 2004; reported were been considered have that Muslims individuals and Muslims of Arabs, abuse physical and verbal For abuses. decades, four such last the with familiar is not Europe in completely community un Muslim the Charlie Hebdo attacks, to horror a response the of as the seen be easily can events these Although yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 - - - - -

58 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri This is a difficult task, one that perhaps cannot be fully answered by this ar this by answered fully cannot be that perhaps one task, difficult is a This Islamophobias. the by all to shared consider core what of is set the features - or simply, localities Islamophobiaswe - need perspectives, different these However, level. of order in on to understood a local be speak only can which place, and its of context time within created uniquely of incidents, each riety concept the of - a va “Islamophobias” with replaced should be and helpful coherentthe that idea global, of a Islamophobia is suggests not article This locality. another offer certainly will and others, in agree ways, certain in discourse thefromwestern might differ that aperspective media, or Arab by Muslim understood are they as Arabs and Muslims out against of violence carried acts for understanding perspective anew avenue, might we gain this By exploring presentation (limited) media. of Islamophobia Arab initial in an providing of Islamophobia study by wishes growing to contributethe to article This about countries. Islamophobia produced been western in has written material (2010:82). and most definitions that tofact the Here, might Iqbar referring be USA.” and Australia Europe, across all it is conspicuouslytheless, observed too None complex and nomenon to to measure. understand, hard is subtle, phe “the way: Islamophobia introduces following Iqbal the in Nafar example, Islamophobia, tend or Western-centric to aEurocentric do in so way. For of localities the emphasize that It scholars noted those be should even that andspaces. times specific in people of sufferings not and imagined, the about real, information us the give would ‘Islamophobias’ term of plural use the this observations, local these that argue one can Furthermore, of term. use the for a more careful nuanced, allow (Gorak-Sosnowska, 2014), we (Saeed 2007), UK” or the “Islamophobia in 2011), (Scalvini Italy” Poland” “Islamophobia in “Islamophobia in as such bia, interpretationsand of Islamopho occurrences at Therefore,local by looking WhiteMan. (Said of 1979) aunified victims possibly as Orientalize Muslims could of ‘Islam’ is afraid Using west’ Islamophobia of ‘the amega-narrative in 1996), up. how Islamophobia some use queering could might to we want think of term ‘Woman’ to aglobal (Jagose or resistance of Patriarchy theory Queer yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 - - - - -

59 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri is used in academic writing, public debates, and in the media, it is not media, al the public in debates, and writing, academic in is used Islamophobia term the topic. acontroversial While of Islamophobia is still However, for decades. definition afew at the least circulation in been already concept the of and have Islamophobia, term the awareness as well as Muslims towards hostility the increased have events other terrorist and 11 terror attacks 1997 publication of report.” the (Bleich 2011:1582). September the Although the with discourse contemporary emerged in “Islamophobia only that argued phenomenonprehensive the attempt to research of Islamophobia, some and lenge Trust forUsand com 1997). All (Runnymede serious first It the was A Chal Islamophobia: is entitled and Trust Report Runnymede the as known 1997. in about written is Islamophobiareports report isreport aBritish This Twenty-First Century book to Islamophobia: introduction the their (2011), by Esposito Kalin and apoint stressed in some has importance, 2001 September of coinedbefore thewas 11, terror theattacks thatterm fact The hate by 2010). Vakil non-Muslimsand and of Muslims (Sayyid Wright1980; 1985; 1990), fear the Batunsky as Islamophobia understood was (Mescher publications first these In late 1980s. interest the in bia sparked the 20 the end at of the literature western in circulating Islamophobia started aterm as of term Islamophobia the Origins of Islamophobias. ofset feature Iconcludea by proposing media, Arab the of analysis thefrom findings key By highlighting selected. media of sample of the Arab analysis followed by an presented, be will media Arab to examine author article the of this allows that unique methodology the of explanation an Then literature. ment western in its emergence and - develop the of term the reviewing by shortly begin I will Islamophobias. of tures core of set for fea this adirection in us clue can that of perspectives myriad voice to gives a turn in perhaps western-informed?) which of media, review offer is a does new, non-western article produced(but this What alone. ticle th yber century. According to Sayyid and Vakil (2010), Vakil and to Islamopho Sayyid term According the century. C yber . In fact, one of the most well-known and influential influential one and of most fact, . In well-known the O rient, Vol. 9, Iss.

The Challenges The Of Pluralism In the 1, 2015 - - - - -

60 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri crimination against Muslim individuals and communities, and to and the communities, and individuals Muslim against crimination dis unfair in consequences of hostility such practical to the refers also [Islamophobia]It Islam. toward hostility an “unfounded as is defined Here, place. Islamophobiaof Islamophobia takes observation a deeper of anti-Muslim “nature prejudice,” the to is dedicated illustrating which second chapter. the in second chapter, the In Islamophobia already anew to authors define choose report the weakness, toout this of awareness precision. Islamophobia, and nuance Perhaps but to itway describe lacks 1997:1). Report Runnymede seems simple general bea to definition This (The or most Muslims” of all or dislike fear therefore, the -and, Islam of or hatred to dread of way referring [but]al... shorthand is auseful word is not “The ide toreport: the According 1980s. throughout the pointedword,” out, previously been has aconcept as emerged, that Islamophobia to “a is referred as new toreport, introduction the the In 2010). attention of to (Allen issues race too little and gions, reli different the too to much attention that relationsbeen between is given has report the against one members, of criticisms committee the the among diversity Despitethe backgrounds. and religious social different from came Professor Chair, the Gordon as 18 of Conway, whom well as members, all 2010). UK the(Allen, included of areas The committee different in tours ing consult afew by taking data members gathered committee the emerged and 1996 for In on Islamophobia rationale acommittee the trust. pendently by the inde and by scholars on collected data based equality, about of and issues race Trust 2014). (Runnymede engagement” policy producesand reports trust The debate, leading building, network research, through for Britain a multi-ethnic We generate tank. intelligence think independent equality race leading “UK’s considersRunnymede The of issues ethnicity. itself: Trust with ter dealing cen Trust, a research of Runnymede the 1997part as committee by a British in AChallenge Islamophobia: Us For written AllReport was Runnymede The report. of the examination or no critical little with Report, Runnymede by the gested of Islamophobiasug and features Esposito, definition as the use researchers prominentsuch including scholars, academic Many defined. formally ways yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 ------

61 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri of Islamophobia: of multiplicity the 1997’s the to recognize one, begins unlike report, this ticle, ar of this Most notably for aspects. purposes centered the religious on the to Islamophobia, abroader one is not attitude that it only Second, takes Islamophobia. and conceptionsUSA) on Muslims, UK of media Islam, global of influence to the specifically is much(and more attuned report this First, itself. report the in Islamophobia but way the in is discussed report, is perhaps not phenomenon by the the notable in the changes examines 2004:3). One Smith of and (Muir got worse?” they have what ways in and improved since 1997, things have what ways “In question the answer and intended Report, was to the follow report Runnymede up on This Smith. ra Lau and Hugh Muir Islamophobia, and led by researches Muslims British on Commission Challenges by the created Issues, andAction was lamophobia: Is titled areport 2004, in Trust report, Runnymede the after years Seven 2007). is Islamophobic (Larsson when website he the concludes that characteristics ki-Islam,” on these relies “Wi portal of web the examination his in For Larsson, Göran example, by scholars. used of Islamophobia, are and features as recognized became which views, and open closed between in eight distinctions results This acompletely group. as Muslims and uniform amonolithic as religion Islam sees attitude a heterogenic a closed as of group people,Muslims while and religion acomplex diverse as and Islam sees Islam toward open attitude of an thumb, rule As Islam. regarding views “open” “closed” and between one should distinguish to report, the According refers to “closed views.” as constantly theRunnymede is what Islam” toward hostility “unfounded This 1997:4). Report, Runnymede (The affairs.” social and political mainstream from ofexclusion Muslims Spain in the fifteenth century was not the same as the hos as thesame not was century fifteenth the in Spain in the functions. hostility example, Forof variety a fulfilled has and times different forms at different It taken era. has of common the eighth century since the societies European of afeature been has Muslims and Islam towards Hostility yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 - - - - -

62 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri support the notion of a multiplicity of Islamophobia, are discussed below. of discussed notion Islamophobia, the are ofsupport amultiplicity which findings, coherent.andpossible key limitation sample, The its always namely, computer the limitations, is not that serious generated translation has which system, translation and retrieval aweb-based through so does although it perspective, a such explores section The next media. Arab and of Islamophobia (more) the from derstandings of Muslim emic perspective to un given attention been has Less US or the Australia. Europe, in is, that tend to western, be scholarship current in explored contexts media and upon Islamophobia.” differently impact (2011:8). However,national both Nickels: contexts and “national Miazhevich, Flood, by Hutchings, clear Islamophobia apoint country, and made that explicitly of in context Islam specific the tend west to the highlight in spaces Islamophobia various in of studies and recent Similarly, reports Islamophobia Britain. in alizing work of important it contextu Islamophobias. the Instead, does by all shared point the features to not does specifically Unfortunately, report the and Russian. The second outlet is the WMS system, collecting web content collecting system, WMS thesecond The is outlet Russian. and Chinese Arabic, languages: three in broadcasters television targeting system, BMS outlets: the two in media international translates and archives system 2014). (MTS, by Raytheon The built Translation was Media System, MTS, sample. The for were selected this A&M Texas articles thirty-six of which content Islamophobia, with out concerning articles web accessed has ticle Translation Media TexasUsing author ar the System, the of this A&M Method ‘Islamophobia’ Media Arab in ings from, other versions. (Muir and Smith 2004:7) Smith and other versions. from, (Muir ings borrow and with, similarities as well as features its own has of phenomenon. a single than version Each of Islamophobia It more may be of rather apt ‘Islamophobias’ tonialism. speak of colo empires and age throughout the prevailed which that Empire or of Ottoman the time the during hostility the was Nor Crusades. the in mobilised and expressed was that tility yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 - - - - -

63 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri Arabicfor Islamophobia thephrase ( for search was to step The next Islamophobia. of to topic the were relevant out few only of which or opposition retrieved, was disagreement hostility, concerning into Islamophobia.article Therefore,any “ translated system it the work, that seems some conducting translation When translation. might the be results One possible inaccurate for reason these show, about TV anew astory as on. such so about and watersults waste re returned For system the accurate. from example, far “Islamophobia” was or Persian Arabic phrase for in English the results system’s article subject “Islamophobia.” However, problematic it It yielded the that seems results. was used search word first words.The search different ployment of several em the through 2014, collected April was and data monthsthe of March During system. the of complexwas theduenature to strategy sampling The Tabnak. Al-Arabi, and Al-Quds Radiofarda, Al-Hayat, Akhbar-Rooz, Online, yar Ad-Dustour, Al-Awsat, Jazeera, Asharq Nou, Aldi MehrNews, Asre Al websites: and sources news following the sample contains this in included websites other news-related and content web itary media Arab websites. The 65 mil websites covers broadcasters, of news currently which system, WMS existing the using content web only examined, was article, of this purposes and Hindi, Urdu. Farsi Russian, the For Arabic, Chinese, languages: five in اإلسالم من phrase, since the phrase contain three words “fear” ( words “fear” three contain phrase since the phrase, 1-5). of search the However, due nature to of the were distorted many them marks, which retrieves only articles in which the entire phrase is found phrase entire the which in articles only retrieves which marks, “ term an article about the demonization of jihad (Item 9).the of search a Then, “ “stigma” term the only to search step was logical next ma of ( Islam” “Stig the considerationled also to the phrase using of search This of Islam. fear fear, and but not Islam necessarily concerning led to articles many which ( اإلسالم meaning to Almaany ”,جابهmeaning opposition (according to Almaany online dictionary, 2014) dictionary, opposition online (according ” ), any article was retrieved by the system if all three words were present, three all if system by the retrieved was ), article any الخوف من اإلسالم yber ), which retrieved a variety of related results (see Appendix, Items (see of related results Appendix, avariety ), retrieved which وصم قد اإلسالم قد وصم C yber ” (fear of Islam) was conducted while using quotation using ” (fear of conducted Islam) while was O ) which yielded a few articles (see Items 6-8). articles afew yielded ) which The rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 الخوف وصم ) “of” ( ) “of” ,” which yielded yielded which ,” (من ”Islam” “Islam“ ( الخوف - - - - -

64 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri for American Family Association, in which Fischer claims that “Allah is “Allah that claims Fischer which in Association, Family for American spokesman Fischer, the by Bryan given Islamophobic an talk radio reports For no sites, Islamophobia above results. by yielded the Today example, wordsLastly, to of it note eventsmentioned is interesting other search that published by Al-Hayat (see Item one only article, in 36).resulted Vegaand 2014), considered was possibly Islamophobic. which act This an (Perez-Pena of Islam critic a feminist Ali, to Ayaan Hirsi degree honorary an to its give plan cancelled university the after for University” was “Brandeis (Items issues 31-35). or Muslim related to Arab articles second The search brought which five run, was Arabic in and English in election EU parliament for the asearch of Islamophobia. discussion First, interest the might in spark eventsthat for current searched 26-30). author article the Similarly, of this (Items articles Arabic), afew and in English resulted in (both which Paris” France” “A in and “Muslims as conducted such mosquewas for in phrases sent toletters amosque France in (Islamophobia Watch 2014a). Asearch 2014). Islamophobia threat Watch, concerning covered astory for example, 2014)day website British the Islamophobia and Watch sites: Islamophobia Today againstsites: - Americans Islamophobia anti-Islamophobia leading web two from gathered about was events such were consideredevents that Islamophobic by Western Information media. current using was sample this attemptedmethod last The for collecting ( suffering” (Item 22). “Muslims phrase returned the Similarly, was result one interesting but quotation the without marks, phrase, for adistinct as when searched sults of Mosques,” of “hate Muslims,” etc., no “hate re yielded like phrases, Other (Item 14-21). articles at a several arrived term for this wbya), searching and for probably system Islamophobiawas produced (al-aslam-wfMTS by the transliteration of Islamophobia. This transliteration is the “Alaslamwfwbya” alaslamwfwbya titled article the reading While (Item terms 11, alaslamwfwbya found other search the under titled already (Items 11 results 13), and two only -yielded script oneArabic was of which (Items 10-12). “ The term yber brought articles up two (المسلمون .(25-23 يعانونbrought up two articles (Items ( C yber O word is the Islamophobia ” -which in إسالموفوبيا rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 , it was discovered that that discovered , it was (Islamophobia Watch (Islamophobia (Islamophobia To (Islamophobia ). - - - -

65 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri in the last three months). three last the in (pre-2014 duedays to comments anew added or were retrieved edits articles content web 90 last retrieved the from only can system WMS the that fact the given 2014,from were thesources most is of not which surprising figures, 2). the from seen be can As Figure 1and (seepublication sources Figure of articles’ the distribution the second table the examining and cation dates, publi articles’ thirty-six the tables: one including two includes analysis tical statis The descriptive analysis. thematic followed by amuch more detailed is offered, of material the analysis statistical descriptive ashort section this In Analysis follows. sources of these analysis An Persian and sources. of Arab variety a from were collected articles considered, thirty-six limitations With these system. translation experimental and aclosed with of working limitations and topic advantages of the this to and show complexity but the terests, also notlation in for System’s It only methodological Media. is detailed Arab Trans Islamophobia Media Texas from with A&M dealing tion of articles at acollec arrive used to methodologies various the covered has section This no results. retrieved or Arabic English in name his searching both as Translation Media Texas the System, show no via interest Fischer, in A&M demon” (Islamophobia Todaya 2014a). accessible Media However, Arab the yber C yber Figure 1. Article publication date. publication Article 1. Figure O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 - - - - -

66 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri fore, usedasa times itismostly ismentioned several althoughAl-Jazeera Al-Jazeera, from stories Al-Jazeera. theauthorsciteprevious news There - the multiple mentions ofAl-Jazeera. publishedby Inmany ofthearticles media, media andinternational media. new betracedin media can Arab ofmedia,Under thecluster three thefollowing themesare found: Arab Media reveal ofthephenomenon.will something aboutthecomplexity on, violence, politicsandIslamophobia. examination ofeach theme Ashort -themes, tosixthemes: beclustered can which media, globalization, religi- inspection ofthemesandconcepts. sub twenty-four at arrived The analysis Therefore,closed, a wasnotconducted, analysis descriptive rather a general theauthortook noticeofthelimitations ofacomputer-translatedtext.lysis asIslam,(such hate, fear, violence, politics, etc.). conducting thisana- While of thesources. read repetitive for or related wasclosely words Eacharticle wastoconduct adetailedthematicanalysis The second stepoftheanalysis (Gilboa Powers, and countries 2007). western in notionsern of more Islamophobia, covers and stories of Islamophobic attacks world, west by is influenced Arab the and west the point of contact between a being Al-Jazeera, is that possible explanation Another ofamount articles. 2011), largest the of has content aresult world as and (Lahlali, Arab on the producer biggest is the Al-Jazeera that fact the in lays possible explanation One ways. various in explained be can topic This this is Al-Jazeera. with dealing media Arab in source news leading the shows that 2clearly Figure yber C yber O Figure 2. Article source. Article 2. Figure rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015 -

67 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri on: France-led“If does itchange itspolicies Western left-wing imperialist associated with colonialism. For example, inItem25we findthequesti- articles.times across thethirty-six incidents, Inseveral thewest wasclosely media, andpolitics. history Variation oftheword ‘west’ appeared fifty-four That beingsaid, connected to itseemsthatIslamophobiawestern ishighly countries. ding ofIslamophobia, on focused happeningsinwestern ismostly which places. whencomparedThis isinteresting to understan- especially western of on mediacovers attacks MuslimsorIslamophobiathat Arab inavariety A diverse spread of places of interest be noted from can thislist, suggesting lestine, Africa, Central Turkey, Syria, Netherlands, Sudan, Kenya, Malaysia. Britain, France, Lebanon, Somalia, Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Myanmar, Pa- immigration. ofplaces mentioned: It isinteresting tonotethevariety USA, tics, “The West,” colonialism, international organizations, economics, and befound: themescan several ofglobalization geopoli- Under thecluster Globalization inciting [international] media...” (Item16). vements... Islam and promote that distort [Islamophobia], and the role of Islamophobia: “Father Dr. Antoine Dhaw... ofmo- oftheseriousness warns Islamandpromoting asdistorting framed international mediaisexplicitly Islamophobia. for asthecause media isframed For example, inone article (Item 5).articles In other sources, however, that international it is clear se “According tosome international sources” inone ofthe befound can In some cases, mentioned itwasmerely asasource, example, for thephra- Guardian newspaper.” The context of international media wasnotunified. and mentioning asBBCandthe ofspecific media such western “British international radioandtelevision, western propaganda, globalawareness, words aswestern media, such media includes media, world Israelimedia, ofmedia.seems tobethemostdominant withinthecluster International the World Web Wide are mentioned. The lasttheme, internationalmedia, times,few (Item15) andinone“racist article attacks” againstMuslimson self-referential source. The second theme, media, new a ismentioned only yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

68 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri analyzed, or community. of identity is in the construction For example, one However, a much more common context religious for within the data terms Septemberthe consequencesof 11attacks (Item24). le titled genocide andanvilof (Item5), terrorism between and inthewest,- intheartic Muslimstrapped toviolenceinAfrica,referring titledAfrica‘s asinthearticle andMuslims.flicts between Christians found both when framing is This times). ascon framed - phenomena oftheseharmful are Some specifically women whoare thehijaborother wearing wear’‘Muslim (mentioned eight (mentioned once), (mentioned notallowingHalalfood once), orattacking mosques (mentioned once),ting the building of new the Quran burning traditions, on asattacks mosques(mentioned such three times), preven- articles, however, and on being done focus the harm to Islamic symbols theimage it harms ofIslam” Muslimsbecause ofall rights (Item4). Other Islam: areas they damaginganddistorting “Extremism isaviolation ofthe extreme MuslimsandIslamicterrorists, outtostopsupporting calls article (Items14and22,present articles inseveral example). for Furthermore, one For example, talkofGod, Imams, morals, theQur‘an, Islamis andlove for general discussion ofIslam. The lastcontext appearsas religious teachings. to bebrought upinthecontext ofidentity, of politics andconflict, andina the topicofreligion ispivotal theissueofIslamophobia. for Religion seems collection ofthemes, mediainthissample, andsuggests theArab thatfor andreligion).community (race/ethnicity/culture thelargestThis isperhaps and Muslims,Christians religious freedom, or andthemixture of identity cluster of religion containsas:The themessuch Islam, attacks onIslam, Religion scholars, andIslamicCooperation. and globalorganizations, asNATO, such UN, theAssociation ofMuslim mentions factors, of other globalization as migration, such economic powers powers thatmaintain, ifnotproduce, ofIslam. hateandfear Lastly, we see post-colonialism are presented insome of the articles, aspolitical perhaps Powers [?]” [sic]. Terms asimperialism, such colonialism, orientalism, and yber 10 years later; interaction Islamandthe between West of intheshadow C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

69 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri 11 and 36). of Islamas “a religion ofviolence” (the lasttwo examplesare from Items Qur‘an, and, perhaps, theProphet”“insulting thereligion anddescribing assault;ical and the last is religious violence, as setting fire such to the the second isphysical, asinsabotage, vandalizingbuildings, andphys- three differentforms: thefirstis verbal, asinaggression andharassment; benotedfromAs can thislist, theviolence isunderstoodtotakeplace in Muslim dress.’ againstwomen of harassment orphysical because ofverbal ‘incidents anumberofwindows andthrowing‘breaking pieces ofpigsinside,’ and asIslamoutsideFrance such graffiti ,’ ‘aggression,’ ‘sabotage,’ ‘harassment,’ onattacks religious symbols, butalso ‘physical assaults,’ andverbal ‘racist and religious discrimination.” include,The attacks as mentioned above, and religion, as theattacks anddescribes “the ugliestkindsofracial titledMuslimsin Myanmar (Item23)assemblestogether race article Muslims are sometimesas framed ‘racist attacks.’ Oneexamplefrom the happenings, 11or asSeptember such ‘the waron terror.’ The attacks on lly, while terrorism, refer to more international, war and security global peopleintra-nationa- ofMuslimorArab refersafety attacks tointernal against women, warandsecurity, andracism. Mostofthementions of cluster of‘violence’The themes like: includes terrorism, attacks, attacks Violence oftheseidentities. fluidity mixtures.of such and ofthecomplexity can beunderstoodaspart This identity,’ Islam,’‚black and ‘religious identity’ and cultural are examples andIslamicthought,’’Arab ‘Arab andMuslim,’ ‘religious andcultural makers:different identity religion, ethnicity, mixed.race andare often and contexts. times in differentforms is used several Furthermore, the andcommunity.identity The term‘Muslim community,’ for example, culture, religious [sic].” indefining Itseemsthatreligionone‘s part plays 18), is andidentity, order to[helppeople]maintaintheirdignity “in of thereasons tocombat Islamophobia, (Item according toone article yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

70 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri reful thematicanalysis, of its own. received theterm acluster The word“Is- related toviolence? Politics? Religion? Therefore, inorderca- toconduct a clusterIslamophobia with -is it any oftheotherterms It wasdifficult to Islamophobia instances ofIslamophobia. actionssocial politicsandtheinfluenceofthesepolitical andinstitutions on (Item 18). cluster ofpolitics,The then, compresses internationalpolitics, expression oftheone hand, andprotection ofreligions on theother hand.” and international laws, andtoconsider “the balancebetween freedom of for national tostopIslamophobia takesshapethroughcalling effort tical Humanof Rightsto combat “alaslamwfwbya” (Item18). ofthispoli- Some groupsstate how humanrights are fightingtostopIslamophobia: Groups example, from Al-Hayat, inanarticle clearly thetitleandbodyofarticle to protectandreduce minorities violenceagainstMuslimsandArabs. For are times, mentioned several oftheefforts aspart framed andare usually 3 and18, respectfully). Similarly, rights’‘human and activism’ rights ‘human rance,” and “a culture andrespect oftolerance among religions” (Items15, in thesocialsphere: for call “social some articles coexistence,” “call tole- for the West political of Islam?(Item10). in fear Lastly, we findtalkofpolitics ofIslamophobia,and asacause title Is bedeductedfrom ascan thearticle Islam,The nextsub-theme topolitical refers bothasapositive development groups”of government policiesintheintegration ofimmigrant (Item17). events. inthequote: befound thelastusecan An examplefor “the failure ference ofgovernment involvement tothelack instoppingIslamophobic etc. eventsThese orin were ofinternational re- mentioned eitheraspart Ministry,US Defense MuslimBrotherhood, minister, Interior right-wing, oned, as: such Obama, Kerry, Mohamed Morsi, Merkel, Al-Sisi, Mubarak, of specificpoliticiansandparties, positions, as aspolitical well were menti- galities, humanrights, minorities, politics. andsocial/cultural First, names as: themessuch cluster ofpoliticsincludes politics,The Islam, political le- Politics yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

71 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri fear ofMuslims.fear For example,clear statementthat inItem 16we findthe lamophobia. sources international media as responsible Some frame the for Second, causeof Is- few explanations forthe offered a thedifferent articles affair; orasaninternational affair, inthe relationship between countries. Islamophobia isconsidered ashappeningwithinacountry, asaninternal the WMS‘s translation tools. toreflect beworthwhile whether Itmightstill withintheEU.lims andArabs occurredThis probably duetothenature of election”parliament in Arabic, were Mus- retrieved cornering the articles power,nuclear aboutIran election, etc. Incontrast, whensearching “EU lish, mostresults concernedEUforeign policies: theirresolution aboutIran articles. For example, when searching election” for parliament “EU inEng- andsearch wordslamophobia are the usedtoretrieve related toterminology or Asia.violence against Muslims in Africa and meaning of Is- The location we get amuch more globaldepiction ofthephenomenon, includes which European -focus. However, are when theotherterminologies considered, fabya’ western -specifically geographically (Islamophobia) we seeavery For example, thatusetheterm ‘alaslamw- atthearticles ifwe look solely similarthemes are even rangewhich presented intheofarticles. differently ofthetopic,clusters thecomplexity reveals The examination ofthese in Key Findings Asia andAfrica, inEurope aswell asattacks andtheAmericas. phenomenon. The otherterms were usedwhentalkingaboutincidentsin incidentsinEuropeanbia wasusedtodescribe countries, orasageneral Islamophobia.to describe Itisinteresting tonotethat typically, Islamopho- might alsogo toshow usedby thatthere ofterms media Arab isadiversity tion system, or of the wide search used to gather this information. terms It ofIslam.stigmatization might ofterms result from- thetransla The variety againstMuslims,discrimination anti-Muslim, orhatred fear ofIslamand hatred, anti-Muslimacts, towards hostility Islam, ofIslam, fear hatred and violentevents: alsodescribe terms Other racist attacks, ethnicandreligious the occurrences of the word of alaslamwfwbya are form . in the transliterate lamophobia” times, ismentioned fourteen attacks. describing usually of All yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

72 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri might carry withitwestern terminology.might carry refore, similartoAl-Jazeera, exposure andpromotion ofwestern sources onrelies western sources their coverage heavily of foreign for affairs. The- 1967 (Ad-Dustour, 2014). (1986), According to El-Sarayrah Ad-Dustour inthesample.ticles isaJordanian mediacompany, Ad-Dustour in founded Ad-Dustour, wasthenewspaper articles ofthear- publishedseven which when producing world. content the Arab for The second leading source of uses find their waywestern ideas and terms into the language Al-Jazeera events” (GilboaandPowers, 2007:53). Perhaps asaby-product ofthisrole, andMuslimperspectives Arab on regionalto theworld andinternational Gilboa andPowers Al-Jazeera‘s recognize attemptto external “represent gy, aswell asaneedtocover more thathappen inwestern countries. stories can This resultintheappropriation andfrequent- useof terminolo western connectionAl-Jazeera‘s towestern media(GilboaandPowers, close 2007). published by Al-Jazeera. noted, Aspreviously one possibleexplanation is is notgeneralizable, inthesample, articles outofthethirty-six were fifteen incomparison totheothernews-sources.Al-Jazeera Althoughthesample published Anotherby interesting findingisthedistinct volume ofarticles ofexplanations asto why isithappening. avariety also indicates Islamophobiawhich ishappening(andnotjustinwestern countries), andit Thus, of globalspaces in pointstoavariety we findthattheinformation acts ofprovocation anddegrading.” aboutthecowardly vigilant andcalm of Islam” [sic]. MuslimsinFrance for (Item30)calls Another article “to be duction ofextremism andfanaticism” andinstead to “deliver ofthemessage Islamophobic attacks. In Item 18, instance, for the for calls “re the writer - other Muslims to break awayand call from themin order to minimalize nial” (Item11). Yet pointafinger atextremist Muslimgroups, otherarticles Islamophobia by frames as being nurtured one ofoldcolo - article “the spirit that colonialism expressions allows for ofIslam. ofhateorfear For example, 13). sources Other see Islamophobia as a result of colonialism, meaning extreme right, fostered by spitefulmediaincitescontinuously” [sic](Item ther exampleshows how “attacks againstMuslimwomen by constantly the “media Islam and promote distort ‘alaslamwfwbya’ (Islamophobia).” Ano - yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

73 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri appearances byappearances embracing the term “Islamophobias.” likeEisensta - Much les. Therefore, we mightbenefit from recognizing Islamophobia‘s multiple Islam’ replace are- topossibly the use ofIslamophobia found inthese artic againstIslam,’ as such ‘hostility ‘anti-Muslims,’ and of ‘the stigmatization ofthese descriptions. of opinions andthelocality the diversity terms, Other difficulties,due to methodological of definitions, but also due to the variety Media’ in Arab ‘Islamophobia to paint a pictureIt is challenging of not only Conclusion tures theseincidentsshare. this samplemightbeausefulfirststeptoconsider thecommonfea- setof phenomena. covered mediaof andstories intheArab ofterms The variety anddifferences between these todiscuss thesimilarities and terminologies mistreatment toEurope. immigrants ofArab We mightneedbettertools the Islamicprophet, Islamisnotthesameas ofpolitical andthefear of ofMuslimindividualsareharassment notthesameasmakingcartoons university. degree in an American an honorary similar to cancelling Verbal is notsimilartothrowing apig‘s head intomosquesinFrance, norisit lities. beseenfrom Ascan thedata, violenceagainstMuslimsinAfrica that thisphenomenon takeson different- manifestations indifferent loca concepts. definition might be of clear One possible explanation this lack for that theideaof ‘Islamophobia’ acomplex setandweb ofdifferent carries based on racist, xenophobic oranti-Islamworldview. Therefore,can see we arelims and Arabs used interchangeably, are and attacks as either framed Furthermore, mediaandinthewestern literature, bothintheArab Mus- against Muslims,’discrimination ‘anti-Islam,’ and ‘fear or hatred of Islam.’ lim acts,’ towards Islam,’‘hostility ofIslam,’‘the stigmatization and ‘hatred portant, Islamophobia: for ofterms reveals avariety theanalysis ‘anti-Mus- and legal, or social discrimination. political Lastly, most im- and perhaps mosques andtheQur‘an), onorMuslims, attacks Arabs andphysical verbal suggests three categories:lysis as Attacks againstreligious(such symbols In otherwords, whatdo thesesources asIslamophobia? describe The ana- ning according media, toArab we shouldalsoframe “what” ishappening. of thevariations viewing “where”After and “why” Islamophobia ishappe- yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

74 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri forms ofIslamophobia.forms Isuggest we considerfeatures: thefollowing might consider acore beassociatedwithmultiple setoffeatures thatcan takesplace inwestern countries, mostly which isproblematic. Instead, we define Islamophobia asacoherentaccepted phenomenon, andglobally conflicts and violence related to Islam might take place. The attempt to Myanmar, intheUS, Australia, andEurope, inwhich theways informs the USAor Yemen. ofIslaminChina,The specifichistories inAfrica, in mophobic in Myanmar is different than anIslamophobic act in France, in different settings, thatwhatmightbeconsideredcan we recognize Isla- dt‘s (2000) ‘multiple modernities’ occursdifferently stress how modernity phenomenon. to understand thespecific of thelocality dered is thehistory Africa, America, Latin anywhere. need to be consi- What nomenon isnotlimited tothewest, happeninAsia, itcan 3. -the happenindifferentphe- localities Islamophobias can bols orpeople. assault. can bepointedtowardsThe violence buildings,- sym gal, orphysical. beamicro-aggression Itcan oranaggressive takemany shapes:lims can besymbolic, Itcan verbal, le- ofsources,the variety Islamophobic violence againstMus- 2. Islamophobiasofviolence-Asnotedby consist ofaform aboutIslam/Muslims. views closed views,on ofclosed/open the one‘s inwhich informs ideology distincti- alsobeassociatedwiththeRunnymede feature can Islamasathreatviews tothereligion, orasecularone. This alsobeareligious can one, worldview ideological then which luated meaningaboutMuslimsandIslam...” (2010:190). This is anideology...- eva negatively thatsustainsandperpetuates aspect, anideological include defines asAllen “Islamophobia gest by (2010) a definition Chis Allen of Islamophobia must 1. Islamophobias -Assug areby informed ideology/religion yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

75 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri Islamophobia. This reframing, Ihope, the complexity helpcrystalized will attempt touse theresources at Texas A&M inorder toreframe the term generalizable. Therefore,can beconsidered afirststepinthe thisarticle at Texas A&M, in more might pull sources, could make the finding which MTSsystem anddeveloped tional mediainthenew explorationofArab againstMuslims/Arabs.violence/discrimination Inthesamespirit, addi- andGreenberg,Gottschalk 2008) butalsohow western mediapresents from studiesshowing how themediacreates Islamophobia (Saeed, 2007; grass-roots in western countries. level That is, we might benefit not only sented here couldshedlight on how Islamophobia ispresented atthe sources premedia sources- inaddition tothegovernment andscholarly of thiscurrent study‘s limitations. of all, First an examination ofwestern Further research intothistopicmightalsobeusefultoovercome some it isunderstood, from andexperienced different described perspectives. expansion andconsideration ofIslamophobia as ascholarly as apilotfor examine and develop. should further that scholars But it can, I hope, serve ofIslamophobias.types This corefeatures asuggestion, setof is only one pand ourunderstandingofIslamophobiamultiple, andallowfor varying isIslamophobic.Arab ex- they featuresThe other because are important not important, featureThe first is very inmyopinion, itsuggests that because form ofviolenceagainst anyperson consideredany form tobeMuslimor discourses ofracismandxenophobia. parallel,in Islamophobias can to substituteorcontribute phobias. Therefore, discoursethattakesplaceOthering the Islamo- ideologies thatinform for to bethebuildingblocks thattends construction intheidentity play still apart lity asracism andxenophobia:such race, religion andnationa- 5. fears, ofpolitical Islamophobias interactwithothertypes play some role intheincrease ofIslamophobias. media, economic power, power immigrationand political all global media-assome ofthesources suggest, globalflows of 4. be related Islamophobias can toglobalflows, specifically yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

76 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri accessed January 26,accessed January 2015. 10.January http://www.vox.com/2015/1/10/7524731/french-muslims-attacks-charlie-hebdo, Fisher, Max2015. attack on Hebdo.every This map showsFrench Muslimssince Charlie Vox, the 21stCentury. Press. UK: University Oxford Esposito, John L., andKalin, Ibrahim, Eds. 2011. Islamophobia: in theChallenge ofPluralism 63(2):363-365. Communication Quarterly El Sarayrah, Mohamed 1986. Foreign intwo Jordanian news newspapers. & Mass Journalism Eisenstadt, Noah Shmuel 2000. Multiple modernities. Daedalus:1-29. emerging comparative concept. 55(12):1581-1600. Scientist Behavioral American Bleich, 2011. Erik isIslamophobia andhow much isthere? What an andmeasuring Theorizing 9(4):1-27. Asian Survey Batunsky, Mark 1990. culture IslamandRussian inthefirsthalfof19thcentury. Central ropean Union. Salburg, Austria: European Centre Monitoring on andXenophobia. Racism andIslamophobia:Discrimination Voices from membersofMuslimcommunities intheEu- Aziz, Mohammed, Izzidien, Duaa IntissarKhreeji, Hussain2006. andDilwar Perceptions of Allen, 2010. Chris Islamophobia. Surrey, UK: AshgatePress. 2014.Ad-Dustour Home Page. Ad Dustour. http://www.addustour.com. References ation, NewOrleans, 2015 A version Associ- ofthispaperhasbeenpresented inInternational Studies Acknowledgment it, ofviolence. andotherforms decreasing of ways of thephenomena produce andbetter andinturn new yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

77 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri Lahlali, El Mustapha 2011. broadcast Arab media. Contemporary Press. EdinburghUniversity Klug, 2012. Brian Islamophobia: Aconcept comes ofage. Ethnicities12(5):665-681. Jagose, 1996. Annamarie An Introduction. Queer Theory: New York: New York University Press Islamic Studies, 49(1):81-101. Iqbal, 2010. Zafar Islamophobia orIslamophobias: Towards AProcess Developing Model. -right/, 26, accessed January 2015. Watch. http://www.islamophobiawatch.co.uk/threat-letter-to-french-mosque-praises-far Islamophobia Watch 2014a. Threat letter to right.French far mosque praises Islamophobia co.uk, 26, accessed January 2015. Islamophobia Watch 2014. About. Islamophobia Watch. http://www.islamophobiawatch. -is-an-extremely-powerful-demon-god/, 26, accessed January 2015. Islamophobia Today.http://www.islamophobiatoday.com/2012/08/04/bryan-fischer-allah Islamophobia Today 2014a. Fischer “Allah Bryan powerful demon isanextremely god.” com, 26, accessed January 2015. Islamophobia Today 2014. About. Islamophobia Today. http://www.islamophobiatoday. guin Books India. Huntington, 1996. Samuel order. andthe clash ofcivilizations remaking of world The Pen- Rowman &Littlefield. Gottschalk, Peter, andGreenberg, 2008. Gabriel Islamophobia: makingMuslimstheenemy. Group. ternet Warsaw:Universityof Warsaw. 2014.Gorak-Sosnowska, Katarzyna Islamophobia in Poland. Deconstructing ofanIn- Story East. Middle and thenew Seib, Philip ed. Pp. 53-80. Palgrave Macmillan. Gilboa, Eytan, andPowers, 2007. Shawn ofAl-Jazeera.Public Diplomacy The In: New media Geertz, Clifford 1973. TheInterpretation ofCultures.New York: Basic. yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

78 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri Galina Miazhevich, Nickels, andHenri eds. Pp. 151-167. UK: Publishing. Scholars Cambridge Islam inItsInternational Context: Comparative Perspectives. Hutchings, Stephen Flood, Chris Scalvini, Marco 2011. Italian islamophobia: thechurch, themedia and thexenophobic right. In: perspectives. Press. CincoPuntos Sayyid, and Salman Vakil, AbdoolKarim, eds. 2010. Thinking through Islamophobia: global Said, Edward 1979. Orientalism. New York: books. Vintage Muslims intheMedia. Compass 1:443-462. Sociology Saeed, Amir 2007. Media, andIslamophobia: Racism The Representation ofIslamand http://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/33/32.html, 26, accessed January 2015. Runnymede Trust 2014aA Very LightSleeper: The persistence&dangers ofanti-Semitism. about.html, 26, accessed January 2015. Runnymede Trust 2014. AbouttheRunnymede Trust. http://www.runnymedetrust.org/ rust.org/publications/17/32.html, 26, accessed January 2015. Runnymede Trust 1997. Islamophobia, AChallenge For Us All. http://www.runnymedet- -hirsi-ali-a-critic-of-islam.html?_r=0, 26, accessed January 2015. nytimes.com/2014/04/09/us/brandeis-cancels-plan-to-give-honorary-degree-to-ayaan degree toAyaan Hirsi-Ali, ofIslam. acritic The New YorkTimes. 8. April http://www. Perez-Pena, Richard and Vega, Tanzina 2014. plantogive honorary cancels Brandeis Runnymede Trust: Islamophobia: issues, andaction; challenges areport. UK:Trentham. Muir, HughandSmith, Laure 2004. Commission MuslimsandIslamophobia on British ence.Violence 2(1):138-156. ofConflict International Journal and Mescher, Heidi1980. Policing andIslamophobia inGermany: therole ofworkplace- experi html, 26, accessed January 2015. MTS 2014. AboutATS. Media Translation System. http://mts.tamu.edu/html/summary. Larsson, 2007. Göran Cyber-Islamophobia? WikiIslam.case ofThe Islam1(1):53-67. Contemporary yber C yber O rient, Vol. 9, Iss. 1, 2015

79 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri Index of articles retrieved from WMS, during March-April 2014Index of during WMS, retrieved articles from 1: Appendix Schuster. Wright, Robin1985. Sacred Rage: Islam. ofModern The Crusade Linden Press:Simon and Islamophobia. Press release SG/SM/9637, HR/4802, PI/1627. United Nations 2004. Secretary-General, addressing seminaron confronting headquarters 1 # 5 4 3 2 7 6 8 9 yber Ad-Dustour Ad-Dustour Ad-Dustour MehrNews Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al-Awsat Asre Nou Asharq Source

C yber :[لمرسى]Two advisers lmrsa The most important stories stories The mostimportant supporters of the coup will ofthecoupwill supporters Fatih on aglobal February of thedeployment oftheir been prepared andshould Africa‘s Muslimstrapped Jannati: the introduction voices must bedeprived height of Sanam Islam! height ofSanam Iyad Madani: extremist kept themediain2013 Heritage and Tourism. Heritage The head of the Kalím The head ofthe between terrorism and views and carrying the andcarrying views A miserable yearA miserable 2013 Demonize “jihad”Demonize the O culture ofCultural anvil ofgenocide banner ofIslam have waitedfor rient, Vol. Title him veil has 9, Iss. 1, 2015 14-Mar-14 29-Nov-13 10-Nov-13 14-Aug-13 3-Mar-14 3-Feb-14 1-Feb-14 4-Jan-14 2-Jan-14 Created Date 21-Mar-14 27-Mar-14 15-Apr-14 12-Apr-14 16-Apr-14 30-Jan-14 3-Feb-14 2-Feb-14 1-Feb-14 Archived Date

80 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri 10 11 12 14 13 19 18 17 15 20 16 21 22 Akhbar-Rooz yber Ad-Dustour Ad-Dustour Ad-Dustour MehrNews Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al-Hayat Aldiyar Online C yber the effects oftheaggressionthe effects in the curriculum excluding in thecurriculum international conference on deletion ofverses from the embodies “alaslamwfwbya” Reflections in the eventReflections of inthe st international fairon the The mindHeresy: reading Muslims in Britain byMuslims inBritain the The MuslimBrotherhood Party thatwantstooblige the doctrine Mahdaviyat/ the doctrine on amosquewithflowers Iranian newspapers write write Iranian newspapers US needtobe corrected! in the heart ofthestorm in theheart ymhwn Swedish [يمحون] Swedish ymhwn combat “alaslamwfwbya The road totheenemy Is the West of infear A campaign toresistA campaign الخثالن] Alkhthlan“ O [ Holding theninth of Group of “life”: Human Rightsto االسالموفوبيا inthe [ Alaslamwfwbya rient, Vol. political Islam? political alaslamwfwbya ”[االسالموفوبيا] Islam alywm Netherlands Qur‘an Koran what? 9, Iss. ]” 1, 2015 26-Mar-14 27-Mar-14 15-Feb-14 18-Feb-14 13-Feb-14 11-Feb-14 11-Feb-14 21-Feb-14 20-Jan-14 5-Jan-14 5-Jan-14 3-Jan-13 N/A 29-Mar-14 26-Mar-14 14-Mar-14 30-Mar-14 24-Mar-14 13-Apr-14 15-Apr-14 16-Feb-14 18-Feb-14 13-Feb-14 11-Feb-14 11-Feb-14 27-Feb-14

81 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri 26 25 24 23 29 28 27 30 31 32 yber Ad-Dustour Radiofarda Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al-Hayat Al-Hayat Al-Arabi Al-Quds Al-Quds Tabnak Aldiyar Online C yber of aprominent anti-leader‘s Crucifixes Crucifixes brackets” “square consequences of September consequences ofSeptember West intheshadow ofthe onjdarn amosque [ جدارن] jdarn ministers discussdialogue France therefore escalates Party becoming thelatest politician oftheFreedom 10 years later; interaction halal food for studentsin for halal food proportion of hostility to proportion ofhostility prevent theprovision of a call to rape! Shows in Shows torape! a call between Islamandthe Amsterdam -Reuters: A senioraideresigned Muslims inMyanmar Behind theEuropean Parliament resolution Khairat fyldrz[فيلدرز] Khairat [ comments resigns for against Pan-Islamists Le Pen‘sLe would party Bernard Levy: veil is Bernard Levy: O Study: thegrowingStudy: right-wing Dutch Dutch right-wing European interior Islam inFrance rient, Vol. Ukraine also! Ukraine of religions Moroccans 11 attacks in France France 9, Iss. 1, 2015 23-Apr-14 27-Apr-14 30-Oct-03 25-Feb-14 14-Jun-12 2-Dec-13 5-Apr-14 5-Feb-14 4-Jun-14 2-Jan-13 29-Mar-14 04-Apr-14 27-Apr-14 27-Apr-14 27-Apr-14 25-Feb-14 11-Feb-14 3/25/2014 7-Apr-14 5-Feb-14

82 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri 34 33 35 36 yber Al Jazeera Al Jazeera Al-Awsat Al-Hayat Asharq C yber Covenants and the Shariah Covenants andtheShariah for cooperation with Arab cooperation withArab for between theInternational move to solve the crisis of thecrisis move tosolve [لناشطة]honor oflnashtah European Parliament: we US University cancels in cancels US University need a new framework framework need anew “a religion ofviolence” Vice-Chairman ofthe Vice-Chairman Europe to ignore calls The rights of womenThe O described Islamas described rient, Vol. migration Islamic world 9, Iss. 1, 2015 10-Feb-14 21-Feb-14 9-Apr-14 N/A 10-Feb-14 21-Feb-14 8-Mar-14 9-Apr-14

83 RuthHelga Tsuria Tawil-Souri