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AUTHOR Galabawa, C. J TITLE Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania. World Bank Discussion Papers No. 86. Africa Technical Department Series. INSTITUTION World Bank, Washington, D. C. REPORT NO IS3N-0-8213-1583-8; ISSN-0259-210X PUB DATE 90 NOTE 45p.; For related documents, see SO 030 302-310. AVAILABLE FROMWorld Bank, Publications Sales Unit, Department F, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 2043:1. PUB TYPE Reports Research/Ter:Imical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS African Studies; Colonialism; Developing Nations; Economic Development; :EducatIzinal Development; *Educational History; Educational Planning; *Educational Policy; Educational Research; Educational Theories; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; International Programs; Primary Education IDENTIFIERS *Tanzania

ABSTRACT Of the three East African British colonies (Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania), Tanzania was the least well off at the time of independence in 1961. At that time, only 16,691 students were enrolled in secondary schools, and cll general education at higher levels was provided outside the countrir. Thus, the goals of post-independence educational policy were the distribution and equalization of educational opportunities and the expansion of the system at all levels, including the attainment of universal primary education. This report reviews the initial evolution and implementation of educational policies through government (5-year development plans. From 1969-1978, the Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) program became tne basis for all major educational policy changes. The final section of the report evaluates the implementation and success of educational policies and finds that the emphasis on achieving universal primary education has led to a system where there are secondary school places for only 4 percent of primary school graduates. The author reviews the financial and macroeconomic circumstances, educational theories and internal and external efficiency criteria that inform the debate about educational quality and ESR, which stressed that education should help to promote a socialist transformation of society, and which emphasized preparation for rural and :ommunity life over theoretical knowledga, particularly at the primary level. The report finds that some policy objectives were contradictory and that, in the short run, quantitative and efficiency objectivel. have been incompatible. (Author)

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3 Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania

4 World Bank DiscussionPapers Africa TechnicalDepartment Series

Studies on Implementationof African Educational Policies

No. 82 Why Educational Policies Can Fail: An Overview of Seleaed AfricanExperiences No. 83 Comparative African Experiences inImplementiog Educational Policies

No. 84 Implementiog Educational Policiesin Ethiopia

No. 85 Implementing Educational Policies inKenya

No. 86 hnplementhw Educational Policiesin Tanzania

No. 87 Implementiog Educational Policies in Lesotho

No. 88 Implementiog Educational Policiesin Swaziland

No. 89 Implementing Educational Thlidesin Uganda

No. 90 Implemelting Educational Policiesin Zambia

No. 91 Implementiog Educational Policiesin Zimbabwe

The set of studies on implementation of African educational policieswas edited by Mr. George Psacharopoulos. Mr. Psacharopoulos wishes to acknowledge the helpof Professor G. Eshiwani, who beyond being the authorof the case studyon Kenya (see No. 85) has coordinated the production of the othercase studies in the region. Ir.-NI World Bank DiscussionPapers I Africa Technical DepartmentSeries Implementing Educational Policies in Tanzania

C. J. Galabawa

The World Bank Washington, D.C.

6

- _ Copyright 0 1990 The International Bank forReconstruction and Development/THEWORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reserved Manufictured in the United States ofAmerica First printing July 1990

Discussion Papers present results of country analysis or research that is circulatedto encourne discussion and comment within the developmentcommunity. To present these results with typescript of this paper has the least possible delay, the not been prepared in accordance with theprocedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bankaccepts no responsibility for errors. The findings, interpretations, andconclusions expressed in this should net be attributed in paper are entirely those of the author(s) and any manner to the World Bank,to ics affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board ofExecutive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bankdoes not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoeverfor any consequence of their use. Any maps thataccompany the text have been prepared solely of readers; the designations and for the convenience presentation or material itt them donot imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the WorldBank, ics affiliates, or its Board legal status of any country, territory, or member countries conc-_rning the city, or area or of the authoritiesthereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundariesor its national affiliation. The material in this publicationis copyrighted. Requests for permission be sent to,Director, Publications to reproduce portions of it should Department, at the address shown in thecopyright notice above. The World Bank encourages disseminationof ics work and will normally give permission promptly and,when the reproduction is for noncommercialpurposes, without asking a fee. Permission classroom use is not required, though to photocopy portions for notification of such use having beenmade will be appreciated. The complete backlist of publicationsfrom the World Bank is shown which contains in the annual Index of Publkations, an alphabetical tide list (with full orderinginformation) and indexes ofsubjects, countries and regions. The latest edition authors, and is available free of charge fromthe Publications Sales Unit, Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington,D.C. 20433, U.S.A.,or from Publications, The World Bank, 66,avenue d'Iena, 75116 Pari3, France.

ISSN: 0259-210X

C. J. Galabawa is senior lecturer and head of the Departmei, ofEducational Planning and at the University of Alberta in Canada. Administration

Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data

Galabawa, C. J., 1950 Implementing educational policies inTanzania / C. J. Galabawa. p. cm.(Studies on implementation ofAfrican educational policies, ISSN 0259-210X) (World Bank discussionpapers ; 86. Africa Technical Departmentseries) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-1583-8 1. Education and state--Tanzania. 2.EducationTanzania- -History. I.Tide. II.Series. III.Series: World Bank discussion papers ;no. 86. IV.Series: World Bank discuss:on papers. Africa Technical Department series. LC95.T34G35 1990 379.678dc20 90-40916 CIP FOREWORD

dramatic quantitative The decades of the1960s and 1970z witnessed places, systels. Beyond expanding educational growth in African education educational countries pronouncedintentions to "reform" their many African cycles, altering the terms of pystems, by adjustingthe length of education opportunity, changing thecurriculum content, or access to edncational and training more otherwise attempting to linkthe provision of education development. closely to perceived requirementsfor tational socio-economic performances of most Africaneconomics encouraged Strong economic growth fulfill educational optimistic perceptions of theability of governments to pronouncements. aspirations which were setforth in educational policy combined with Sadly, the adverse economicconditions of the 1980s, the world meant that by population growth rates which areamong the highest in enrollment growth stalled andthe quality of the early 1980s. education deteriorated. In education at all levels waswidely regarded as having the World Bank recognition of the emergingcrisis in African education, -.).! quality and undertook a major review todiagnose the problems of erosioh policy study, stagnation of enrollments. Emerging from that work was a Policies for Adjustment.Revitalization. and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: set of Expansion, which was issued in1988. That study does not prescribe one Rather, it presents a education policies for all ofSub-Saharan Africa. their framework within which countries mayformulate strategies tailored to which is stressed in own needs andcircuLtstances. In fact, a central point country-specific the study is the need foreach country to develop its own country's unique education strategy and policies,taking into account the circumstances, resource endowmentand national cultural heritage. be over- The crucial role of nationalstrategies and policies cannot bas'l for In recognition of theclntrality of sound policies as a emphasized. (the rele.fant progress, in 1987 the Bank'sEducation and Training Department that time) unit responsible for the policy,planning and research function at commissioned a set of papers ayAfrican analysts on the comparative ccuntries, each experiences of eight AngloplhineEastern and Southern African issued major education policyreforms or of which had developed and the The papers give specialattention to deficiencies in pronouncements. often-yawning gaps design and/or implementation processesthat account for the eight between policy intentions and cltcomes. The lessons afforded by the of African case studies, along with abroader- perspcctive assessment educational policy implementation, arepresented in the papers by George John Craig. Psacharopoulos (the overall managerof the set of stndias) and The eight country case studies arepresented in companion reports. of African By disseminating this setof studies on the implementation will be educational policies, it is hopedthat the lessons of experience incorporated into the current effortsby African countries to design and selectively implement national policies and programsto adjust, revitalize and Africa's human expand the education and trainingsystemr which prepare resources, the true cornerstoneof Afrtcan develcpment.

Hans Wyss Director Technical Department 8 Africa Region ABSTRACT

and Of the three East AfricanBritish colonies (Kenya, Uganda, independence in Tanzania), Tanzania was the leastwell off at the time of students were enrolled in secondaryschools, 1961. At that time, only 16,691 outside the country. and all general educational athigher levels was provided distribution Thus, the goals of post-independenceeducational policy were the system and equalization of eduoationalopportunities and the expansion of the primary education. This at all levels, includingthe attainment of universal educational report reviews Ole initialevolution and implementation of From 1969-1978, the policies througt go7ernmentfive-year development plans. Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) programbecame the basis for all major evaluates the educational policy changes. The final section of the report emphasis implementation and success of educationalpolices and finds that the system wtere there are on achievinguniversal primary education has led to a The secondary school places for only 4 percentof primary school graduates. educational author reviews the financial andmacroeconomic circumstances, debate theories and internal and externalefficiency criteria that inform the should help about educational quality and ESR,which stressed that education emphasized to promote a socialisttranformation of society, and which preparation for rural and communitylife over theoretical knowledge, particularly at the primary level. The report finds that some policy and objectives were contradictory andthat, in the short rm., quantitative efficiency objectives have beenincompatible. TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 1. EDUCATION AND THE'ECONOMY

3 2. HISTORICALOBSERVATIONS

POLICIES 5 3. EXPANSION ANDEXTENSION OF FORMAL SCHOCUNG

7 4. SOCIAL ANDECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

10 5. POLITICAL ANDQUALITATIVE CHANGE POLICIES

13 6. EVALUATION ANDEFFECTIVENESS POLICIES

15 7. AN APPRAISAL OF THEPOLICIES 15 Expansion and Enrollment 17 Quality of Education Education and Production 19 Manpower and Self-sufficiency 22 Dependency FAnancial Implications and 23 Employment and Rural Development

25 8. COST BENEFIT ISSUES

27 9. CONCLUSION

28 BIBLIOGRAPHY

10 1. EDUCATION AND TUE ECONOMY

countries in the world. In economic terms,Tanzania is one of the poores,_ and a GNP at 1966 constant With a population ofslightly more than 20 million, the per capita incomeis prices of around 10.5million U.S. dollars in 1983, In a country with so approximated as slightly lowerthan 300 U.S. dollars. formulated with reference low an income per head,educational policies must be majority. However, sin.:e the to their effect on !..heeconomy and the poor education is low, the capacity of the ecol 'my toprovide resources for to their stated educational policies mustbe judged not only according objectives, but also accordingto efficiency criteria.

Table 1

Typology of TanzaniaEducational Policies

Objectives/ Characteristic Remarks Features Period Policy/Instrumont(s)

-Integration Expansion and ex- 1961-1969 1) Education Ordinance and tension of formal of 1961 equalizational schooling opportunities - Free entry over and above remission af fees - Uniformpri- mary curriculum - Expansionof enrollment especially at primary level

- Adulteducation Social and economic 1964-1970 1) First Five 1".:ar and productivity development 1964-1969 2) Second Five Year policy Plan 1969-1974 - Manpowerdevelop- 3) Nyerere's Address ment and self- to Parliament, sufficiency by May 12, 1965 1980 4) Prime Minister'c Directive on wcrkers education (1973) - 2-

Characteri.tic Objectives; Fer.tures Period Policy;Instrument(s) Remarks

Political and 1967- 1) Education for self- -Nationaliza- Qualitative reliance tion and con- change 2) Education Act of trol of educa- 1969 - Schooling and 3) Formation of Production Directorate of - Curriculum Curriculum and structuring Ezamination(s) (1967-19700 4) Institute Education 5) Examinations Council (1975)

Evaluate and 1970s 1) Musoma Resolutions - Universal efficiency (1974) Primary 2) Education Act (1978) Education 3) Presidential -Education Commission Report: and Produc 1984 tier: - Technical education - Changes in Examination system - Evallation of ESR

Source: Author's research

12 2. HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS

Uganda and Tanzania), Of the three East AfricanBritish colonies (Kenya, industrial and social Tanzania was the leastfavored in terms of broad interrelated factors (Rweyemamu,1970). development. This was due to several rather than to Tanzania. Firstly, foreign investmenttended to flow to Kenya established pressure groupin The British settlersin Kenya were a well nationalities, without a London, while Tanzania'ssettlers were of mixed inter-war period and evenduring the cohesive force. Moreover, during the territory with less value to depression, Tanzania wasmerely a conquered suit the needs of the Britain since its economyhad been partly molded to and threatened to reconquer German market. After Hitler came to power of Tanzania worsened. The Germany's lost colonies,the uncertain status pessimism about the riskof investment opportunities British administration's favoring Kenya through a and the neighboring"periphery-center" pressures and other infrastructural common market arrangement gavefull play; industries developments tended to beestablished in Kenya.

education system. Colonial The above picture wasalso reflected in the aigher education for administrators blocked theexpansion of secondary and education hoqua12 to thatof Africans, despite thelatter's growing demard for In fact, very fewAfricans went beyond Europeans and Asians(Mbilinyi, 1979). vocaticnal training, two years of basiceducation (reading, arithmetic, educawn provision were toadapt the catechism). The major objectives of developing of a favored African to the colonial systemof exploitation and the wealthy individuals who couldlater group comprisingchildren of chiefs and administer the Africans at thelocal levels (Lawuo, :984).

Colonial education was run on aracit- basis. The European schools The African schools consumed the largest share ofpublic funds (Meena, 1979). resources as compared to were allocated thesmallest share of financial Table 2 indicate that Europeans Europeans and Asians. The figures shown in were favored in termsof enrollment, and unit costs.

enrolled in secondary At independence in 1961,only 16,691 ,,tudents were 19'17 (Muze, 1976). Few schools, as compared with9,883 in 1957 and 1,529 in

13 -4- courses were offered at high scgool levels. And for the fortyyears that the British had ruled Tanganyika, general education at higherlevels was provided outside the country. The main institutionsto which the few Tanganyikan Africnns went were Makerere rollege in Uganda, the RoyalTechnicLl College in Nairobi, Kenya, andoverseas British universities. - 5 -

FORMAL SCHOOLING POLICIES 3. EXPANSION AND EXTENSION OF

had the followipgobjectives: The major policiesadopted after independence to distribute and First, were the policieswhose major objectives were Second, were the policieswhose main equalize educationalopportunities. at all levels(primary, objectives were expansionof educational institutions secondary and universityschooling).

Table 2

Net Expenditure onEducation in Tanganyika Territoryin 1947

Per Student School Representation in Percent Costs Race Population Enrollment 2.1 2.2 Africans 5,480,391 113,198 19.5 f. 5.2 Asians 50,332 9,831 6.5 37.6 Europeans 14,727 958

Source: Eszimates

policy of a raciany The Education Ordinanceof 1961 established the the government and integrated school systemcontrolled and managed by school fees were controlled,although voluntary agencies. To equalize access, high income families. the majority of seconthrystudents still came from in 1965. However, by English and Swahili becamethe sole media of instruction schools, although some 1968, Swahili was adopted asthe medium for all primary t1:: interests of private "English" mediumprimary schools still serve foreigners and wealthyTanzanians.

and the First The Three Year DevelopmentPlan for Tanganyika, 1961-1964, of secondary and Five Year Plan (FFYP) of1964-1969 emphasized expansion College of Dar-es-Salaamopened higher education. In 1961, the University started at the University with a Faculty of Law. Later a crash program was Education, to produce College of Dar-es-Salaam,under the Department of teacher training Tanzanian graduate teachersfor secondary schools and colleges.

15 - 6 -

So as to provide equal aocess to pecondary education, schoolfees were abolished in 1964. However, primary school feesremained until 1973as they were considered minimal compared to secondary school fees. However, as observed by Mbilinyi (1976), since primary s hool feesrestricted primary school entry to children of rich rural peasantsand traders, this unequal access to primary schooling led to unequal access to secondaryschooling.

For this period, the curriculum remained essentiallyBritish in outlook, although some subjects such as history, geography and politicaleducatic i were introduced. However, to obtain a form IV certificate, one had topass

Throughout the educational system, selection to higherlevels depended on passing nationally set (or East-African Examinationsin the case of secondary schools) examinations which were modeled on the CambridgeCertification Examinations. Those who failed the examination(s) were labeledfailures and since the educational system itself was pyramidical,the majority of the children who could notmove up had 'failed."

Generally, then, after inuependence in 1961, thepolicies focussedon the integration of the educational system and the equalization ofeducationa) opportunities. All forms of discrimination in educationwere abolished. The primary and secondary schools, which previouslywc.r divided into different schools for Africans, Asians a.ld Europeans,became open to all children irrespective of their race, religion, sex or socialbackground. A uniform primary scho(-1 curriculum was established in orderto part with the colonial practice of differentiating between the educationalcontent for the different racial groups.

g DEVELOPMENT POLICIES 4. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC

formulated arter independence It has been shownabove that the policies formal schooling. The period supported the generalexpansion and extension of education as an 1964 to 1969 saw tae emergenceof policies which viewed Two policies in this category instrument of soeial andeconomic development. Policy and The ManpowerPolicy. mill be reviewed: The Adult Education

Second Five Year Plan The First Five Year Plan(FFYP) of 1964-1969, tLe speech to Parliament on (3FYP) of 1969-1974, andformer President Nyerere's strategies of impiementing May 12, 1965, firstspelled out the contont and S.F.Y.P. emphasized the adult education in-Tanzania. The F.F.Y.P. and the Nyerere's address to major aim of adult education tobe rural development. Parliament in 1965 observedthat:

coming years The purpose of governmentexpenditure on education in and the knowledge which must be to eo tpTanganyika with the skills achieved ... is needed if the developmentof the country is to be Our children will nothave an impact first we must educate adult , twenty years. on wr economicdevelowent for five, ten or oven

given by Mlekwa Some of the specificobjectives of adult education as for economic advance; toreject bad (1975) included: to learn national plans increase productivity on the houses and preventablediaeases; to learn how tu food and balanced fanms and in factories; andlastly, to learn about better diet and how to obtain it by ownefforts.

steadily from 908,351 The enrollment of illiteratesin adult classes rose Besides developing in 1971 to 5,184,982 in1975, as shown in Table 3. policy emphasized functional numerhcy and literacyskills, the adult education literacy skills and vocational literacy programs: simultaneous integration of based on the training in selected areas. The functional literacy program was is directly related to assumption that, since thesubject matter of the primer literate takes on a meaning the occupation of thelearners, the need to become and a purpose (1{1-1sam, 1979).

17 ..s...FS1710711.1..

- 8 -

Table 3

Enrollment of Illiterates in Tanzania, 1971- 1975

Year Enrollment

1971 908,351 1972 1,508,204 1973 2,989,910 1974 3,303,103 1975 5,184,982

Source: Ministry of National Education, AnnualReports on Adult Education, 1971-75, Dar-es-Salaam

The Tanzania Manpower Policy stemmed from the need for localmanpower to fill the middle and high-level positions. The prime objective of the policy was higher education expansion after 1964so as to fill the urgent need for skilled cadres in the various posts in government and industry. The policy's specific objectives, as given in both the F.F.Y.P. and theS.F.Y.P., were:

a) achievement of full sufficiency at all skill levels in theeconomy by 1980;

b) expanding secondary, technical and university education accordingto labor requirements; and

c) production of local science manpower for local industries withan Pmphasis on those sectors which had been overlooked, suchas: technical and engineering, administration, business,commerce and the increasing of Category "A" personnel in agriculture andhealth.

Several manpower surveys were conducted to determinethe rP,quirements for skilled personnel. Among these were thosesurveys conducted by the World Bank (1960), UNICEF (1961) andSkorov (1966). The findings indicated that: there was a shortage of trained and qualified personnel in allsectors of the

1 8 - 9 -

Category jobs: senior management and economy, butparticularly in the "A" engineers, teachers, etc.;and secondly, they civil service, doctors, staff, buildings andmaterials. indicated a lack ofeducational facilities --

policy was to increaseenrollments The overall impactof the above manpower shown in Table 4. at all levels ofthe education system, as

.k 19 - 10 -

5. POLITICAL AND QUALITATIVECHANGE POLICIES

Soon after the Arusha Declaration (A.D.) on socialism andself-rdiance was announced in 1967 at Arusha town (hence Arusha Declaration),Prsident Nyerere issued his paperon Education for Self-Reliance (ESR). This paper became the basis of all major educatlonal changes in the country. Education for Self- Reliance outlines all the aims and objectives ofeducation in lanzartia,a cpuntry which has been aspiringto build socialism.

In implementing ESR, the 1969 Education Act (nowrepealed by the Education Act of 1978) wasintroduced. At the time in 1972, theDecentralization Policy led to decentralizationof schools vesting primary and adult education inthe regional authorities, leaving the Ministry of Educationto look after secondary, teacher training and higher education. The plans for education envisaged in Tahzania's Five Year Plans for economicand social development have charted out proposals, ways and means of implementingESR.

Table 4

Pattern of EducationalGrowth: 1962 - 1981

Secondary Secondary University of Year 3,271,000 (Public) (Private) Dar-es-Salaam

62-63 581,663 14,175 17 64-65 663,538 19,895 70-71 89 402,413 31,217 9,961 75-76 1,316 1,532,953 38,327 14,950 77-78 2,030 2,968,773 41,965 19,213 80-81 3,271,000 2,096 30,162 3,357

Sources: 1) Comparative Statis:ics: 1961-1965, MNED. 2) Annual Manpower Reports to the President(several). 3) Ministry of Education: Basic Facts about 1981. Education in Tanzania, education andself-reliance The Arusha Declarationoutlines the policy of of the entiresocio-economic which became the basisof transformation ESR stressed thateducation, structure in Tanzania. In line with the A.D., socialist transformation. It being part of thesociety, should promote a needs of Tanzaniaand be should be a preparationfor the realities and A clear summary ofthis policy is directed toward overcomingexploitation. major .He distinguishesthe following four given by-Sanyat-111//7-pp:-"-794-. issues:

curriculum which aims atmeeting the needs of a) The need to develop a predominantly ruralsociety the majority to enablethem to live in a toward the improvementof life and also to enablethem to contribute in the rural areas;

primary education wasthat it became a An implication ofthis statement for for entry to secondary preparation for rural lifein the community and not to it had the sameimplications with regard schoo...s. For secondary educatior, education were to becomplete in entering the universityand both levels of themselves.

education with life andwith the community. b) The need to integrate school activit:es. Schools The community shouldbe involved in the keep the students/pupils must be an integral partof the community to aware of theirresponsibilities;

theoretical knowledge withmanual work and c) The need to integrate

product:1.)n;

be engaged in According to the philosophyof ESR, every school must having their own income productive activities, bygrowing their own food and contribution toward their own from the products theysell. In this way, a of the country. upkeep is made, as well as acontribution to the economy

in the studelts attitudesof self-confidence, d) The need to instill and the need to creativity, problem solvingand scientific outiook mind and ability tothink encourage thedevelopment of an enquiring for oneself.

21 As the document states: It must encourage the development ofa basic confidence in his position as a free and equal member of the societywho 7alues and is valued by them f..rwhat he does and not for what he obtains" (Nyerere, 1968, p. 8).

Implementing ESR was not an easy task because it involved changingvalues and the status quo. However, the following recommendationswere implemented:

a) Formation of a group of curriculum developers wt.Jse main dutywas to review the curriculum and introduce relevant changes in line withthe objectives of ESR. A special unit was formed in theMinistry of Education -- the Directorate forCurriculum Development and Exami- nations. This unit was involved indeveloping new curriculum and syllabi until 1975, when itwas abolished and "replaced" by the present Institute of Education whichbecame a parqstatal of the Ministry of National Education withits main task being the de,-.lop- ment of curriculum for primary,secondary and teacher education. During the same period, theExamination Council was formed;

b) Establishment of the TanzaniaUNICEF-UNESCO Educational Reform Project (MTUU), which started its acti4ities in 1970at the teacher training college. This project playeda decisive role in innovating primary education throughdissemination of new ideasto primary ochool teachers. Next to the reorientation ofteachers, one of the maior aims of MTUU was the intogration of school andcommunity through community school experimentswhich were attached to the colleges;

c) The introduction of agricultural farms and, later, broadproductive activities in primary, secondary and teachers' collegesso as to give students and pupils opportunityto engage themselves in integrating theory and practice;

d) Assessment of practical work, and its relation to academicassessment and students/pupils'attitudes and values was introouced as part ofa continuous assessment to compliment final and nationalexaminations;

e) Nationalization and control of secondary schools andinstitutions of higher learning.

22 - 13 -

POLICIES 6. EVALUATION AND EFFECTIVENESS

Tanganyika African NationalUnion In November of 1974,the ruling party, town of Musoma, (TAO) executive committee,meeting at the Lake Victoria Resolution (MR). The document issued another directiveknown as the Musoma of ESR. essentially evaluated theimplementation and ach4.evement

substantial progress with, Thus, it was mentionedthat the nation had made schools and colleges. for instance, the syllabiwhich are used in the takes a long time and However, it was recognizedthat the process of change been achieved. Although that at this stage, mostof the objectives had net from the inappropriate system the ESR stressed theimportance of a liberation the thinking and actions werestill of education whichTanzania had inherited, influenced by "internationalsLandards."

schools so that they Another problem was seen asthe failure to transform Although, according to the could become part of theeconomic system. far very few schvols directive, the productionactivities had expanded, "so activities have it". fact and colleges can actuallysbow that such self-reliance In running greatly reduced the financAalburden carried by the governm:mt their institutions" (TANU,1974, p. 4).

the husis of examinations The judgement of one'sability was still made on importance of, for instance,commitment, only. Although ESR stressed tha policies were still general behavior and othersuch qualities, employment which paid no attention to directed toward the resultsof the examinations, taken in order to achievethe these attitudes. Certain steps had to be policy statements 'iere given: objectives of ESR. In the M.A., the following

(UPE) had to be achievedin 1977 instead a) Universal Primary Education Primary education should be of 1989 as was originallyplanned. mitigate universal, compulsory and freewith a practical bias to Increasing the number of rural-urban migration ofschool leavers. the only way to teacher training colleges andprimary schools was not results were: teaching achieve results. Alternative ways to achieve secondary school in turns, distancetraining of teachers and using soWents to teach in primaryschools; - 14 -

b) Since, by 1974, only 6% of the primary school leaverswere able to obtain a place in Form I, the Executive Committeestressed the need for secondary school expansion; c) Special technical courses for Standard 7 leaverswho are not able tn go to secondary schools, and technical education (beingone of the specializations of secondary schools) ought to be realized. Technical education should be seen asa preparation to be self- reliant and use",1 to the nationas well as making men and women more reliant on themselves by getting the opportun- to increase their income; d) The system of entry to the University hadto be changed. Althmgh the policy of ESR stated that secondary educationshould be self- sufficient by preparing the students for productivework, still this education was seen as a way to enter higherAucation. The resolution therefore required that, aftersecondary school and one year natiunal service, the school leavers must work forat least two years before applying for higher education. The selection would be made not on the basis oc. passing examinationsalone but also on the availability of positive reports andrecommendations from the employer; e) In line with the philosophy of ESR, theeducaticnal system had to be restructured so that v..)rk would becomepart of education in all educational institutions; f) The integration of education and workasked for changes in the examination system. The issue of examinations was closelyrelated to the objective of making primary andsecondary eduzation complete. The resolution required anew examination structure in which the emphasis on written examinationswas to be reduced. Judgement was to be based on the combined result of thebroad functions whichare part of education.

24 - 15 -

7. AN APPRAISAL OF THEPOLICIES

policies advocated The above picture hashighlighted the major educational make an evaluation of eachand since indel ndence. It is very difficult to policy objectives are not every policy asdescribed because some of the mutually excIusive whileothers are contradictory.

to proauce Howerer, in the following pages,an attempt will be made Unfortunately, we knowledp about the pastvalue or worth of the pol.:cies. Macronegative information shall have to use macronegativeinformation only. policies and uses aggregate describes the broad causes andconsequences of the work. data to show why certainpolicies and programs do not

Expansi-la and Enrollment

policies have Evidence as given in Table 5indicates that the expansion UPE generated a disproeortionaterelationship between a fast-grwing The transitim enrollment and a slow post-primaryinstitutional expansion. low four percent rate between primary sevenlevel to secondary Form I was a (42) by 1982. Table 5

Primary and Secondary Enrollmentin Tanzania Public Schools 1961 - 1982

1974 1176 1981 1982 Level 1961 1964 1969

Primary 542,977 576,347 499,516 Std. 1 121,386140,340 171,500 208,300

Primary 119,350156,114 212,446 356,905 Std. 7 11,732 20,348 60,516

Secondary 8,620 8,907 9,116 Form I 4,196 5,302 7,149 8,165 147,494 203,539 Residual 7.536 15,046 53,396 111,185 ;932; (94Z) (962) (Unplaced) (64V, (74%) (88Z)

Basic Facts (1984). Sources: 1) Ministry of NationalEducation: 2) A. Ishumi (1986).

25 The above trendsmay seem to indicate that the Tanzania expansionefforts have createdan elitist education system, sincevery few individuals receive higher education andthe cor',..equent monetary rewards thatgo with certification. But the policywas to make primary school terminal and therefore in the literalsense the ob'ective has been attained. In any case, a higher number of Gr L teachers, high textbook-pupil ratios,lt.r pupil- teacher ratios andgood buildings (the major determinants ofachievement) (Omari et al., 1983).

The enrollment ofgirls in both public and private secondaryschools accounts for 38 percent of total enrollmentby 1986. The governmentplans to increase the enrollmentof girls by opening girls' boardingscIsnols and by increasing their placeat day schools.

However, no quota system exists to improvethe educational for girls. opportunities Cooksey (1986) hasgiven the following impressionistic observations regardingsecondary education for girls inTanzania:

a) Girls attendinggov^rnment schools are also f.701 higherclass backgrounds than boys,but they nevertheless underperform in theForm IV examination;

b) By Form V, the few remaining femalestudents are from disproportionately white collar educatedparents' backgroumts;

c) Class relatedadvantages are not enough to outweighsexual disadvantage: manifestated in above-averagrdropout rates. - 17 -

Quality of Education

the quantitativeachievements There is a school ofthought in Tanzania that changes (Ishumi, have been attained atthe expense of qualitative The appointment of thePresidential Pendaeli, 1986; Omari etal., 1983). in large measure a Commission on Education(PCE) in October of 1980 was about "falling standards"in the response to thepublic outcry and discontent education system.

involves two groups. The The debate on Tanzania'squality of education of ESR. This group argues first group looks at theface value objectives orientation the education that, essentially, ESRaims at changing the orientation so that the system can system from acapitalist to a socialist aspiring to build better serve the socialistsociety which Tanzania is 1979). Since, by the (Mhilinyi and Mwobahe, 1975;Kweka, 1975; Sammoff, capitalist tendencies 1980s, Tanzania is not yetsocialist and there are still then the educational systemis even in schoolsand among school graduates, there are authors who argue failing, so the argument goes.On the other hand, namely: achievement based on from a strong orthodoxcriterion of qudlity (Omari et al., examination results as anindicator of literacy and numeracy 1983; Ishumi, 1986;Pendaeli, 1986).

ESR. In fact, ESR stressed The first group is alwayswrong in interpreting "promote" (not change) that, education being partof society, it should Secondly, it appears thatsocialism is equated with socialist transformation. capitalist tendencies. Thirdly, the not being a richnation and having no that is, are the Tanzanian 1967 oase data are notusually taken into account; introduction of ESR? In any schools the same as they werein 1967 before the capitalist neighbors? case, how do they comparewith schools in the poor

the basis of Tanzania's educational qualitycannot be determined on issue (King and Court, academic excellency alone. Recent writers on this in the Tanzanian case 1986) have labored to showthat the ideal quality immediate life of the consists of knowledge andskills relevant to the of those going to terminating majority, ratherthan the future requirements of a set of attitudes,values secondary school. Quality in this case consists and commitments relevant tosocialist citizenship.

27 - 18 -

In any case, during the expansionary policy periods,education quality will always go down. Universe] primary education brought to schoolsa great number of pupils who could not have entered under strictcompetitive criteria of quality. Likewise, teaching and teacher training in general becamea mass profession, more so after the famous village-baseddistance teacher training program, which produced 45,000 half-cooked primary schoolteachers. On the her hand, the economy of Tanzania has been steadilydeclining during the 170s to 1980s; this decline has resulted in,among other things, cuts in government spending especially in the social services includingeducation-- characterized by scarcity o: textbooks, chalk, desks andbuildings.

Production function and school effectivenessstudies done in the United States indicate that background variables of pupilsand school quality inputs are the major determinants of academic achievement. Therefore, on an a priori criteria, the Tanzaniapicture as given above reinforces the assumptionthat academic excellency as a measure of quality hasbeen going down.

The dcLate on the qualityof Tanzanian education will continue becauseit appears that the concept of "complete education" is ofteninterpreted as "terminal edlication," which surely is not the idea. Primary education, for example, should provide a 'basic education" which leavesroom for some children to go to secondary schools, but should,however, offer complete packages in theser-te that whoever lea with this package shouldbe able to live, work andearn his living. It seems very hardto transfer these thoughts to parents and teachers. An important reason for this is the fact that,in practice, teachers andparents still place a high prestige on pupilsgoing to secondary education. To develop curricula and examinations whichwill make teachers teach and parents think accordingto the ideas of "complete education" is actuallythe main policy problem.

Education ,ad Production

Since 1969, schoolshave been engaged in various agricultural,commercial and technical productive activities as part ofintegrating theory and practice.

28 - 19 -

of its catering bill. A few Each school wasrequired to meet 25 percent of their cateringbills; but the schools had produced asmuch as 90 percent The total output forschools national average in 1981 wasabout 16 percent. 38,694,316.40, whichrepresented six and teachers' collegesin 1981 was Tsh. for the year 1980/81. percent (6%) of therecurrent expenditure

been erratic in many Generally, income fromproductive activities has productive activities. institutions due to theunscientific nature of most school productive activitieswith There seems to be noeffort to integrate the which would have allowedthe schools the broad nationaldevelopment projects, equipment through a nationalcredit system to acquireadditional resources and or other support.

Resolution (MR), whosemajor At the higherinstitutional level, the Musoma and work through matureentry into objective was theintegration of education social conditions thatdid university, has beenabandoned. The political and of the status quo. Among not favor the MR wererelated to the preservation the MR paicy was seen as an the elites and theacademic excellence group, opportunity -- the opportunityto attempt by society toequalize educational limitations of their social group -- allow the mature entrants toescape the its ,ct on academic and therefore it wasopposed on the basis of status parents r,rguedthat the two-year efficiency. The high socio-economic their children, and this field experience was a wasteof time on the part of connections to have thepolicy group actually usedits party and government other sciences. In reality, the waved in the facultiesof engineering and political-social pressure againstthe po]icy. above views represented an overt

Manpower and Self-Sufficiency

usually based on the The plans ana projectionsof Tanzanian manpower cre However, due to both internaland external probable rates vf ec,Nnomicgrowth. has been sluggish. Evidence factors, the perv-rmanceof the Tanzanian economy it was planned that indicates that, in the FirstFive Year Plan (1964-1969), but the realized rate was the economy should grow at arate of 6.7 percent, Plan (1969-1974), Tanzaniaplanned a 4.8 percent. During the Second Five Year

2 9 growth rate of 6.5percent, but actually it turned out to be 4.5percent. Finally, in the ThirdFive Year Plan (1976-1981), the growthrate turned out to be 5.3 percent when it had been projectedat 6.0 percent.

On the other hand, it was difficult to determineproper rates of productivity growth bysector and, for this case (as shown in Table 6),rates of labor productivity for some sectors turnedout to be negative.

Table 6

Tanzania Annual Rates ofSectoral GDP Growth and CorrespondingRates of Labor-Productivity (1969 - 1980)

Rate of GDP Sector Rate of Labor Growth Productivity Increase

Agriculture 4.3 Mining -3.2 9.3 Manufacturing -3.1 9.3 -3.4 Public Utilities 10.0 Construction -1.0 5.6 +0.8 Commerce & TrLde 5.8 Finance Services -2.2 5.8 -5.2

Source: For explanations on this table, see Galabawa,J.C., 1981.

The above observationson growth rates have negative implicationson the use of the manpower policy and educational planningin general.

First, given the abovetrends, the projected future level andstructure of economic production was wrong. Second, a wrong level and wrong structureof economic productionled to an over-estimation of manpower needswhich, in the last instance, impliedthat the required composition of educationand skills derived in the laborforce was wrong. This implies furtherthat the MO level umnpower demand was determinedmore by social and political considerations than byeconomic ones, as the high growthrate in employment - 21-

increase in gross domesticproduct or was not associatedwith a corresponding goods and services.

planning through the Manpower The preoccupation withhigh level manpower imbalances in the skill-mix Approacii (M.A.) has alsoresulted in various This can be seenthrough the skills-mix ratios required in thelabor market. in Table 7. When the ratios which have developedsince 1964 to 1980, shown recommendations of ILO, whichsuggeot ratios in Table 7 arecompared with the Tanzania is nowhere rearthese levels. As a ratio of 1:5:25,it is seen that

C . 3, while the expected, the largeststurtfalls occur in categories for catego:y C has smallest shortfall is in categoryA. In fact, the figure been going down since1974.

Table 7

Tanzania's 1964-1980 Skill-MixRatios

1974 1980 Job Category 1964 1969

1.0 A 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.9 3.7 B 1.7 2.6 10.6 C 5.4 6.4 11.6

Jaspa-Report, 1980. Source: International Labor Organization,

The skill categories aredefined by the T.F.Y.F. as:

equivalent education. Category A: Requiring a University or post-secondary education. Category B: Requiring 1-3 years of formal secondary education. Category C:Requiring a form 4- level of

post-primary Hawever, also because of thestrict controlling of the be filled by schooling, even the narrowlydefined manpower posts could not By 1980, for example, the Tanzania nationals, especiallyin category A.

31 fonnal education system supplied only 0.6 ofcategory A, 0.7 of category B, and 0.4 of category Crequirenents.

The above shortfalls in job categories help to highlightthe limitations of planning higher education in a strict manpower planningprocedure in a country where there is incomplete public control over the wholeeconomy, and where a large private sector is not captured in the developmentplans. In fact, the whole output of private secondary schoolswas not captured in the M.A.

Financial Inplic4tions andDependency

To attain the expansion objectiver, the Tanzaniagovernment has concentrated on the construction of completelynew institutions instead of expanding or utilizing to capacity the existingones, a strategy which might have reaucd both development and recurrent costs. These new institutions have also had a history of creating other unproductiveadministrative structures which generate recurrent costs. Partly due to thisexpansion, a large part of the development expenditure has come fromforeign sources,as most new education projects are tied to foreibn donors. Figures indicate that approxima-ely 60 percent of the Ministry of Educationdevelopment costs for education expansion iscovered by foreign aid. Certainly there is alwaysthe good side of foreign aid, because the process ofdevelopment itself requires some form of assistance dependingon the bidding constraint.

However, the more a country depends on external fundsthe more difficult it will be to control its development plans and theirimplementation. For the Tanzania case, most of the foreign aid hascome from different sources with divergent policies and, as most of it has been tiedto specific educational projects, coordination at the macro-level has beenvery difficult. This situation has made the proceJs of educational planningdifficult and meaningless because, the training of people without approvedfunding plans leads to unemploymentor cost-generating over-employment.

32 - 23 -

Employment and Rural Development

approach in The mechanics of planningeducation through the manpower and utilization of Tanzania have tended to favorthe training, allocation little post-secondary and universitygraduates. As a result, there is education and skills. planning of the use of the manpowerat lower levels of school leavers, post-primary The utilization of theentire output of primary regarded as the proper craft centers, and tradeschools does not seem to be of interlocking objectives of manpower planning. This trend leads to a series issues.

of planning to 2irstly, at the macro level,there is a vacuum in terms leavers to earn a provide a sound economicenvironment to encourav the school living by taking advantageof the rural resource potential.

Secondly, as shown in Table 8, the wageemployment growth trends do not productive sectors of the economy. appear to favoragriculture and directly modern sector, which are As a consequence, themajority of the jobs in the service mainly located in urban areas,correspond to occupations related to generating. activities or the areas which are,in the long run, not employment

of Thirdly, as towns have become"growth centers" and "focal points school expansion," the expectation ofobtaining jobs in towns among the migration. leavers has been on theincrease. This has led to rural-urban they However, given the low credentialsof the migrating individuals, inevitably end up in the informalsector or urban employment.

policy to Generally, then, while Tanzaniahas changed its development does not seem to be reflected one of intensifiedrural development, this shift The rural sector has been deniedthe in the manpower developmentpolicy. Unfortunately, the necessary vital middle- and lower-levelskilled workers. levels, instead of steps in the direction ofproducing manpower at the lower and higher- adhering to a manpower developmentpolicy designed to fill middle- level administrative posts in thebureaucracy, can not be takenwithin the Tanzania. manpower approach toeducational planning as adopted in

33 - 24-

Table 8

Tanzania IndustrialEmployment Annualized Compound GrowthRates

Period Services Agriculture Manufacturing Construction

1958-60 - 8.88 4.02 -12.47 -6.67

1962-66 2.27 -11.30 6.32 3.58

1969-78 12.97 - 2.50 7.94 -1.70

Source: V.H. Hundsdorfer,1979. - 25 -

8. COST BENEFIT ISSUES

supported financially The policy ci investing inhigher education has been per unit, university as shown in Mole9. In terms of funds allocated education schooling ranked first, followedby secondary, and primary maintained ranks.

Table 9

Financial Unit Costs in TanzaniaShillings by Schgeling Levels

University Years Primary Secondary

228,294 1962/63 106 2,182 84 1,838 221,236 1964/65 34,800 200 2,817 1970/71 55,570 230 2,760 1975/76 63,062 1977/78 193 4,860 4,608 57,056 1979/80 2('

1961-1975, Planning Division,Ministry Sources: 1) Comparative Statistics: of Education, pp. 39-47. 2) Tanvania:Volume III, Estimates of PublicExpenditure, Government Printer, DSM, 1977-79.

invest Although it was a deliberateeffort by the Tanzania government to lower ones, more of the educational resourcesin higher education than the when compared there are other reasons whichmake university education costly to other levels, namely:

qualified and therefore are usually a) Univer-ity teachers are better highly paid;

clerical, administrative and supportstaff as b) The university has more compared to the lower levels;

35 - 26-

c) University education is exclusively residential and,as such, the mjor items contributing to high costs are usuallyboardir.6 and czterIng: nd d) There is a very high teacher-student raldo at theuniver-'ty, indicating that the class sizes are smal%er while there: mere teachers per class.

But historical and research evidence indicate thatthe most profitable educational level in most countries is the primaryone, while university level education shows a modestpayoff. It appears, then, thathigh investment in university education is not supported by coLmonsense or economic analysis. Policies which have supported university educationat the expense of lower levels have been inefficient in a sense ofresource allocation choices.

On the other hand, work rewards are not distributedprimarily on the basis of ascribed characteristicssuch as parental education ur sex. The influence of schooling and acade. achievement on earnings ishigher than :that of status variables. The marginal average earnings between the universitylevel and other levelsare so high that the difference cannot be attributed to education alone. This private economic payoffcannot be explained by higher education labor ixarcitysupply and demand theories because, if thiswere the case, then the most scarce graduate skills suchas medicine and engineering would be earning higherthan other skills.

Recent evidence indicatethat social rates of return to education levelsin Tanzania suggest that investments in primary educationhave greater payoffs than investments inother levels, at least for the period of 1963to 1979. In particular, the unadjusted social rates of returnwere 0.55 (primary), 0.18 (secondary) and -0.35 (university) for the period1963 to 1979 (Galabawa, 1987).

The Tanzania governmenthas been more generous to its universityand secondary graduates vis-a-vis its primary pupils interms of private returns and national costs. This is to suggest that it might in fact beabie to provide even more and better primary or other basiceducat...on if the efficiency of its investments in seconuary anduniversity educationwere greater.

3 -27 -

9. CONCLUSION

policies adopted inTanzania This paper has describedthe major educational features of these policies were: general since 1961. The characteristic development; social expansion and extension offormal schooling; economic of education. change; efficiency andqualitative improvement

and tradeoffs and, thus, Some of the policyobjectives were contradictory at the same time. The Tanzania not all policyobjectives could be attained quantitative policy objectives a.:e experience shows that, inthe short run, for a country like incompatible with efficiency ones. This is especially true Tanzania uith a poor resourcebase.

37 - 2-

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Alliances for Sharing Technology.Ashoka Mody No.61 Staying it: the Loop: International Freight Costs? Alexander J. Yeats No. 62 Do Caribbean Exporters Pay Higher F. Desmond McCarthy, editor No. 63 Developing economies in Transition.Volume I: General Topics. F. Desmond McCarthy, cditor No. 64 Developing Economies in Transition.Volume II: Country Studies. F. Desmond McCarthy, cditor No. 65 Developing Economies in Transition.Vol»me III: Country Studies. Ruben Lamdany and John M.Underwood Debt Service Reduction Operations. No.66 Illustrative Effects of Voluntary Debt and Esra Bennathan with Luis Escobarand George Panagakos No. 67 Deregulation of Shipping: Mutt Is to BeLearned from Chile. Reform: A Review of World BankExperience.Barbara Nunbcrg No.68 Public Sector Pay and Employment Marlaine E. Lockheed and NicholasT. Longford No. 69 A Multilevel Model of SchoolEffectiveness in a Developing Country. Michael M. Cernea No. 70 User Groups as Producers in ParticipatoryAfforestation Strategies. Helena Ribc, Soniya Carvalho,Robert the Poor: The World Bank'sExperience. No. 71 How Adjustment Programs Can Help Liebenthal, Peter Nicholas, and ElaineZuckerman Belo; A Review of Eleven Success Stories.Yung Whec Rhcc and Therese No.72 Export Catalysts in Low-Income Countries: Ramesh Chancier in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Reviewand Strategyfor Improvement. No.73 Information Systems and Bask Statistics Stephen Malpezzi, A. GrahamTipple, and Kcnncth G. Willis No. 74 Costs and Benefits of Rent Control inKumasi, Ghana. Davis, and Issues and Options. James F. Hicks,Herman E. Daly, Shelton H. No.75 Ecuador's Amazon Region: Development Maria dc Lourdes dc Frcitas [Alsoavailable in Spanish (755)J

Case Study of the PhilippinePrograrn.JohnD. Shilling, An:hony Toil, and No. 76 Debt Equity Coave-sion Analysts: A Woonki Sung eEffincy and equity.Donald R. Winkler No.77 Higher Education in Latin America: Issues Waltz Development.Erik Arrhanius and Thomas W. No. 78 TheGreenhouse Effect: Implka» .s for Economic Tax Rate Model.David Dunn and Anthony Pellechio No. 79 Analyzing Taxes on Blatt'Income with the Marginal gilidive The EvOutiov of Paradigms. MichaelE. C-.1by No.80 Environmental Management in Development: irris, Mark Dorf-Irian, the 1980s: A Cross CountryComparison.Felipt No.81 Latin America's Banking Systems in Jose Pedro Ortiz, end others. Experiences.George Psacharopoulos No. 82 Why Educational Policies Can Fail:An Ovemiew of Selected African John Craig No. 83 Comparative African Experiences inImplementing Educational Policies. N. 84 hnplernenring Educational Polides inEth;opia.Fassil R. Kiros G.S. Eshiwani No. 85 1iplernenting Educational Polities in Kenya. The VrotBPLik Headquarters European Office 1818 H Street, N.W. Tokyo Office 66, avenue crlfna \Vashington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Kokusai Building 75116 Paris, France 1-1 Matunouchi 3-chomc Telephone: (202) 477-1234 Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00 Facsimile: (202) 477-6391 Facsimile: (1) 47.20.19.66 Tele Telephone: (3) 214-5001 WU164145 WORLDBANR Telex: 842-620628 RCA 248423 WORLDnx Facsimile: (3) 214-3657 Cable Address: INMAERAD Telex: 781-26838 WASHINGTONDC

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