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Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT . 13 RÉSUMÉ . .14 KURZREFERAT . 15 BACKGROUND . 16 FOREWORD . 19 ABBREVIATIONS . 21 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS (Colin H Hansen)...................23 1.1. PHYSICS OF SOUND ...........................................23 1.1.1. Amplitude, Frequency, Wavelength and Velocity ...............23 1.1.2. Sound Field Definitions ...................................27 1.1.2.1. Free field .......................................27 1.1.2.2. Near field .......................................27 1.1.2.3. Far field ........................................27 1.1.2.4. Direct field ......................................27 1.1.2.5. Reverberant field .................................27 1.1.3. Frequency Analysis .......................................27 1.1.3.1. A convenient property of the one-third octave band centre frequencies...................................28 1.2. QUANTIFICATION OF SOUND ...................................30 1.2.1. Sound Power (W) and Intensity (I) ...........................30 1.2.2. Sound Pressure Level .....................................30 1.2.3. Sound Intensity Level .....................................31 1.2.4. Sound Power Level .......................................32 1.2.5. Combining Sound Pressures ................................32 1.2.5.1. Addition of coherent sound pressures .................32 1.2.5.2. Addition of incoherent sound pressures (logarithmic addition)..............................34 1.2.5.3. Subtraction of sound pressure levels ..................35 1.2.5.4. Combining level reductions .........................36 1.3. PROPAGATION OF NOISE .......................................37 1.3.1. Free Field ..............................................37 1.3.2. Directivity ..............................................38 1.3.2.1. Reflection effects .................................39 1.3.3. Reverberant Fields .......................................40 1.4. PSYCHO-ACOUSTICS ..........................................40 1.4.1. Threshold of Hearing .....................................41 1.4.2. Loudness ...............................................41 Table of contents 1.4.3. Pitch ..................................................42 1.4.4. Masking................................................43 1.4.5. Frequency Weighting .....................................43 1.5. NOISE EVALUATION INDICES AND BASIS FOR CRITERIA ..........44 1.5.1. Types of Noise ..........................................45 1.5.2. A-weighted Level ........................................48 1.5.3. Equivalent Continuous Sound Level .........................49 1.5.4. A-weighted Sound Exposure ...............................49 1.5.5. Noise Rating Systems .....................................49 REFERENCES .....................................................51 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS .....................................52 FURTHER READING . 52 2 THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR AND HEARING (Peter W. Alberti)....................................................53 2.1. INTRODUCTION ...............................................53 2.2. SOUND CONDUCTING MECHANISMS ............................53 2.2.1. The Outer Ear ...........................................53 2.2.2. The Middle Ear .........................................55 2.3. THE SOUND TRANSDUCING MECHANISM .......................56 2.3.1. The Inner Ear ...........................................56 2.3.1.1. Structure ........................................56 2.3.1.2. Function ........................................58 2.4. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING ................................59 2.4.1. The Outer and Middle Ears .................................59 2.4.2. The Inner Ear ...........................................60 2.5. CENTRAL AUDITORY PROCESSING .............................61 2.5.1. The Ability to Block Out Unwanted Sounds ...................61 2.5.2. Spatial Localization ......................................61 2.5.3. On and Off Sounds .......................................62 2.5.4. Interaction of Sound Stimuli with Other Parts of the Brain ........62 REFERENCES .....................................................62 3 THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE EAR (Peter W. Alberti).............63 3.1. THE PINNA OR AURICLE .......................................63 3.2. THE EXTERNAL CANAL ........................................63 3.2.1. External Otitis ..........................................63 3.2.2. Obstructing Wax. ........................................64 3.2.3. Exostosis ...............................................64 3.3. THE TYMPANIC MEMBRANE ...................................64 3.4. THE MIDDLE EAR .............................................64 3.4.1. Acute Otitis Media .......................................64 3.4.2. Chronic Serous Otitis Media ................................65 Table of contents 3.4.3. Chronic Otitis Media ......................................65 3.4.4. Chronic Otitis Media with Cholesteatoma .....................65 3.5. INDUSTRIALLY RELATED PROBLEMS OF THE EXTERNAL AND MIDDLE EAR................................................65 3.5.1. Trauma ................................................65 3.5.1.1. Direct blows .....................................65 3.5.1.2. Foreign bodies ...................................66 3.5.1.3. Barotrauma ......................................66 3.6. THE INNER EAR ...............................................66 3.6.1. Infection ...............................................66 3.6.2. Bacterial Infections .......................................67 3.6.3. Immunological Diseases ...................................67 3.6.4. Sudden Hearing Loss .....................................67 3.6.5. Tinnitus ...............................................67 3.7. OCCUPATIONAL CAUSES OF INNER EAR HEARING LOSS .........68 3.7.1. Noise ..................................................68 3.7.1.1. Tuning curves ....................................72 3.7.1.2. Toughening .....................................72 3.7.2. Asymmetric Hearing Loss ..................................72 3.7.3. Social Noise Exposure ....................................73 3.7.4. Progression of Hearing Loss ................................73 3.7.5. Trauma ................................................74 3.7.5.1. Head injuries ....................................74 3.7.5.2. Explosions ......................................74 3.7.5.3. Baro-trauma .....................................74 3.7.6. Complex Interactions .....................................75 REFERENCES . 75 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD . 77 FURTHER READING . 78 4 EXPOSURE CRITERIA, OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LEVELS (Dan L. Johnson) ....................................................79 4.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................79 4.2. CRITERIA FOR CONTINUOUS AND INTERMITTENT NOISE .........80 4.2.1. Introduction .............................................80 4.2.2. Octave Band vs. A-Weighting ..............................81 4.2.3. 85 dB(A) vs. 90 dB(A) ....................................81 4.2.4. 3 dB(A) vs. 5 dB(A) ......................................82 4.3. CRITERIA FOR IMPULSE NOISE .................................84 4.4. EXAMPLES OF OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS TO NOISE . .86 4.4.1. Control of Noise Exposure in Workplaces. (Policy and guidance documents of the International Labour Organization (ILO)) .......86 4.4.2 Occupational Exposure Levels reported and recommended by I-INCE . 87 4.4.3. Occupational Exposure Levels recommended by NIOSH . 90 Table of contents 4.4.4. Occupational Exposure Levels in the European Union . 91 4.4.4.1 Checking workers hearing under the EU directive on noise .......93 4.4.5. ACGIH Occupational Exposure Limits to Noise ................93 4.4.5.1 Foreword ........................................94 4.4.5.2 Continuous or intermittent Noise ......................94 4.4.5.3 Impulsive or impact Noise ...........................94 4.5. OTHER CRITERIA . 96 4.5.1. Exposure to Infrasound and Ultrasound . .96 4.5.2. Recognition of Danger Signals . .97 4.5.3. Speech Intelligibility . .97 4.5.4. Annoyance and Efficiency . .98 REFERENCES .....................................................98 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ....................................102 5 NOISE SOURCES (Samir N.Y. Gerges, Gustav Sehrndt and Wolfgang Parthey) 103 5.1. INTRODUCTION ..............................................103 5.2. INDUSTRIAL NOISE SOURCES .................................105 5.2.1. Mechanical Noise .......................................106 5.2.2. Fluid Noise ............................................106 5.3. EXAMPLES OF MACHINERY NOISE SOURCES ...................107 5.3.1. Industrial Gas Jets .......................................107 5.3.2. Ventilator and Exhaust Fans ...............................108 5.3.3. Compressors ...........................................110 5.3.4. Electric Motors .........................................111 5.3.5. Woodworking Machines ..................................112 5.3.6. Pneumatic Tools ........................................112 5.4. TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS ......................................113 5.5. ROLE OF STANDARDS AND DATA BASES .......................117 5.5.1. Introduction ............................................117 5.5.2. Framework Standards for Noise Measurement at Machines ......118 5.5.3. Machine-Specific Safety Standards: the Section "Noise" .........119 5.5.4. Framework Standards for Noise Reduction at Machines .........120 5.5.5. Standards for Noise Reduction Devices and Materials ...........120 5.6. ACTUAL STATE OF
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