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Ancient Languages of Europe This page intentionally left blank THE ANCIENT LANGUAGES OF EUROPE This book, derived from the acclaimed Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Lan- guages, describes the ancient languages of Europe, for the convenience of students and specialists working in that area. Each chapter of the work focuses on an individual language or, in some instances, a set of closely related varieties of a language. Providing a full de- scriptive presentation, each of these chapters examines the writing system(s), phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of that language, and places the language within its proper linguistic and historical context. The volume brings together an international array of schol- ars, each a leading specialist in ancient language study. While designed primarily for scholars and students of linguistics, this work will prove invaluable to all whose studies take them into the realm of ancient language. Roger D. Woodard is the Andrew Van Vranken Raymond Professor of the Classics at the University of Buffalo. His chief research interests lie generally within the areas of Greek and Roman myth and religion, Indo-European culture and linguistics, the origin and develop- ment of writing among the Greeks, and the interaction between Greece and the ancient Near East. His other books include The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology (2007), Indo-European Sacred Space (2006), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages (2004), Ovid’s Fasti (with A. J. Boyle, 2000), Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer: A Linguistic Interpretation of the Origins of the Greek Alphabet (1997), and On Interpreting Morphological Change (1990). He has also published numerous articles and served as Presi- dent of the Society for the Study of Greek and Latin Language and Linguistics from 1992 to 2001. The Ancient Languages of Europe Edited by roger d. woodard CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521684958 © Cambridge University Press 2008 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-511-39493-5 eBook (NetLibrary) ISBN-13 978-0-521-68495-8 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents List of figures page vi List of tables vii List of maps ix List of contributors x Notes on numbering and cross-referencing xi List of abbreviations xii Preface roger d. woodard xv Preface to the first edition roger d. woodard xix 1 Language in ancient Europe: an introduction roger d. woodard 1 2 Attic Greek roger d. woodard 14 3 Greek dialects roger d. woodard 50 4 Latin james p. t. clackson 73 5 Sabellian languages rex e. wallace 96 6 Venetic rex e. wallace 124 7 Etruscan helmut rix 141 8 Continental Celtic joseph f. eska 165 9 Gothic jay h. jasanoff 189 10 Ancient Nordic jan terje faarlund 215 Appendix 1. Indo-European henry m. hoenigswald, 230 roger d. woodard, and james p. t. clackson Appendix 2. Full tables of contents from The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, and from the other volumes in the paperback series 247 Index of general subjects 252 Index of grammar and linguistics 255 Index of languages 258 Index of named linguistic laws and principles 261 v Figures 1.1 Cretan hieroglyphic inscription and portrait stamped on a sealing. From Evans 1909:272 page 2 1.2 The Phaistos Disk (side A). From Evans 1909:plate XII 3 1.3 The Caslir Situla. From Conway, Whatmough and Johnson 1933 II:28 6 2.1 The vowel phonemes of Classical Attic Greek 17 5.1 South Picene inscription. From Marinetti 1985:219 98 5.2 Oscan inscription. From Yves Duhoux (1988), “A propos des Inscriptions Osques dites Iuvilas et du texte Vetter 94,” in Yoel Arbeitman (ed.), A Linguistic Happening in Memory of Ben Schwartz, by permission of Peeters Publishers, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1988 99 6.1 Venetic votive inscriptions. From Pellegrini and Prosdocimi 1967:163 (6.lA), 488 (6.lB) 125 6.2 Venetic epitaphs. From Pellegrini and Prosdocimi 1967:56 (6.2A), 330 (6.2B), 195 (6.2C) 126 6.3 Latino-Venetic inscription. From Pellegrini and Prosdocimi 1967:222 130 9.1 The Germanic languages 189 vi Tables 1.1 A partial inventory of Cypro-Minoan characters page 4 1.2 Irish Ogham (Craobh-Ruadh); font courtesy of Michael Everson 5 2.1 The Greek alphabet 15 2.2 The consonantal phonemes of Classical Attic Greek 16 2.3 Ablauting noun patterns of Proto-Indo-European 27 3.1 The Linear B script (from O. Dickinson, The Bronze Age, 1994, p. 196) 54 3.2 The Cypriot syllabary 55 3.3 Epichoric Greek alphabets 56 4.1 The Archaic Latin alphabet 75 4.2 The consonantal phonemes of Latin 76 4.3 Latin nominal paradigms 81 5.1 National Oscan alphabet, c. 250 BC 100 5.2 Umbrian alphabet, Iguvine Tablets I–Vb7, c. 250 BC 101 5.3 The consonantal phonemes of Oscan 102 5.4 The consonantal phonemes of Umbrian 104 5.5 Sabellian noun stems 107 5.6 Sabellian personal endings 111 6.1 Venetic alphabet princeps (c. 500 BC). From G. Fogolari and A. L. Prosdocimi, I Veneti Antichi, 1988, p. 333 128 6.2 Spelling of Venetic dental stops 129 6.3 The consonantal phonemes of Venetic 130 7.1 The Etruscan alphabet of archaic inscriptions 143 8.1 The Celtic adaptation of the Iberian script; courtesy of Roland D. Woodard 166 8.2 The Lugano script; courtesy of Roland D. Woodard 168 8.3 Hispano-Celtic nominal inflection 173 8.4 Lepontic nominal inflection 174 8.5 Gaulish nominal inflection 175 8.6 Present endings of Continental Celtic 178 8.7 Preterite endings of Continental Celtic 178 9.1 Wulfila’s alphabet 191 vii viii List of tables 9.2 Gothic nominal stems 202 9.3 Gothic strong and weak verb paradigms 208 10.1 The Northwest Germanic futhark 217 10.2 Ancient Nordic nominal stems 221 A.1 Proto-Indo-European nominal endings 239 Maps 1 The Greek dialects of the first millennium BC and neighboring languages between pages 49–50 2 The ancient languages of Italy and surrounding regions (for the Greek dialects of Italy and Sicily, see Map 1) 123–124 ix Contributors james p. t. clackson University of Cambridge joseph f. eska Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univer- sity jan terje faarlund Universitetet I Oslo henry m. hoenigswald† University of Pennsylvania jay h. jasanoff Harvard University helmut rix Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat¨ Freiburg rex e. wallace University of Massachusetts at Amherst roger d. woodard University of Buffalo (The State University of New York) x Notes on numbering and cross-referencing This volume is one of five paperbacks derived fromThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages (WAL), with the content now organized by region for the convenience of students and specialists wishing to focus on a given area of the ancient world. Cross-references to material within this volume use its own internal chapter numbers. Any cross-references to other chapters of the original WAL refer to the chapter numbers in that work, and are prefixed by WAL. The contents list of WAL is reproduced at the back of this volume, as are the contents of the respective volumes of the paperback series derived from it. xi Abbreviations Any abbreviation that deviates from the form given below is noted within the text of the individual chapter or within a chapter-specific list. Linguistic terms dir. directive dir. obj. direct object abl. ablative disj. disjunctive abs. absolutive du. dual acc. accusative dur. durative act. active emph.-pcl. emphatic particle adj. adjective encl. enclitic adv. adverb (adverbial) eq. equative all. allative erg. ergative anim. animate ext. extended aor. aorist fem. feminine art. article final-pcl. final-particle asp. aspirated fut. future aux. auxiliary (verb) gdve. gerundive caus. causative gen. genitive cl. clause ger. gerund coll. collective impf. imperfect com. common impftv. imperfective comp. comparative impv. imperative comt. comitative inan. inanimate conj. conjunction inc. inclusive conjv. conjunctive indef. art. indefinite article conn. connective indet. indeterminate cons. consonant indic. indicative constr. construct (state) inf. infinitive cont. continuant instr. instrumental cop. copula interr. interrogative dat. dative intr. intransitive def. art. definite article iter. iterative dem. demonstrative juss. jussive det. determinate loc. locative detv. determinative mediopass. mediopassive dial. dialect mid. middle xii List of abbreviations xiii N. noun top. topicalizer neg. negative tr. transitive neut. neuter V. ver b nom. nominative var. variant NP noun phrase vent. ventive num. number voc. vocative obj. object vow. vowel obl. oblique VP verbal phrase opt. optative part. participle Languages pass. passive pcl. particle Akk. Akkadian per. person Ar. Arabic perf. perfect Ass. Assyrian perfv. perfective Av. Avestan perfvz. perfectivizer Bab. Babylonian pert. pertinentive Cis. Gaul. Cisalpine Gaulish pl. plural Eg. Egyptian (Old, Late, Earlier) pluperf. pluperfect Eng. English poss. suff. possessive suffix Etr. Etruscan postp. postposition Gk. Greek PP prepositional phrase Gmc. Germanic prec. precative Go. Gothic preC. preconsonantal Hisp.-Celt. Hispano-Celtic pref. prefix Hitt. Hittite prep. preposition IE Indo-European pres. present Lat. Latin pret. preterite Lep.
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