EAZA NEWS Zoo Nutrition 4

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ZOO NUTRITION EAZANEWS 2008

publication of the european association of zoos and aquaria september 2008 — eaza news zoo nutrition issue number 4

8 Feeding our animals without wasting our planet 10 Sustainability and nutrition of The Deep’s animal feed sources 18 Setting up a nutrition research programme at Twycross Zoo 21 Should zoo food be chopped? 26 Feeding practices for captive okapi

15 The development of a dietary review team

24 Feeding live prey; chasing away visitors?

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 1 08-09-2008 13:50:55 eaza news 2008 colophon zoo nutrition EAZA News is the quarterly magazine of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) issue 4 Managing Editor Jeannette van Benthem ([email protected]) Editorial staff for EAZA News Zoo Nutrition Issue 4 Joeke Nijboer, Andrea Fidgett, Catherine King Design Jantijn Ontwerp bno, Made, the Netherlands Printing Drukkerij Van den Dool, Sliedrecht, the Netherlands ISSN 1574-2997. The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria.

Printed on TREE-FREE paper bleached without chlorine and free from acid

who is who in eaza foreword

EAZA Executive Committee Although nourishing zoo animals properly and according chair Leobert de Boer, Apenheul Primate Park vice-chair Simon Tonge, Paignton Zoo secretary Eric Bairrao Ruivo, Lisbon Zoo treasurer Ryszard Topola, Lodz Zoo to their species’ needs is a most basic requirement to chair eep committee Bengt Holst, Copenhagen Zoo chair membership & ethics maintain sustainable populations in captivity, zoo and committee Lars Lunding Andersen, Copenhagen Zoo chair aquarium committee aquarium nutrition has been a somewhat underestimated chair legislation committee Jurgen Lange, Berlin Zoo Ulrich Schurer, Wuppertal Zoo science for a long time. However, thanks to the continued

EAZA Executive Director efforts of a small group of colleagues trying to raise Lesley Dickie, EAZA Executive Office, Amsterdam the interest in this important aspect of our work, the EAZA Nutrition Group has become an established and EAZA Standing Committees Chairs active group during the past few years. eep committee Bengt Holst, Copenhagen Zoo membership & ethics committee Lars Lunding Andersen, Copenhagen Zoo aquarium committee Jurgen Lange, Berlin Zoo Their actions are of utmost importance, as we are facing legislation committee Ulrich Schurer, Wuppertal Zoo an increasing number of nutritional challenges. EEPs

EAZA Specialist Committees Chairs and TAGS are growing in numbers and developing veterinary committee Jacques Kaandorp, Safaripark Beekse Bergen (Hilvarenbeek) continuously, and most if not all of them are in urgent research committee Alastair Macdonald, University of Edinburgh need of sound nutritional advice in order to produce conservation committee Pierre Gay, Zoo de Doue adequate husbandry guidelines. Behavioural enrichment education & exhibit design committee Henk Hiddingh, Emmen Zoo committee on technical assistance & animal welfare Dominique Tropeano, Colchester Zoo is receiving an increasing amount of attention, and food committee on pr & marketing vacancy presentation – and thus nutrition – plays a major role. Calorie intake and energy balance of animals living under EAZA Council Members 2006 - 2009 austria Michael Martys, Innsbruck Zoo belgium Rudy van Eysendeyk, Antwerp Zoo croatia zoo conditions requires a scientific approach to ensure Davorka Maljkovic, Zagreb Zoo czech republic Dana Holeckova, Dvur Kralove Zoo · Vladislav Jirousek, optimal health and reproduction. Last but not least, Jihlava Zoo denmark Lars Lunding Andersen, Copenhagen Zoo estonia Mati Kaal, Tallinn Zoo sustainable use of resources – a field of interest in which finland france Seppo Turunen, Helsinki Zoo Françoise Delord, ZooParc de Beauval · Pierre Gay, zoos and aquariums as educational institutions should Zoo de Doue · Thierry Jardin, CERZA Lisieux · Michel Hignette, Aquarium de la Porte Doree germany Bernhard Blaszkiewitz, Tierpark Berlin-Friedrichsfelde and Berlin Zoo · Dieter Jauch, Wilhelma (Stuttgart) · set outstanding examples – has a considerable bearing Achim Johann, NaturZoo Rheine · Thomas Kauffels, Georg von Opel Zoo (Kronberg) · Ulrich Schurer, on our ways of acquiring and preparing animal foods. Wuppertal Zoo greece Andreas Sioulas, Rhodes Aquarium hungary Miklos Persanyi, Budapest Zoo ireland Leo Osterweghel, Dublin Zoo israel Shai Doron, Jerusalem Zoo italy Gloria Svampa Garibaldi, This special issue of EAZA News uniquely demonstrates Punta Verde Zoo (Lignano) latvia Rolands Greizins, Riga Zoo lithuania Vaclovas Dumcius, Kaunas Zoo luxembourg Guy Willems, Parc Merveilleux (Bettembourg) netherlands Leobert de Boer, that the EAZA Nutrition Group identifies these and Apenheul Primate Park · Wim Verberkmoes, GaiaPark Kerkrade Zoo norway Arne Magne Robstad, other relevant issues, and approaches and tackles them poland portugal russia Kristiansand Zoo Ryszard Topola, Lodz Zoo Eric Bairrao Ruivo, Lisbon Zoo soundly. EAZA can be proud of such a group. Vladimir V. Spitsin, Moscow Zoo slovakia Miloslava Savelova, Bratislava Zoo slovenia Zdenka Barbara Ban Fischinger, Ljubljana Zoo spain Jose Ignacio Cobo, Zoo Aquarium Madrid · Agustin Lopez Goya, Faunia (Madrid) sweden Hans-Ove Larsson, Skansen Foundation (Stockholm) · Bo Kjellson, Boras Djurpark Leobert E.M. de Boer switzerland Christian Stauffer, Wildpark Langenberg (Langnau) turkey vacancy ukraine Vladimir Chairman EAZA Topchy, Nikolaev Zoo united arab emirates Paul Vercammen, Arabia’s Wildlife Centre (Sharjah) united kingdom Bryan Carroll, Bristol Zoo · Mark Pilgrim, Chester Zoo · Simon Tonge, Paignton Zoo · Ken J. Sims, Thrigby Hall Wildlife Gardens (Great-Yarmouth) · Dominique A. Tropeano, Colchester Zoo EAZA Nutrition Group Standing Committee Chairs co-opted in Council chair Andrea Fidgett, Chester Zoo Bengt Holst, Copenhagen Zoo · Jurgen Lange, Berlin Marcus Clauss, University of Zurich Tjalling Huisman, Hogeschool Van Hall Larenstein Specialist Committee Chairs as observers in Council Geert Janssens, University of Ghent Alastair Macdonald, University of Edinburgh · Jacques Kaandorp, Safaripark Beekse Bergen Michael Jorgensen, Copenhagen Zoo (Hilvarenbeek) · Henk Hiddingh, Emmen Zoo Joeke Nijboer, Rotterdam Zoo

member of eaza executive office

c/o Amsterdam Zoo, PO Box 20164, 1000 HD Amsterdam, The Netherlands Website: www.eaza.net e-mail: [email protected]

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EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 2 08-09-2008 13:50:57 eaza news 2008 zoo nutrition issue 4

08 21 30 c contents

photo rob doolaard (izp)/rotterdam zoo photo paignton zoo photo stock

Colophon · Who is who · Foreword 02 03 contents 04 advertisements Dear member 05 from the eaza nutrition group Friday 25th January · Saturday 26th January 06 conference programme Sunday 27th January · Poster presentations 07 conference programme Feeding our animals without wasting our planet; some thoughts about sustainable zoo food 08 sustainability and nutrition 09 sustainability and nutrition Sustainability and nutrition of The Deep’s animal feed sources; a review 10 sustainability and nutrition 11 sustainability and nutrition 12 sustainability and nutrition 13 advertisement 14 advertisement A personal overview of the development of a dietary review team at Marwell Zoological Park 15 dietary review team 16 dietary review team 17 dietary review team Setting up a nutrition research programme at Twycross Zoo 18 nutrition research programme 19 advertisement 20 advertisement Should zoo food be chopped? 21 chopping zoo food 22 chopping zoo food 23 chopping zoo food Chasing away visitors? The attitude of the general public towards feeding vertebrate live prey 24 feeding live prey 25 feeding live prey Current feeding practices for captive okapi; how are guidelines used? 26 okapi feeding 27 okapi feeding 28 advertisements Welfare is not a privilege of show animals only; carbon dioxide euthanasia of small prey animals 29 animal welfare EAZA Penguin TAG; nutrition questionnaire evaluation 30 penguin nutrition 31 penguin nutrition 32 penguin nutrition 33 penguin nutrition 34 advertisement 35 advertisements Now online! 36 eaza nutrition group

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cover Feeding the rhinoceros photo chester zoo 03 photo gert janssen

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EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 4 08-09-2008 13:51:01 eaza news 2008 from the eaza nutrition group zoo nutrition issue 4

Dear member

Dr. Andrea Fidgett, Nutritionist Chester Zoo, United Kingdom, Chair EAZA Nutrition Group, Member of the Organising and Scientific Committee for the 5th European Zoo Nutrition Conference

Organized by the EAZA Nutrition Group, the 5th European Zoo Nutrition Since the first conference in 1999, it is hugely rewarding to observe Conference took place earlier this year from 24 to 27 January. Held at nutrition increasingly being recognised as a vital element of zoo animal Chester’s Queen Hotel, the gathering brought together more than care and moreover, that everyone who should be talking to each other hundred participants and speakers from 19 countries including Canada, on this topic, namely keepers, vets, feed companies and researchers USA, Colombia, South Africa and Taiwan. All those with an interest in studying animals in their natural habitat, were gathered in one place the challenging task of feeding captive wildlife were in attendance and to exchange information and ideas. Long may the energy, enthusiasm in an increasingly electronic and digital age, we made the most of this and collaborations continue; planning for the 6th meeting in late January, opportunity to interact ‘face-to-face’, the old fashioned way – in a 2010 is already underway, so mark your diaries now. suitably historic setting – Chester is renowned for both its Roman and Medieval architecture! I am delighted Chester Zoo allowed me to host this conference and my personal gratitude is due to Luke Harding, Jacqueline Noble, Vicky Ogilvy Formed since the 4th European Zoo Nutrition Conference in Leipzig and Sue Walker, for ensuring its smooth running. On behalf of the (January 2005), the EAZA Nutrition Group (ENG) considers its mission EAZA Nutrition Group, I would like to acknowledge the EAZA Executive to improve communication and coordination among all those engaged Office, Bart Hiddinga and Jeannette van Benthem in particular, for their in research, education, or application of comparative (zoo) nutrition continued advice and support of all our activities. with those requiring nutrition information, chiefly within zoological institutions of Europe. Our work aims “to promote and support nutrition For this 4th nutrition special, my thanks go to Joeke Nijboer, Cora Berndt, in zoological institutions as an essential component of their conservation Jurgen Hummel, Helena Marques and Christoph Schwitzer for their con- mission”. scientious editorial work. The newsletter would not be published without support from our sponsors and we extend special appreciation Arranging the European Zoo Nutrition Conference series falls within to Kiezebrink Putten BV, Honeybrook Animal Foods, Brogaarden, this remit and taking as our theme ‘New Directions for Zoo Nutrition’, PMI Nutrition International (LLC), Crystalyx, Garvo, John E Haith Ltd, we were incredibly fortunate to be joined by several keynote speakers Livefoods Direct Ltd, Mazuri Zoo Foods, Versele-Laga, Avian Birdfood specifically chosen to stimulate discussion and research in previously Products, St. Laurent, Filander Verlag and Arie Blok Diervoeding. • under-explored areas of zoo animal nutrition. These included: sustainable From left to right: Dr. Ellen Dierenfeld, from St. Louis Zoo (USA) who spoke about conservation nutrition at and ethical nutrition, nutritional physiology of plants, conservation nutriti- the conference, Dr Andrea Fidgett, Dr. Stephane Helary, University of Witwatersrand (South Africa) who spoke about rhinos, and Prof. Rob Marrs, University of Liverpool (UK), who spoke about plant nutrients. on and nutrition of fish. Further contributions based on these topics and others were invited and our participants met the challenge – with forty oral presentations and 16 posters there was a wonderfully rich and diverse menu of material presented, as evidenced by the conference programme on page 6-7. The conference abstract book is freely available to download as an electronic file from our new section on the EAZA website (www.eaza.net). See the back cover for more details.

This newsletter continues the precedent set by previous conferences, whereby material of a practical and applied nature is summarised in the short article format of EAZA News and circulated to participants and the wider EAZA membership as a special nutrition issue. More detailed papers are collected to form the series ‘Zoo Animal Nutrition’ published by Filander Verlag. Volume 4 is currently in preparation; the preceding volumes remain an excellent reference resource and are still available to purchase from the publisher (see page 4 for details). 05

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 5 08-09-2008 13:51:01 eaza news 2008 zoo conference programme nutrition issue 4

Friday 25th January ~ Queen Hotel, Chester UK Saturday 26th January ~ Queen Hotel, Chester UK

08.00 Registration, welcome and opening remarks 08.30 Registration Conservation nutrition Plant ecology 09.00 Conservation nutrition: collaborative efforts between nutritionists and 09.00 Plants are not all the same nutrition-wise! field biologists r. marrs [invited speaker] e.s. dierenfeld [invited speaker] 09.45 Comparison of two differing diets on digestion in captive red-flanked 09.45 Nutritional ecology of the blue-eyed black lemur (Eulemur flavifrons): duikers Integrating in situ and ex situ research to assist the conservation of a e. kuhn, j. holland, j. wynne, r. noll, c. kearney & e.s dierenfeld critically endangered species 10.00 The apparent digestibility of diets of Formosan Reeves’ muntjac s. polowinsky & c. schwitzer c-w. yang, s.l. ang, j.t. hsu, h.t. wang & m.f. lin 10.00 Mineral requirements as potential reason for insectivory by chimpanzees 10.15 Herbaceous forages as components in diets of herbivorous reptiles and gorillas in Southeast Cameroon j. hummel, d. bickel, t. ziegler & a.l. fidgett i. deblauwe & g. janssens 10.30 break 10.15 Nutrients digestibility and consumption evaluation of a diet established Growth and development for a group of (Saguinus leucopus) at Santa Cruz Zoological Foundation [Colombia] 11.00 Effects of two levels of energy allowances and of hibernation on growth s. gomez, i. lozano ortega, a.f. jaramillo & a.f. arias in hatchling (Testudo hermanni boettgeri) [Mojsisovics, 1889] m. diez, b. vanstrazeele, j. detilleux, p. dortu, l. grolet, 10.30 break l. istasse & c. remy Nutritional ecology of herbivores 11.15 A simple and effective egg-based hand-rearing diet for flamingos 11.00 Nutritional ecology of free ranging black rhinoceros: field solution for e.s. dierenfeld, m. macek, t. snyder, m. vince & c. sheppard optimising zoo diets s. helary [invited speaker] 11.30 Crop milk replacers for Columbidae hand-rearing protocols: experiences with Sclater’s crowned pigeon and Mauritius pink pigeon at Mulhouse 11.45 Dental wear patterns in captive wild ruminant species differ from those Zoo of free-ranging conspecifics d. gomis, p. moisson, j.f. lefèvre & y. gridel m. clauss, j. brasch, j.c. castell & t. kaiser 11.45 Nutritional aspects of hand-rearing an aye-aye (Daubentonia 12.00 Differences in food comminution in grazing and browsing herbivores – madagascariensis): milk composition and infant growth in relation to implications for captive diets mother-reared infants j. hummel, j. fritz, e. kienzle, p. medici, s. lang, w. zimmermann, c. brown, c. kibbey, k. cummins, s. redrobe & c. schwitzer january 2008 – chester uk w.j. streich & m. clauss 12.00 lunch 12.15 Intestinal calcium absorption capacity is dependent on dietary calcium

th Probiotics content in rabbits a. liesegang, b. burger, m. clauss & g. kuhn 13.00 Do probiotics have a role to play in zoo mammal nutrition? m. ward 12.30 lunch 13.15 Effectiveness of the probiotic, Biomin® PoultryStar, for improving health Health and breeding programmes in canaries 13.30 Frothy bloat and serous fat atrophy associated with insufficient fibre l.j.p. lipman, j. nijboer & u. eelman

24-27 intake in a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) poster session [see end of schedule for list] k. colvile, t. bouts, a. routh & m. clauss 13.30 14.30 break 13.45 Diet transition affects serum calcium, phosphorus and fatty acids in captive giraffe Ethical and sustainable nutrition e. koutsos, d. armstrong, r. ball, c. dikeman, j. hetherington, 15.00 Feeding our animals without wasting our planet – some thoughts about l.g. simmons, e. valdes & m. griffin sustainable zoo food 14.00 Giants with hiccups? h. schram [invited speaker] c. berndt, d. coster & l. hiemstra 15.45 Reviewing The Deep’s animal feed sources for sustainability and 14.15 Speculations on pathogenesis of metabolic bone disease in captive nutrition polar bears (Ursus maritimus) with links to taurine status g.hill g.e. hedberg, e.s. dierenfeld, r.w. chesney & q.r. rogers 16.00 Fish analog – a sustainable alternative for feeding fish to captive 14.30 Current feeding practices for captive okapi (Okapia johnstoni); animals how are guidelines used? e. koutsos, k. lanter & m. griffin d. azulai, k. engelhart, j. nijboer, a. buijsert & t. huisman 16.15 Attitude of the general public towards feeding live prey 14.45 EAZA Penguin TAG nutrition survey evaluation w. lemmen, t. van der harst, s. ophorst & t. huisman h. marques, a. rodriguez & m. bueno 16.30 Walking tour of Chester 15.00 break Zoo diet ingredients photos rob doolaard (izp)/rotterdam zoo 15.30 Development of a Dietary Review Team at Marwell Zoological Park j. moody 15.45 Review and comparing of analysis of animal products j. nijboer, p. wolf & m. derks 16.00 Primate feeding solutions at Mulhouse Zoo d. gomis, p. moisson, t. flahou, w. noordermeer, s.d. michelis, a.s. boursier & l. turner 16.15 Fruits as foods – common misconceptions about frugivory c. schwitzer, s.y. polowinsky & c. solman 16.30 Should zoo food be chopped? a. plowman, k. green & l. taylor 20.00 ZOOTRITION software development: informal discussions 06

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 6 08-09-2008 13:51:02 eaza news 2008 conference programme zoo nutrition issue 4 5 Sunday 27th January ~ Queen Hotel, Chester UK Poster presentations th 08.30 Registration > Trypsin inhibitor content of parrot cooking diets and other diet european zoo nutrition conference Fish components e. clarke & p. wolf 9.00 Feeding fish – unique challenges for formulation and feed technology d. snellgrove [invited speaker] > Macroscopic digestive anatomy of a captive lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) Digestibility and energy studies m. clauss, s. reese & k. eulenberger 9.45 Feeding captive cheetahs: bone as animal fibre? > Nutritional research at Twycross Zoo g. hanssens, s. depauw, h.d. rycke & m. hesta j.s. jones, n. masters & j. hooley 10.00 Digestive physiology and feeding of captive tapirs (Tapirus spp.) > Dietary antioxidants reduce post-exercise oxidative stress in adult s. lang, e. kienzle, j. hummel, j-m. hatt & m. clauss budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulates) 10.15 Comparative digestion studies in wild suids at Rotterdam Zoo s.d. larcombe, c.a. tregaskes, j. coffey, a. stevenson, j. nijboer, m. clauss, j.h.m. loermans, t. roth, j. van der kuilen l. alexander & k.a. arnold & a.c. bbeynen > Welfare is not a privilege of show animals only: carbon dioxide break 10.30 euthanasia of small prey animals 11.00 Energy and nutrient intake and digestibility in captive mongoose lemurs a. schatz & m. clauss (Eulemur mongoz) > Iron metabolite analysis in captive nonhuman primates e.willis, j. dartnall, e. morgan, m. kitcherside, m. gage, n. schmid, m. clauss, p. waesche, w.j. streich, m. gassmann & s. polowinsky & c. schwitzer j-m. hatt 11.15 Maintenance energy requirement of birds participating in flying > Hemosiderosis in captive lesser hedgehog tenrecs (Echinops telfairi) demonstrations at Rotterdam Zoo d. thaller, n. schmid, f. schwarzenberger, w.j. streich, j. kasdorp, j. nijboer & g. janssens h. kunzle & m. clauss 11.30 Observations on the feeding behaviour of two species of nectar feeding > Effect of a probiotic (Yakult™) on faeces consistency of primates birds at Chester Zoo i. valkenburg, h. de vries, c. berndt, a. veldhuis, m. heida, j.s. jones, a. woolham, a.l. fidgett, m. jones & l. alexander e. de groot & t. huisman 11.45 Concluding remarks and thanks > Salt licking of primates is not always a sign of sodium hunger 12.30 Zoo visit s. verweij, m. roethof, w. jens, d. kuiper & t. huisman 16.30 Return to Queen Hotel / Conference ends > Influence of concentrate or roughage feeding on body weight and blood parameters in captive plains viscachas (Lagostomus maximus) p. y. wielinga, u. eulenberger, t.a. lutz, m. clauss & j.m. hatt > Nutrition of captive tapir (Tapirus indicus and Tapirus terrestris): a study on feed Intake, daecal consistency, body condition and health problems t. wilkins & m. clauss > The effect of diet modification on Formosan pangolin (Manis pentadactyla pentadactyla) fecal flora c-w. yang, s.c. chin, c.w. yang, y.h. chuang, c.y. lien, c.l. chen & h.t. wang > Feed and nutrition of amphibians and reptiles at Taipei Zoo c-w. yang

> The effect of concentrate to forage ratio on faecal conformation and bacterial population in Formosan serows (Capricornis crispus swinhoei) c-w. yang, c.m. lin, h.t. wang, m.f. lin & j.t. hsu > Diet selection and nutrient intakes of captive lion tamarins (Leontopithecus spp); a preliminary study m. yaxley, c. schwitzer & s. chikunya > Rumen pH and claw health in two groups of captive wild ruminants w. zenker, b. altenbrunner-martinek, j. huber & m. clauss

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 7 08-09-2008 13:51:03 eaza news 2008 zoo sustainability and nutrition nutrition issue 4 Feeding our animals without wasting our planet; some thoughts about sustainable zoo food

Harry Schram, Zoo education/interpretation consultant, Antwerp, Belgium

Whereas most zoos and aquariums have been actively committed to nature conservation for decades, the wider issues of sustainability and environmental impact are a much more recent source of concern. Yet an increasing number of institutions are already making important progress in this area.

Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without jeopardizing the future. Sustainability is a long-term endeavor. But the future starts now.

Historically speaking, waste reduction and recycling programmes were the Lack of commitment first practical contributions of zoos to a more sustainable world: a number There are some explanations for this apparent lack of commitment. In our of North American and European zoos were already making efforts in this current economic context (where pollution, energy use and transportation ﬁ eld in the 1970s. As the energy crisis became more obvious, and sustainable are virtually government subsidised, often making non-green food cheaper energy sources became a more feasible option, this was the next area in than the more sustainable alternatives), greening your food shopping list which zoos and aquariums became more active. Other sustainable and will unfortunately almost always mean increasing your food bills. Animal environment-friendly construction methods and techniques soon followed. food origin is not the most obvious aspect of animal husbandry, so zoos and aquariums might prioritize more visible green choices, such as renewable Possible progress energy or construction, reed bed water filtration or recycling programmes. But surprisingly, some important core aspects of the zoo and aquarium business have not yet been significantly reviewed or evaluated on the But when it comes to ‘talking the talk and walking the walk’, a more basis of their environmental impact. One of these is no doubt collection sustainable nutrition programme combined with the right interpretation planning, the outcome of which obviously has enormous and long-term might still be one of the most obvious policy changes when it comes to impact on elements such as energy and water use. empowering your visitors, and making them aware of the ways in which Another area where a lot of progress is still possible is that of animal they themselves can also make a change in their consumer-behaviour. nutrition. Individual consumers often find it easier to change their food Many zoos combine animal feeding with keeper talks – and often visitors habits (and subsequently their ‘ecological footprint’) than any other can peek into animal kitchens. Why not explain the rationale behind your aspect of their environmental behaviour. To the average consumer or green nutrition choices, and stress that very inspiring ‘yes, you can do citizen, changing their food consumption is often easier to achieve than this at home!’ element? transforming their home, switching to renewable energy sources or ‘Green’ your food shopping list photo rob doolaard (izp)/rotterdam zoo adapting their transportation behaviour.

But to institutions such as zoos and aquariums, reviewing, evaluating and changing nutrition programmes to reduce their environmental impact is not yet commonplace. Through their education programmes, many (if not all) zoos hopefully make their visitors aware of how agricultural practices (such as pesticide and fertilizer use) are contributing worldwide to a loss of biodiversity. Additionally, aquariums point out the disastrous effects of over-fishing. Yet, how many zoos or aquariums have made the consistent choice to procure as much of their animal nutrition from organic farming as possible? How many are refusing to buy fish from unsustainable or 08 questionable sources?

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 8 08-09-2008 13:51:04 eaza news 2008 sustainability and nutrition zoo nutrition issue 4

Explain green nutrition choices during animal feeding photo rob doolaard (izp)/rotterdam zoo – Do any of your animal nutrition products contain GMO’s (genetically modified organisms) or soybean or palm oil products from unsustainable (former rainforest) origins? How compatible is this with your institutions commitment to safeguarding biodiversity? – Do you refuse – reduce – reuse – recycle food packaging material? – Restaurants can do it. Supermarkets can do it. Your visitors/consumers can do it. Why wouldn’t your zoo or aquarium have a policy of buying only fish or seafood from certified and reliable sustainable sources? Are you aware of the environmental risks involved with fish farming (disease, antibiotics, introduced species…)? These are certainly not always a sustainable alternative! – If your animal nutritionist is already convinced, why not continue with your catering or restaurant manager? What about your staff canteen?

Can we really make a difference? There are some 250,000 higher vertebrates living in EAZA member zoos and aquariums. This is equivalent to the population of just one medium- What do we want to achieve? sized European city. There are ten million consumers (and 7.5 million As in all institutional and operational sustainability concerns, a sustainable pigs) living in a small country like Belgium…You may wonder if it is all zoo or aquarium nutrition programme will try to meet the health and worthwhile, if we as a zoo and aquarium community can really make a husbandry requirements of the animal collection, while reducing the significant difference. short and long-term impact on wild habitats and species, on the physical environment in general (including non-renewable energy reserves and I am convinced that we can. Of course there is the famous quote that the climate), and, last but not least, on present and future human popu- “no one ever made a bigger mistake than he who did nothing because lations worldwide. he could only do a little”. Or “every journey begins with the first step”. Sustainability is a wider concept than ‘environment-friendly’, as human ethical concerns (such as fair trade) are an integral part of it. In the But there is more. In the future we will be increasingly held accountable human green food scene, some hard-line proponents of ‘buy organic, buy for our actions, not just by our visitors, but also by regulation authorities, local’ will not accept any food that has to be imported over a significant various NGOs and the media. We cannot claim to make a difference and distance. While transport aspects (food miles) remain important conside- then not do our utmost to live up to that claim. But above all, our core rations, rejecting any foreign or exotic imports might not always be the business is to amaze and inspire people. The overall majority of the 140 best way to serve the interests of both local populations and the habitats million people that pass through our gates every year may feel they have we want to safeguard in the rest of the world. Using fair trade (and neither the opportunity nor the power to do something about issues such sustainably produced) coffee, bananas or rainforest products does not only as climate change or the destruction of the rainforest. It is our duty to contribute to saving habitats and species, it also creates an economic convince them that they can indeed make a difference, to empower them support basis for conservation measures. as critical consumers. As yet, consumers do not rely on GPS navigation systems that tell them in what direction to push their supermarket trolley. Ideas to consider (and questions to ask yourself) They are still making conscious choices every day. Let’s do our best to – As a good zoo, you are rightfully concerned about the welfare of your inspire them. • zoo animals. You respect (and hopefully exceed) minimum standards; Fair trade and sustainable produced photo stock you have adapted your exhibits and improved enrichment. Are you aware of the welfare situation of the food animals that you use to feed your animals? Ethical farming methods do exist. – How much of your animal food is produced locally (and how much of this seasonally – or in greenhouses?), and how much has to be imported? How many miles does your animal nutrition travel in a day, a month, a year? Can you reduce this? – Have you looked into organically produced alternatives? Is it feasible? If you think it would cost you more money, do you know exactly how much more? Please note that ‘visible quality’ requirements that might raise prices for normal consumers are generally not relevant to zoo animals, so there may be organic produce available at lower prices. 09

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 9 08-09-2008 13:51:04 eaza news 2008 zoo sustainability and nutrition nutrition issue 4 Sustainability and nutrition of The Deep’s animal feed sources; a review

Graham Hill, The Deep, United Kingdom photos by the author

The ethical review process at The Deep, as in many institutions, considers all aspects of its organisations’ activities. Recently, this has focussed on re-evaluating fish food suppliers and feeding regimes with the aim of improving three key areas: nutritional suitability, environmental sustainability and overall environmental impact of feed purchasing.

The Deep, Hull, UK Environmental Charity In recent years, The Deep has made significant changes in many areas to improve practices, for example regarding energy and waste management, environmental awareness and an ethical and environmental purchasing policy. This experience was applied to the sourcing of feed in such a way that it met our environmental criteria without compromising animal health. Using the workflow below we developed the necessary processes to conduct a sustainability audit.

Workflow – Reviewing current literature on this subject. – Compiling a list of all the suppliers and food types that were currently used. – Determining practical considerations of a potential change in feed using the following priority hierarchy: > Essential to animal health > Quantity used > The range of animals a particular item is used for > Availability Advanced feed supplementation > Current sustainability Nutritional supplements can be used to enhance the nutritional profile of – Posing a series of questions to put to suppliers to determine their over a feed item that has been found to be an environmentally sound choice, all environmental sustainability. but placed lower down in the decision hierarchy due to a lower nutritional – Acquiring the information. content. The development of marine fish and invertebrate feed supple- – Deciding on each supplier and/or food type. mentation has advanced significantly in recent years. The Deep and Zoolife Inc. have made significant improvements to overall fish health Nutritional suitability with the use of specifically developed, patented, emulsion-based liquid Are the feeds we use the best and most appropriate for the animals? vitamin supplementation. This development has demonstrated significant A review of the nutritional profiles of each food type is currently under- increases in the transfer of bioavailable carotenoids into live food and way. The analysis of the information will allow decisions to be made as frozen feeds (Zoolife Inc., data on file). In addition, the natural marine to whether current feed types are the best available in terms of their algae and plankton oil components are derived from sustainable sources. environmental sustainability and nutritional composition. Historically, plant materials used as feed in marine and freshwater aquaria The majority of aquarium feed is frozen. It is well documented that vitamins, have been terrestrial in origin, and unsuitable nutritionally for aquatic in particular water-soluble vitamins and other elements, are quickly animals, particularly marine organisms. Use of marine algae and a cold degraded in killed fish even in ideal freezer conditions (Bernard and Ellen, set mixed-algae gel used at The Deep results in browsing that is much 2002). Proximate analysis of frozen feed is therefore an important part of more similar to that of wild, herbivorous, marine fish, both nutritionally quality control. Whilst this is maybe more commonplace in zoos, aquariums and behaviourally. These changes limit overfeeding and have associated (as far as this writer believes) do not regularly use this technique. As part wastage and financial savings. Ultimately, the aim is to maximise of this review, frozen feed surveillance will become a regular part of feed sustainability, but the benefit of improved nutritional health could lead evaluation, not only for ascertaining the condition of stored food items to savings in re-stocking and health related expenditure that can always 10 but also to monitor seasonal fluctuations in food composition. be used to demonstrate the inherent value of conducting such an audit.

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Enriched live River shrimp with Zoolife Inc. sustainable plankton oil Environmental sustainability Are the feeds used by The Deep from sustainable sources? How do we obtain this information? There are several sources of information specifically for determining the sustainability of specific fish species. The three chosen were selected for their ease and speed of use, and relevance to the food types The Deep purchases.

Sustainable fish guides There are a number of guides produced around the globe, for example: the Marine Conservation Society (MCS) ‘Good Fish Guide’, the Monterey Bay Aquarium ‘Seafood Watch’ and the Audubon Society ‘Seafood Wallet’. These guides alert purchasers of seafood to species that are, and are not, deemed as sustainable

and they have been instrumental in the shift of consumers’ MCS Good Fish Guide photo marine conservation society www.mcsuk.org attitudes to marine produce (Atkinson, 2007). The MCS ‘Good Fish Guide’ provided a good starting point in the assessment of stock transported. The sourcing of locally produce can have a significant impact sustainability of some of the feed species The Deep uses (www.mcsuk.org). on the overall sustainability of a feed item by reducing transport miles. In-house processes were also scrutinised to optimise consumption and Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) minimise wastage. A re-assessment of display biomass, food preparation The MSC is an independent, global, non-profit organisation created by and feeding practices highlighted areas where they can be streamlined to Unilever and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) in 1997, that has minimise waste and expenditure without compromising animal health. developed an environmental standard for sustainable and well-managed fisheries (www.msc.org). It provided further, more detailed information The reality – for the suppliers on feed fish that were extracted from sustainable fisheries. The reality of trying to acquire the information from a number of different suppliers is somewhat problematic. Whilst our suppliers on the Sustainable seafood review whole were enthusiastic and said they would provide the information It was very fortunate that during our research that a M.Sc. thesis on we requested, actually receiving the information has been difficult to sustainable seafood was made available (Atkinson, 2007). It contained accomplish. And there maybe a number of factors involved: specific case studies of both suppliers and feed fish species that were of direct relevance to The Deep. This information allowed the development The size of the company of specific questions to assess the suppliers’ current situation and com- In relative terms this is still a new and growing area for many smaller mitment to environmental sustainability. The questions were distilled to: companies that have yet to formalise their company’s environmental – Do you have a written environmental policy? policy. Accommodation of customers’ requests for sustainability infor- – Can you identify where the fish are caught? mation can therefore be a difficult task or at this point it may not be a – What fishing methods are used? priority for the company. – Do you have MSC or similar accreditation? Request frequency Overall environmental impact of feed purchasing: For many institutions this re-assessment of practices has yet to take Are the feeds being sourced from suppliers, which minimise transport place and the numbers of requests to suppliers has not yet reached and their ‘carbon footprint’? There are a number of online calculators a level where they need to focus specifically on sustainability. This is (e.g. www.carbonfootprint.com) that can estimate total carbon footprint, changing however, but it still takes perseverance from the institution to determined by the type of transport and the distance over which feed is prompt their suppliers into delivering the information.

photo rob doolaard (izp)/rotterdam zoo

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The reality – for aquariums companies however, are becoming increasingly aware that they need to Limited alternatives: there are only a small number of companies that can provide these data and pay more attention to their own environmental supply fish for the aquarium industry in large enough volumes to meet its activities in order to retain business. As bulk purchasers of a wide variety demands. This effects how suppliers need to be approached in order to of foodstuffs, animal institutions represent a significant driving force that maintain good relations. The dilemma an institution may find itself in if a can generate momentum within the feed supply industry to continue to supplier is deemed by its criteria to be unsustainable is how to inform the develop their environmental proﬁ le. The power of customer-driven change supplier that there are practices in its business that the institution is not is a significant force and has found to be very successful with campaigns happy with whilst still securing a source of food in the interim period? like the ‘Dolphin-friendly tuna’, ‘Give a swordﬁ sh a break’ and many others. How long should the supplier be given to address aspects of its business? A certain amount of diplomacy is required here. A dynamic process The process described above is a dynamic one requiring re-evaluation and Finding a balance an awareness of the rapid evolution in environmental strategies that is Often a balance must be struck between sustainability of food supply taking place and continues to become a more prominent feature. It can and animal welfare, where practical considerations are addressed. Price, be applied not only to sourcing fish feed but is also relevant to all aspects reliability of service and availability of the food item all have an influence of our businesses. In addition to it being our moral obligation as an on decisions and must be taken into account along with environmental/ environmental and conservation charity, it has led to financial savings, sustainable aspects. It may be necessary to find an additional seasonal but more importantly, made us think critically about our company as a food species to replace a single year round unsustainable feed source. whole, and the integration of company-wide environmental philosophy, This has obvious financial implications. which will hopefully stimulate similar activities amongst our suppliers. •

Customer-driven change Atkinson, J. (2007). Sustainable seafood review for the Zoological Society of London. M.Sc. thesis, Imperial College London, United Kingdom. Whilst this review process is not a new concept, in the past it has some- Bernard, J. B. and M.E. Allen (2002). Feeding captive piscivorous animals: Nutritional times been difficult to obtain information from suppliers. Feed supply aspects of fish as food. Nutrition Advisory Handbook, fact sheet 005.

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 12 08-09-2008 13:51:06 EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 13 08-09-2008 13:51:06 EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 14 08-09-2008 13:51:07 eaza news 2008 dietary review team zoo nutrition issue 4 A personal overview of the development of a dietary review team at Marwell Zoological Park

Jacqueline Moody, Marwell Zoological Park, United Kingdom photos by the author

Captive animal nutrition is an area which is becoming ever more important in the management of captive wild animal populations. The development of a team of keepers, headed by an individual with a keen interest in nutrition, in addition to some form of nutritional background, is one way in which collections can effectively begin to review the diets of all species within their collections. This method has been successfully implemented at Marwell Zoological Park.

My interest in animal nutrition began when I was studying at the university, Objectives of the dietary review team where I carried out a nutritional study on captive elephant diets, involving The primary purpose of establishing a nutrition team was to initially the chemical analysis of hay and browse fed to captive elephant populations document the diets of all species within the zoo, and this would provide a within the United Kingdom. A questionnaire was also produced by the EAZA foundation for further dietary investigation. Members of the dietary review Elephant Taxon Advisory Group regarding general provisions of elephant team were selected for their individual interest in nutrition. The team diets in this country. Shortly after starting at Marwell Zoological Park in 2006, currently consists of nine keepers and section managers representing all this work was recognised by the general curator, who then approached me animal sections across the zoo. The objectives of the team were as follows: about looking at the potential of forming a dietary review team at the zoo. – To primarily document the diets of all vertebrate species across the zoo. – To analyse all of the diets using ZootritionTM software. Forming a dietary review team – To identify and highlight any nutritional problems such as diet Following a nutritional training day at Marwell Zoological Park in 2006, to ingredient composition, food presentation and selective feeding. which all keeping staff was invited, a dietary review team was established. – To identify relevant nutrition projects for team members to undertake. This provided an excellent opportunity to advance a keen interest I had, These would be areas requiring further dietary investigation and also and a way in which I could focus on increasing keeper awareness of the which are of interest to the team members. crucial importance of captive animal nutrition. This article describes how we have achieved this at Marwell Zoological Park and how keeper Stages of diet documentation involvement is so important in this vital process. The first stage of the process was to update a previously drafted up diet sheet. Copies were then distributed to team members, who proceeded to The importance of dietary reviews weigh out the diets of all species on their sections. Specific guidelines The increase in nutritional knowledge and technology means that we are were handed out regarding the information required. For example, details now able to look into the diets of captive animals in greater detail than in on hay and browse provisions where possible, the range of fruit and vege- years gone by. Regular dietary review allows keepers to monitor a range table extras given in appropriate species and details of any supplements of different factors including: given. Any other relevant dietary information was asked for which might – Exactly how much food is offered to an animal or group of animals in weight form. – Whether the animals are receiving quantities appropriate for that species. – The range of ingredients going into a diet. In this way, we can see if the animals are receiving a balanced diet and whether the different ingredients are adequate or indeed even necessary for the species in question. – Whether we can relate any health issues to potential dietary problems. – Whether the implementation of any dietary changes was the best decision to make in terms of factors such as improved animal health and condition, reduced selectivity and improved reproductive performance. – Ensuring that feeding practices are standardised throughout the zoo. This may highlight a need for clearer feeding instructions. – Comparison with feeding practices employed at other zoos, as well as with wild feeding ecology and published husbandry guidelines. 15

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aid the analysis. Over the period of a few months, diet sheets were collected and filed in appropriate taxonomic categories.

Dietary analysis using Zootritiontm My initial training using the Zootritiontm software was gained through attending a course at Chester Zoo, run by Andrea Fidgett. This provided me with the knowledge required to analyse all diets at Marwell Zoo. Each diet was then analysed on an individual animal basis using the programme. Therefore, where diets were documented on a group basis or for herd situations, an average was taken to give an indication of what each animal would receive if the diet was shared out equally. Measures were taken to ensure the analysis of all diets was as accurate as possible. This included: – Entering the nutrient composition data for the feeds we use at Marwell Zoological Park to increase accuracy. – Where diets vary daily; with many of the reptile species for example, analyses were carried out to represent the variety of feed ingredients given. – For hay and Lucerne, values for forage analysed at Marwell Zoological Park were entered into Zootritiontm and used to try and increase accuracy. These values were however fairly restrictive.

I have now provided training for several members of the team to give them an overview of the programme. In this way, they are able to see exactly how it works and understand the process from diet documentation to nutritional analysis.

Identification of problematic diets This whole process of diet documentation and analysis has led to the identification of certain diets which are potentially problematic or in need of further review. The main diet highlighted as a result of this work is Foods, to initially develop a powdered diet, which we can form into a dry that of our giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). The diet of this meal consistency. If this diet was eventually produced on a commercial species has now become a major project in itself. From the initial basic scale, we would hope to develop it into an expanded ‘termite-sized’ pellet. analysis of the anteater diet, we have since achieved a number of objectives. Trials of this new diet should commence very soon. A wide range of diets and dietary details for this species from collections has been collected on a global scale for comparative purposes. The diet Setting nutrition projects has been chemically analysed in the laboratory to obtain an idea of the A list was drawn up of some other species whose diets also require further nutrient levels present as well as bacteriology procedures carried out on investigation, and projects were allocated to team members based on diet samples. The main aim of this work is to produce a new diet for our their individual interests. These are mostly species they work with on a anteaters. We have been working in close connection with Mazuri Zoo regular basis and which are on their own sections. This was felt to be more beneficial as the team members are then able to weigh out the diets, closely monitor feeding behaviour and note any changes or issues that may need addressing. They are also able to dedicate a higher proportion of time to species on their own sections.

Dietary change implementation It must be emphasised that any decisions regarding a potential dietary change made by the dietary review team must go through a strict curato- rial and veterinary process. Under no circumstances are any major dietary changes made without such consultation. Once it is felt appropriate, a protocol is drawn up containing full details about a dietary change and how it should be implemented. Communication with animal keepers is essential beforehand to ensure that everybody understands the process 16 and is fully compliant.

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Time may be an issue There are a number of problems that may occur as a result of forming a dietary review team. However, once these problems have been addressed, there is no reason why the team should not continue to run successfully. One of the biggest problems is the issue of time. Once the process of diet documentation and analysis begins, you soon realise how much work there is to complete. Particularly during the winter months when keeper working hours maybe shorter, keepers often find it difficult to find the time to carry out some of this work. Effective time management can help to address this problem.

Negative staff attitudes Staff motivation can sometimes restrict progress as well. Negative attitudes towards dietary work amongst established keepers may divert team attention away from the real purpose of the work. However, providing everybody with a clear explanation of what is trying to be achieved and Some advice the reasons why can help to increase awareness of this important work. Before forming a nutrition or dietary review team, there are various factors It is essential that team members realise the importance of their role within to take into consideration. The ﬁ rst and most important step is to choose a the team from the very beginning. As nutrition representatives for their motivated team of keepers, which all have a keen interest in animal nutrition. sections, they have a vital role in relaying information and in ensuring steady The importance of their role within the team must be enforced from the progress of dietary work. For example, if a diet is inaccurately weighed, very beginning. Any support must be provided as, and when, necessary. this may affect the nutrient levels that result from the analysis and so It is important to nominate one coordinator who is responsible for the judgements may be made about the diet that may not be completely true. collection and storage of diet sheets and for their subsequent analysis. This is to standardise the process and minimise the risk of error. It maybe Using different resources advantageous for this person to have some form of nutritional background, Inaccurate information can be another problem. Different keepers relay although an enthusiasm for the subject is equally as important. To maintain sometimes different information about a particular diet, so it is important momentum, holding regular meetings, both on a group and an individual to ensure the correct information is being received. This may mean asking basis, is crucial. Providing regular feedback to team members will help install team members to reweigh a diet so that the information is correct. To this. Finally, it is vital to set realistic timescales. Choose problematic diets maintain momentum within the team, regular contact is essential; both which are of highest importance, focus on them and produce the desired to monitor progress of keepers and to offer any support or answer any outcome before starting a new project. Dietary work needs to be approached questions. Again, this can depend on keeper time, especially during the with a degree of caution, skill, expertise and time; but the development of winter months. Regular meetings are a good way to discuss progress and a dietary review team can be an excellent starting point for carrying forward exchange ideas. The value of individual catch up sessions cannot be the increasingly expanding area of animal nutrition. underestimated though, as these provide valuable time to focus on each team member and their specific project. Should any zoological collection be interested in investigating the potential of forming a dietary review team, please feel free to contact me for further Outcomes of forming a dietary review team information at [email protected] • The outcomes of forming a dietary review team are numerous. Primarily and most importantly, is to increase awareness of the need for dietary reviews within captivity. It is no longer acceptable to take the attitude that the animals have always been fed a particular diet, so why change this. Although a diet may appear to maintain a species, potential improvements could be made to further improve health and reproduction. The technology and skills are now available, so they should be used to their full potential. A dietary review team allows zoos to highlight problematic diets and to address them. It also results in increased communication with a whole range of people including zoo nutrition professionals across the world and feed suppliers and manufacturers. Finally, such a dietary review allows us to share the information out there and to consequently identify areas in need of further research. 17

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 17 08-09-2008 13:51:09 eaza news photo sarah forbes 2008 zoo nutrition research programme nutrition issue 4 Setting up a nutrition research programme at Twycross Zoo

Julie S. Jones, Nic Masters, Jackie Hooley, Twycross Zoo, East Midlands Zoological Society, United Kingdom

“As a basic foundation of animal management, nutrition is integral to longevity, disease prevention, growth and reproduction” (Dierenfeld, 1997). Because zoos are responsible for the care of their animals they should invest in nutrition research to ensure they get this basic foundation right; in recognition of this, nutritional research is a vital component of the research focus at Twycross Zoo.

Close links with the University of Nottingham and its newly established work on this project and all EAZA member institutions that have helped School of Veterinary Medicine and Science have driven a progressive nutrition so far by completing surveys and providing invaluable information. research programme and created opportunities for students to experience zoo life for themselves. The appointment of Nic Masters of the International Customising Zootritiontm Zoo Veterinary Group (IZVG) as the resident veterinarian at Twycross Zoo and The next task for Twycross Zoo, and specifically the nutritionist, will be to more recently the addition of Julie Jones as a voluntary consultant nutritionist customise the Zootritiontm software for the zoo’s collection. Zootritiontm have enabled animal nutrition at Twycross Zoo to progress enormously. is an excellent tool for information handling and combined dietary and individual food item analysis, but it will need to be provided with infor- Nutrition information storage and analysis mation speciﬁ c to the animals and diets offered at Twycross Zoo. Research The purchase of the Zootritiontm software by Twycross has also provided an will focus on both the food items offered, which may require some nutri- excellent tool for nutrition information storage and analysis. This programme tional analysis where published analysis is not currently available, and allows a large facility such as Twycross Zoo to manage the dietary needs of the full diets offered to the animals. All items ordered by the commissary the animals and assist with diet planning which, once established, can follow team will need to be itemised and added to the database. Once this the animals should they move. It is hoped that this information can be information has been stored, animal diet sheets can be included and shared with other facilities to build a network of information, to compare cross-referenced to produce a nutritional analysis of the combined diet, husbandry practices and to offer information valuable to other collections. which can then be compared to published nutritional requirements. Study of dietary intakes and refusals of food by individual animals will Bringing together expertise allow the team to assess dietary balance by comparing what is offered A nutrition research group has been formed at Twycross Zoo, which will with what is consumed. Assessments can be made for groups of animals bring together the expertise of the nutritionist, veterinary team, associates and, where necessary, improvements can be implemented. of the University of Nottingham and key decision-makers at the zoo, including the newly appointed head of research, Dr. Lisa Yon, to plan the A more efficient way of working future of nutrition research at the zoo. This group will collaborate to The nutrition programme is ambitious and very time consuming. Constant identify priority research needs and design nutrition projects accordingly. change within the zoo environment and the inclusion of life style and life stage requirements, such as breeding and gestation/lactation needs, will Collaborative nutrition research complicate the task even further. However, once established it will provide An excellent example of collaborative nutrition research is the red-fronted the veterinary team with an invaluable resource to support clinical evalua- macaw (Ara rubrogenys) project, which commenced in 2007. Funding was tion. In addition, the keeping teams will have a dedicated and ﬂ uid feeding secured enabling Twycross Zoo, the University of Nottingham School of programme which will help to shape husbandry regimes and provide sound Veterinary Medicine, and John Ray, the EEP coordinator for the red-fronted nutrition programmes for all the animals in their care and upon which to macaw, to work together to collate and assess the current feeding practices work towards a leaner, healthier, and more efficient way of working. • in captivity and nutritional requirements of this species. The aim is to produce Dierenfeld, E.S. (1997). Captive wild animal nutrition: a historical perspective. a nutrition chapter for the optimal feeding of this species in captivity, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56, 989 – 999. following the recommendations made by the chair of the EAZA Nutrition Fidgett, A.L. (2005). Standardizing nutrition information within husbandry guidelines: Group, Andrea Fidgett (2005), for inclusion into the Red-fronted macaw the essential ingredients. International Zoo Yearbook. 39. 132 – 138. Forbes, S.K. (2007). Nutritional analysis of the diet of red-fronted macaws (Ara rubrogenys) EEP husbandry guidelines. Additional information on the captive breeding at three zoological collections in the United Kingdom. M.Sc. thesis, Institute of Zoology, success and husbandry of the red-fronted macaw will also be collected as Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, United Kingdom. 18 part of this project. We are grateful to Sarah Forbes (2007) for her initial Zootritiontm Dietary Management Software, Wildlife Conservation Society (2001).

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Amy Plowman, Whitley Wildlife Conservation Trust, Paignton Zoo, Kiri Green and Laura Taylor,Taylor, SchoolSch ool ofof BiologicalBi o l o gical Sciences, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

The food provided for many zoo animals is often chopped into small pieces. What are the reasons for chopping food and should zoo food even be chopped?

Abstract Effects of food item size and food distribution Food provided for zoo animals is often chopped into small pieces even if However, there are inconsistent reports of the above-mentioned effects the animals are capable of processing much larger items. Chopping food and it appears that food item size and distribution are often confounded, takes time and increases the risk of bacterial contamination and nutrient i.e. chopped food is scattered whereas whole food is presented in clumps, loss. Anecdotally, keepers chop food because: it enables all individuals and so their separate effects may not be apparent. In this study we in a group to obtain enough of each food type and reduces aggression; attempt to distinguish between the separate effects of food item size and it prevents wastage caused by animals taking one bite and discarding the food distribution and to investigate whether the suggested advantages rest of a large item; it enables a wider scatter feed to encourage foraging of chopping food are valid in a primate (Sulawesi crested black macaque behaviour and prolong feeding time. Macaca nigra) and an ungulate (Brazilian tapir Tapirus terrestris) species.

We investigated these explanations in a primate and an ungulate species. Methods Food was provided in four conditions: chopped/clumped, chopped/scat- Study subjects tered, whole/clumped and whole/scattered. Study subjects were observed Three adult female Sulawesi crested black macaques (in a group of 3.5.3) individually at feeding time, during which number and type of each food were studied at Paignton Zoo. The subjects, the most dominant female, item eaten, instances of aggression and total feeding time were recorded. the most subordinate female and a female of intermediate status, were The behaviour of each subject was also observed for two thirty-minute selected on the basis of their known dominance status. Eight Brazilian sessions at other times throughout the day. Neither food size nor distri- tapirs served as study subjects, including 1.2 at Paignton Zoo, 1.1 at bution significantly affected any of the variables measured for most of Newquay Zoo and 1.2 at Bristol Zoo. The Paignton and Bristol groups the subjects. However, the most subordinate primate was able to obtain consisted of an adult pair and their latest infant (both four months old signiﬁ cantly more food (P = 0.008) when it was whole rather than chopped at the time of study), whilst at Newquay Zoo there was a female and her and the chopped/clumped condition resulted in signiﬁ cantly less foraging infant (six months old at the time of study). throughout the day (P = 0.013) by the ungulates in one of three zoos. photo paignton zoo Chopping food does not appear to have any of the advantages keepers Tapir eating whole ‘greens’ assume, suggesting that if animals are capable of processing it, food should be provided whole to avoid the increased risk of contamination and nutrient loss and to save keeper time.

Why chop food? Chopping food has several disadvantages: it takes large amounts of keeper- time, the chopped edges increase the risk of bacterial contamination (e.g. Gleeson and O’Beirne, 2005) and the rate of nutrient loss (e.g. Brecht, 1995). Conversely, leaving food whole may allow the animals to express more natural feeding behaviour (e.g. Young, 1997) and increase their food processing time (Smith et al., 1989). So why do keepers chop food? Reasons offered are: 1) It reduces aggression and enables all individuals in a group to obtain enough of each food type. 2) It enables food to be scattered more easily across large areas of the enclosure to encourage foraging behaviour and prolong feeding time. 3) It prevents wastage caused by animals taking one bite and discarding the rest of a large item. 21

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Macaque eating whole ‘fruits’ photo paignton zoo of the weight of each food type eaten and total weight of food eaten from the known average piece weight. The diversity of food eaten was calculated using Shannon’s diversity index. Any instances of aggression were also recorded along with the total time spent feeding during the thirty minutes. Each subject was also observed for two thirty-minute sessions at other times throughout the day and his or her behaviour (Table 1) recorded using instantaneous sampling every minute.

Table 1 Basic ethogram for Brazilian tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) and Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) for observations outside of feeding times. Behaviour Description Resting Standing still, sitting or lying with head raised or lowered, not engaging in other activity except snifﬁ ng or observing surroundings. Foraging Searching for food (not including browse) on ground or in substrate and consuming it if found. Suckling Infants and mothers only – recorded when infant being suckled Active Any active behaviour not defined above including walking, running or other movement (not foraging), eating browse, drinking, Feeding conditions defecating, urinating, social behaviour, investigative behaviour e.g. The usual diet for all animals in the study included a mixture of dry feed playing or sniffing environment, sexual behaviour, scent marking. and various fruit and vegetables, with the exact variety and quantity of Not visible Animal out of sight or otherwise not possible to determine its behaviour food items varying between groups. Each group was provided with its normal diet at the usual time during the study, in all cases the produce Analysis part of the diet was provided once per day. For the study this produce part The data were analysed using randomisation tests equivalent to two-way of the diet was presented in two size conditions (chopped or whole) and ANOVAs (design 7; Todman and Dugard, 2001) to determine the effects of two distribution conditions (clumped or scattered) resulting in four con- food item size and distribution on the total weight of food consumed, diversity ditions overall: whole/clumped, whole/scattered, chopped/clumped and of food items consumed, total feeding time, aggression during feeding, total chopped/scattered. The same weight of each produce type was provided food wasted and occurrence of other behaviour types throughout the day. on each study day within each group. Analyses were performed for the three macaques as a group (using group daily means, N = 5 days), for the most subordinate macaque individually In the chopped condition food items were chopped into four to 12 pieces (using individual daily values, N = 5 days) and for each tapir group of as consistent size and shape as possible. In the whole condition similar separately (using individual daily values, N = 3 or 2 tapirs). In all tests sized items of each type were selected and left unchopped, except for thousand re-randomisations were used and the resulting P-value is the some very large items such as pineapples and watermelons, which were proportion of re-randomisations that returned a difference between the chopped into two or four pieces. The clumped condition consisted of two means of the feeding conditions equal to or greater than that observed. or three large clumps of food depending on discussions with keepers; no keepers would allow only one clump of food due to the perceived risk of Results aggression. In the scattered condition food was scattered over the entire For the macaques neither food size nor distribution significantly affected enclosure. any of the variables measured when looking at the whole group. However, the most subordinate individual consumed signiﬁ cantly more food (P = 0.008) For the macaques each feeding condition was repeated on 15 days in a when it was left whole rather than chopped, but food distribution had no random sequence, allowing each macaque to be observed five times in significant effects (Fig. 1). each condition. For the tapirs each feeding condition was repeated on 12 (Paignton and Bristol) or eight (Newquay) days in a random sequence, allowing each tapir to be observed once in each condition.

Data collection The total weight of each fruit or vegetable type offered each day was recorded. The average piece weight of each produce type was determined each day by weighing a subset of pieces. Any uneaten food was retrieved from the enclosure and weighed to determine wastage each day. Each study subject was observed individually using continuous focal sampling for the first thirty minutes after providing the food. The number Figure 1 Mean (± SE) total weight of food eaten by the most subordinate adult female macaque in four 22 and type of each food item eaten was recorded, allowing calculation feeding conditions.

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 22 08-09-2008 13:51:12 eaza news 2008 chopping zoo food zoo nutrition issue 4

For the tapirs there were no signiﬁ cant effects of food size or distribution on produce are well documented and chopping food often takes considerable any of the variables measured, except at Paignton Zoo where the chopped/ keeper time. Therefore, we suggest that most food should not be chopped clumped condition resulted in signiﬁ cantly less foraging behaviour through- as a matter of course for those species that are capable of processing out the day than the whole/clumped condition (P = 0.013) with both the large items. Clearly, there may be some circumstances when food size whole/scattered and chopped/scattered conditions being intermediate (Fig. needs to be small (e.g. young animals, individuals with poor dentition, 2). It was not possible to test the effect of food presentation on aggression for a particular enrichment method) but in general there appears to be since only two instances of aggression were observed during the study. no benefit to chopping food as the normal routine for many species. •

It was not possible to test for differences in food wasted across the four Brecht, J.K. (1995). Physiology of lightly processed fruits and vegetables. Horticultural conditions in either species since there were very few days on which any Science 30: 18-22. Ganslosser, U. and C. Brunner (1997). Influence of food distribution on behaviour in food at all was left uneaten. captive bongos, Taurotragus euryceros: an experimental investigation. Zoo Biology 16: 237-245. Discussion Gleeson, E. and D. O’Beirne (2005). Effect of process severity on survival and growth of The reasons offered by keepers for chopping food offered to zoo animals Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua on minimally processed vegetables. Food Control 16: 677-685. were not supported by the results of this study: Lutz, C.K. and M.A. Novak (1995). Use of foraging racks and shavings as enrichment tools for groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Zoo Biology 14: 463-474. Chopping food allows all animals to obtain a fair share Smith, A., D.G. Lindburg and S. Vehrencamp (1989). Effect of food preparation on feeding of food and reduces aggression behaviour of lion-tailed macaques. Zoo Biology 8: 57-65. Todman, J.B. and P. Dugard (2001). Single-Case and Small-n Experimental Designs. A Practical Guide to Randomisation Tests. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Contrary to this assumption, the most subordinate female macaque Publishers. 245p. consumed significantly more when the food was left whole. Although Young, R.J. (1997). The importance of food presentation for animal welfare and conser- unexpected, this result is actually quite intuitive: if access to food is vation. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56: 1095-1104. restricted by the presence of other individuals it will be easier to acquire fewer large pieces than many small pieces. The diversity of food consumed did not differ significantly across the four conditions for either species.

Aggression among the tapirs was extremely rare and apparently not affected by feeding condition. In the macaques aggression was more common, but usually not associated with food and it did not differ significantly across the four feeding conditions. This is in contrast to some other studies (e.g. Ganslosser and Brunner, 1997), which found a significant increase in aggression when food was clumped. However these studies often include a single clump condition, which we did not due to keeper concern over potential aggression in this situation.

Chopping food allows a wider scatter feed to promote foraging behaviour and prolong feeding time

Feeding time and foraging behaviour tended to be greater when food was left whole, but in contrast to other studies neither scattering food (e.g. Lutz and Novak, 1995) nor leaving food whole (e.g. Smith et al. 1989) resulted in a statistically significant increase in feeding time.

Chopping food prevents wastage

For both species there was very little uneaten food in any condition and neither food size nor distribution appeared to affect the amount of food wasted.

Overall we found no evidence for any advantage to chopping food to the extent that is currently typical in many zoos. The potential for increased nutrient loss and risk of bacterial contamination at cut edges of chopped 23

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 23 08-09-2008 13:51:13 eaza news 2008 zoo feeding live prey nutrition issue 4 Chasing away visitors? The attitude of the general public towards feeding vertebrate live prey

Wouter Lemmen, Thijs van der Harst, Susan Ophorst and Tjalling Huisman, Department of Animal Management, Van Hall Larenstein, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

Live prey items are probably the ultimate environmental enrichment for captive carnivores (Young, 1997). However, it is against the ethical code of the Dutch Zoo Federation (NVD) to feed live, actively predator-avoiding animals to other animals (NVD, 2001).

The next best thing: feeding whole carcasses as enrichment for carnivores? photos gert janssen

An important reason for this policy is the obvious welfare problem of live Four different situations were presented: prey in an environment with no possibilities for escape. Furthermore, it – Chameleon catching an insect. is expected that zoo visitors will not accept viewing of actual killing and – Penguin catching a fish. devouring of live prey. Another reason is that legislation prohibits feeding – Bear catching a rat, mouse or guinea pig. live animals. However, hunting – including prey-catching behaviour – – Cheetah catching a rabbit. is an important part of the behavioural repertoire of carnivores. Denying these animals the opportunity to hunt and kill could possibly The interview had two parts: the interviewee’s opinion about feeding live compromise their welfare (Young, 1997; McPhee, 2002; Bashaw et al., prey off-exhibit or outside opening hours as well as towards feeding live 2003). The current trend of more spacious and ‘natural’ enclosures could prey in full view of the visitors was asked, and whether people did or did tip the welfare balance in favour of the captive carnivores instead of their not agree with statements on subjects related to live prey feeding. prey in some cases. Consequently, it is important to have a general idea of how (potential) zoo visitors will react. Thus a project to Asses this was Results carried out in 2006 (Harst and Lemmen, 2006). Approximately 25% of the people approached for an interview were willing to participate, resulting in 560 respondents. The age category Methods ‘15 – 24 years’ was over-represented in the sample, while there was an People in ten Dutch cities (40,000 – 700,000 inhabitants) were questioned under-representation of people above the age of 65. Almost 60% of about their attitude towards feeding live prey in zoos during street inter- the respondents were female. The categories ‘person with an university views in June and July 2006. Some qualities of the persons interviewed education’ and ‘zoo members’ were slightly over represented. were also noted, such as age, sex, education and whether they were zoo Figure 1 shows that only a small minority of the respondents (6%) 24 members. was against feeding live insects to insectivores behind the scenes.

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 24 08-09-2008 13:51:13 eaza news 2008 feeding live prey zoo nutrition issue 4 Table 1 Agreement of respondents (n = 560) with statements related to live prey in carnivores’ enclosures disagreement with feeding live rabbits to cheetahs. However, the general % Statement agreement trend was the same; feeding live insects was more accepted than live fish, 1. A prey animal must have the opportunity to hide in the enclosure 91.4 while feeding live mammals was least accepted. Ings et al. (1997) found 2. A captive predator must have the opportunity to hunt 85.2 that significantly more female than male visitors objected to the idea of 3. Prey animals in an enclosure increase its educational value 81.0 feeding live fish and rabbits. Also visitors in the age class from 12 to 25 4. To watch predators catching their prey is unpleasant 40.0 years were significantly more against feeding live vertebrate prey than 5. Prey remains are an unpleasant sight 41.0 visitors above 25 years. The study of Harst and Lemmen (2006) did not 6. I will avoid zoos which offer live fish to their animals 10.0 show a significant age or gender effect on the acceptance of feeding live 7. I will avoid zoos which offer live small mammals to animals 20.0 vertebrate prey.

This percentage increased to 13% when feeding takes place in the presence There was scarcely any difference in attitude towards feeding live rodents of visitors. When asked about feeding live fish behind the scenes, 11% of to bears and feeding live rabbits to cheetahs in this study (see also Figure the respondents were against it. This percentage increased to 21% when 1). This lack of difference may be because guinea pigs as well as rats and the option was feeding in front of visitors. Twenty one percent were against mice were mentioned as examples of rodents. The latter animals probably feeding live rodents to bears behind the scenes and 41% were against have a similar ‘pet status’ as rabbits. feeding in visitor view. Twenty-two percent were against feeding live rabbits to cheetahs behind the scenes and 48% were against feeding on This study is of course an example of a ‘what if?’ research. The people exhibit. The agreement of respondents with statements related to the were not interviewed in zoos. Interviews in a zoo setting would also have use of live prey is presented is shown in Table 1. offered the opportunity to confront people with prey remains, the sight of whole rats and other recognisable animal parts, facilitating a more Over 90% of the respondents agreed that a prey animal must have a reliable insight in the attitude of visitors. However, since it is against the hiding place in an enclosure with predators. Over 80% agreed that ethical policy of Dutch zoos to offer live vertebrate prey, it was decided captive predators must have the opportunity to hunt and also thought not to associate any individual zoo with this subject. Nevertheless, the that this will increase the educational value. However a sizeable minority results of this study show that there is a risk of losing potential visitors (40%) was negative about watching actual catching of prey or the sight when live vertebrate prey items are fed to the animals. It can therefore be of prey remains. A smaller but not negligible minority of the respondents recommended to look for alternatives, such as feeding whole carcasses. (20%) agreed with the statement that they would not visit a zoo where McPhee (2002) showed in her study that offering whole carcasses to large live small mammals are offered to carnivores. This decreased to 10% felids increased feeding behaviour and decreased off-exhibit stereotypic when live fish was the prey item. Respondents with children (n=92) were behaviour. Bashaw et al. (2003) showed that offering live fish or bones asked until what age they wanted to protect their children from the sight also produced similar effects in large felids. It is thus recommendable to of live prey catching in an enclosure. Forty-three percent of the respon- increase the practice of offering carcasses, if possible intact. Additional dents mentioned an age of one to three years, 44 % an age of four to research when carcass feeding takes place could teach us more about the 12 years and 12% an age of 13 or higher. effect on attitude and education of visitors. •

% Discussion, conclusions and recommendations The agreement of interviewees to the idea of feeding live prey on and off- exhibit in this study is comparable to results of Ings et al. (1997). They interviewed 200 visitors to Edinburgh Zoo, United Kingdom. The results obtained were slightly different, because in this study there was a higher disagreement with feeding live insects on and off exhibit, but a lower

Enrichment for carnivores with ‘live-like’ prey in Ouwehands Zoo, an alternative for live prey photo jose kok Figure 1 Percentage of respondents against feeding live prey in different cases

Bashaw, M.J., M.A. Bloomsmith, M.J. Marr and T.L. Maple (2003). To hunt or not to hunt? A feeding enrichment experiment with captive large felids. Zoo Biology 22: 189-198. Harst, T. van der and W. Lemmen (2006). Levend voeren in dierentuinen; toekomst of fictie? (Feeding live prey: future or fiction). B.Sc. thesis. Leeuwarden: Hogeschool Van Hall Larenstein. Ings, R., N.K. Waran and R.J. Young (1997). Attitude of zoo visitors to the idea of feeding live prey to zoo animals. Zoo Biology 16: 343-347. McPhee, E.M. (2002). Intact carcasses as enrichment for large felids: effects on on- and off-exhibit behaviors. Zoo Biology 21: 37-47. NVD (Dutch Zoo Federation) (2001). NVD Ethische Code. (NVD ethical code). Young, R.J. (1997). The importance of food presentation for animal welfare and conservation. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 56: 1095-1104. 25

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 25 08-09-2008 13:51:15 eaza news 2008 zoo okapi feeding nutrition issue 4 Current feeding practices for captive okapi; how are guidelines used?

Tjalling Huisman, Dafna Azulai, Kim Engelhart and Alice Buijsert, Van Hall Larenstein, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands and Joeke Nijboer, Rotterdam Zoo, The Netherlands

A joint European and North American project was carried out in 1997 and 1998 that aimed at establishing feeding guidelines for okapi (Okapia johnstoni, Crissey et al., 2000). The nutrition guidelines in the okapi husbandry manual, which were published in 2001 (Crissey et al., 2001), were a result of this project. The guidelines’ recommended ingredient composition is a maximum of 25% browse, fruits and vegetables, a minimum of 50% alfalfa hay and a minimum of 25% concentrate (all on an as fed basis). The recommended nutrient composition (dry matter) is Crude Protein 17-20%, NDF 20-35% and ADF 13-18%. A project aimed at evaluating current okapi feeding practices in European zoos was initiated in 2007 (Engelhart and Azulai, 2007).

Methods Results To evaluate current okapi feeding practices and the use of feeding guidelines Twelve of the 18 zoos sent the questionnaires responded, these zoos in European zoos, a questionnaire was sent to the 18 European zoos keeping collectively held 42 okapis. okapis. The main sections in this questionnaire were: general information on animals, group composition and housing, feeding and health. Information Ingredient composition was asked about the ingredient composition of the diet in the feeding The total amount of food offered to the okapis varied from 4 kg to 17 kg section. Other questions in this section were about food weighing practices, per okapi per day (as fed). Ten zoos offered more vegetables, fruits and diet adaptation in different life stages and the use of feeding guidelines. browse than the recommended maximum of 25% (as fed basis). Within the category browse, fruit and vegetables, nine zoos offered more fruit The nutritional composition of all diets was calculated using Zootrition and vegetables than browse, in the three other zoos the proportion of 2.6™ and the tables from Jansen and Nijboer (2003). The following fruit and vegetables was between 35% and 48%. components were calculated: dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), Nine zoos offered less than the recommended minimum amount of 50% neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and non-fibre alfalfa hay. Seven zoos offered less than the recommended minimum carbohydrates (NFC). The energy content of the diet was also calculated. amount of 25% nutritionally complete concentrate. Ingredient and nutrient composition of the diets were compared with the present feeding guidelines for okapi (Crissey et al., 2001). Zoos were The ingredient composition of the diet was in accordance with the also asked to report on possible nutrition-related health problems, such nutrition guidelines in only two zoos. Table 1 summarizes these results. as hoof problems, obesity and diarrhoea.

photos rob doolaard(izp)/rotterdam zoo

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 26 08-09-2008 13:51:15 eaza news 2008 okapi feeding zoo nutrition Table 1 Ingredient composition of okapi diets according to nutrition guidelines 2001 compared to range Table 3 Age, sex and diet composition in zoos with okapis with no hoof problems (nhp) and zoos with issue 4 in 12 zoos in 2006. okapis with hoof problems (hp). Ingredient profile Nutrition guidelines ’01 Current captive diet ’06 Zoos Average Sex Average fruits Average age and vegetables concentrates Fruits & Vegetables 0 – 25% 5 – 48% offered/okapi/ offered/okapi/ Browse 0 – 33% day as fed (in gr.) day as fed (in gr.) Lucerne hay = > 50% 22 – 77% 7 zoos 12 hp: hp: 2850 grams 2188 grams 12 hp, 20 nhp 11 y, 6m 8 (offered/okapi (offered/okapi Concentrates = > 25% 7 – 35% 4 in zoos with hp) in zoos with hp) 20 nhp: nhp: 6 y, 6 m 10 The few available data on the composition of the in situ diet as mentioned 10 in Crissey et al. (2000) indicate that the natural okapi diet is higher in NDF 5 zoos 10 nhp: nhp: 1964 grams 1720 grams 0 hp, 10 nhp 7 y, 5 m 3 (offered/okapi (offered/okapi and ADF and lower in NFC than the values given in the 2001 guidelines. 7 in zoos with nhp) in zoos with nhp) In all responding zoos, NDF and ADF values were also lower and NFC values higher than values in the in situ diet. This, especially the high NFC blems fed more fruit and vegetables (2.9 kg daily average) than zoos not values, could contribute to present and potential health problems in experiencing these problems (2.0 kg daily average). A similar difference okapi, specifically rumen disorders and hoof problems (laminitis). was seen in concentrate use (2.2 kg in zoos with hoof problems, 1.7 kg in zoos without). However, okapis with hoof problems were on average four Nutrient composition years older than okapis without hoof problems. Due to the nature of the The amount of dry matter offered in responding zoos varied from 1% to data no separate effect of diet or age on the occurrence of hoof problems 4.3% of the body weight (average 2.3%). The energy content of the diets could be shown. offered was higher than recommended in nine zoos, and in four cases it was at least twice the calculated maintenance requirement. Average CP content of the diets was 16.5%. Dietary CP content was below the recommendation in six zoos. The NDF content was within the recommended range or slightly above it in the majority of zoos. The ADF content was slightly above the guideline value in most cases. No zoo fully met the recommendations in the guidelines. Table 2 summarizes the results for nutrient composition.

Table 2 Nutritional profile according to nutrition guidelines 2001 and nutritional composition range in 12 zoos in 2007. Nutritional Nutrition guidelines 2001 Current captive diet profile (offered basis) (offered) DM % – 46.9 – 78.4 This project gives some more insight into feeding practices for okapis DM as % of BW 2 – 2.4 1.1 – 3.5 kept in European zoos. However, the most important lesson to learn from Energy (total MJ ME ) 28 – 41 1 26 – 101 this project is about the use of feeding guidelines. The okapi feeding CP (% DM) 17 – 20 13.7 – 18.3 guidelines were the result of a large joint European and North American NDF (% DM) 20 – 35 18.4 – 41.8 project supervised by well-known specialists in this field. What sense ADF (% DM) 13 – 18 12.2 – 26.1 does such a project make when only a minority of the zoos use the NFC (% DM) 36 – 54 2 26.8 – 56.9 results? As mentioned before, only four of the responding zoos stated 1 Calculated by applying Kleiber’s rule for maintenance energy requirement to the average weight of males (253 kg) and females (284 kg) they were using the guidelines. Diet calculations showed that only one of 2 Calculated from NDF% and CP% range in guidelines and average EE% and Ash% in ingredients used these four zoos met the dietary requirements as stated in the guidelines. Use of guidelines Designing scientific nutrition guidelines is without doubt an important Eight of the 12 respondents stated that they were satisfied with the 2001 activity. However, we should also have a look at the mechanisms that guidelines. However, only four actually made use of the guidelines. Six ensure that these guidelines are actually used. Contrary to a general zoos proposed a more detailed nutrition guideline. A more practical and belief, a good product does not sell itself. Probably more effort is needed keeper-friendly guideline was also suggested in two cases. Two zoos pro- to introduce feeding guidelines to stakeholders and also to evaluate the posed other values for the ingredient composition. use of these guidelines. •

Health problems Crissey, S, E.S. Dierenfeld, J. Kanselaar, K. Leus, J. Nijboer (2000). In: Nijboer, J., J.M. Hatt, Seven zoos reported hoof problems. Two zoos reported GIT obstruction W. Kaumanns, A. Beijnen, U. Ganslosser, eds. Zoo Animal Nutrition. Furth: Filander Verlag. 257-270. (both feeding Robinia pseudoacacia as browse) and one reported obesity Crissey, S, E.S. Dierenfeld, J. Kanselaar, K. Leus, J. Nijboer (2001). Okapi (Okapia johnstoni) as a health problem. Diarrhoea was also reported by one zoo. SSP Feeding Guidelines. Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Engelhart, K. and D. Azulai (2007). 40 apples a day doesn’t keep the vet away, a revision Discussion and conclusion advice for the European Nutrition guideline for okapis in activity. Unpublished report. Leeuwarden: Hogeschool van Hall Larenstein, Department of Animal Management. Table 3 shows the average age of okapis and diet composition in zoos Jansen, W.L. and J. Nijboer (2003). Zoo Animal Nutrition Tables and Guidelines. with and without reported hoof problems. Zoos experiencing hoof pro- Amsterdam: European Zoo Nutrition Centre. 27

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 27 08-09-2008 13:51:16 EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 28 08-09-2008 13:51:16 eaza news 2008 animal welfare zoo nutrition issue 4 Welfare is not a privilege of show animals only; carbon dioxide euthanasia of small prey animals

Andre Schatz and Robert Zingg, Zurich Zoo, Switzerland, Jean-Michel Hatt and Marcus Clauss, Clinic for Zoo Animals, Exotic Pets and Wildlife, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland

To ensure the hygienic state of prey animals, zoos are often forced to buy prey animals alive and perform the killing (and storing) themselves; additionally, zoos may receive live prey animals as donations. Welfare concerns are often voiced in zoos with respect to display animals, but welfare of prey animals purchased by, transported to, and killed at a zoo is rarely discussed.

Advantages Carbon dioxide euthanasia offers several advantages over death by blow. It has been described as ‘humane’ method for killing animals (e.g. Hewett et al., 1993). As the animals remain in their transport boxes and are not handled individually, the performing personnel at Zurich Zoo believe it to be less stressful. A written standard protocol is followed that does not depend on the experience of the performer, making the method reliable, with a predictable outcome for each individual animal. Compared to the ‘individual blow’ method, CO2 euthanasia is time-sparing, thus potentially compensating for the cost of the gas. If performed in large, well-ventilated

Figure 1 Historical tools for the blow killing of prey animals at Zurich Zoo: from top to bottom a rooms (see Fig. 3), the method poses no health hazard for the performing ‘mouse-killer’, a ‘rat-killer’ (both made of wood) and a ‘rabbit-killer’ (metal). personnel. Professional satisfaction of the commissary personnel (the A blow on the head is still a method used in zoos to kill prey animals such department responsible for this task) is higher with the CO2 method. as day chicks, mice, rats, or rabbits (see the ‘historical’ blow-delivering tools from Zurich Zoo, Fig. 1). This procedure usually involves individual Further refinements handling of each animal, which has to be taken out of its transport con- Although the CO2 procedure now used is an obvious improvement in tainer in order to receive the blow. The efficacy of the method is rarely welfare factors compared to the single-blow method, further refinements monitored and will vary according to the experience of the performer and of the method should be assessed, such as using other inhalation agents the number of animals he or she has to kill. Precision of movement may (e.g. Conlee et al., 2005). • be lost, especially after longer periods of blow killing, resulting in an increased number of animals that are not hit effectively. Additionally, this activity is hardly cherished by the zoo personnel assigned to the task, as demonstrated by the printout of the ‘chicken kill schedule’ at Zurich Zoo (Fig. 2).

Figure 2 Note from the message board of the Zurich Zoo commissary indicating the delivery days of live day chicks, evidently not an event looked forward to by the personnel.

Switching methods The death by blow procedure has been replaced by carbon dioxide (CO2) euthanasia (Fig. 3) at Zurich Zoo. Carbon dioxide is introduced into a Figure 3 Plastic container, designed to hold several typical rodent transport boxes, linked to CO2 gas bottles. plastic container designed to hold several typical rodent transport boxes. The prey animals, still in the cardboard transport boxes in which they Conlee K.M., M.L. Stephens, A.N. Rowan and L.A. King (2005). Carbon dioxide for arrive, are placed in this container only after the CO2 has displaced all the euthanasia: concerns regarding pain and distress, with special reference to mice and rats. Laboratory Animals 39: 137-61. oxygen (as assessed by a match or lighter). Approximately five minutes Hewett T.A., M.S. Kovacs, J.E. Artwohl and B.T. Bennett (1993). A comparison of are allowed to pass between the last visible movement of the animals and euthanasia methods in rats, using carbon dioxide in prefilled and fixed flow rate filled their retrieval from the container. chambers. Laboratory Animals 43: 579-82. 29

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 29 08-09-2008 13:51:17 eaza news 2008 zoo penguin nutrition nutrition issue 4 EAZA Penguin TAG; nutrition questionnaire evaluation

Helena Marques and A. Rodriguez, ConZOOlting Wildlife Management, Barcelona, Spain, Miguel Bueno, chair EAZA Penguin TAG, Zoo-Aquarium Madrid, Spain and Pierre de Wit, vice-chair EAZA Penguin TAG, Emmen Zoo, The Netherlands

At the EAZA Penguin TAG meeting was determined to evaluate the feeding and nutritional management of all the penguin species held by EAZA institutions. Thus Pierre de Wit, now vice-chair of this TAG, designed a nutrition questionnaire, which was sent to all institutions holding penguins. The objective was to gather information on how penguins were being fed and to start the process of developing general feeding guidelines. The aim of these guidelines is to compile information, establish protocols according to the penguins’ nutritional requirements and needs, and standardise feeding and fish handling protocols.

The completed questionnaires were sent to the TAG nutrition advisor, The survey analyzed the following topics: Helena Marques, for data processing and analysis. The surveys were – General information: e.g. species held, number of animals, their processed at the end of 2006 and the beginning of 2007, and the first sex and other relevant characteristics of the exhibits, such as water results were presented during the EAZA Penguin TAG meeting at the type in the pool (fresh, salt or brackish). EAZA Annual Conference 2007. This paper presents part of the results – Diet: fish and marine invertebrate species offered to the penguins, as regarding the captive diet and feeding protocols used by the institutions. well as the variety and amount of food offered, how the quantities were established and seasonal dietary changes. Material and methods – Supplementation: multivitamins, minerals and salt supplements used. The questionnaire addressed different aspects of the dietary management. – Fish handling: thawing and feeding methods. Fourteen questions (most of which were subdivided into other questions) – Diet design: how diets were established, whether institutions relied were asked. Some of the questions could be answered quickly, using check on their own experience, other institutions’ experience or literature. boxes that were easy to evaluate. There were also questions with some – Other aspects included problems encountered with other animals space for a written answer, which were much more difficult to assess. at feeding time, food quality requirements and fish suppliers.

Macaroni penguin photo stock Each institution was asked to fill out one questionnaire for each species kept. The total number of questionnaires sent in 2004 is unknown because it was not recorded at that time. However, 79 surveys from sixty institutions were received. Of those, 76 (from 57 institutions) were processed. The remaining three were not evaluated due to the lack of relevant information such as the species or the institution.

Results The results presented in this article are based on the data gathered through the check box questions of the penguin species more common in European institutions. The open questions are currently being evaluated and the results will be presented in the near future. The surveys received revealed that a total of 2,114 penguins, including nine of the 18 penguin species, were present in EAZA zoos at that time in 2004. The most common species were Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) and African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), kept in 37 and 19 institutions respectively. The species least represented were chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) [present in two institutions], Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) and Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) 30 [present only in one institution each].

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 30 08-09-2008 13:51:18 eaza news 2008 penguin nutrition zoo nutrition issue 4 Feeding time for Humboldt penguins photo rob doolaard(izp)/rotterdam zoo

photo stock

Diet by 75.0% and 65.0% of the institutions respectively (Figure 1a). Of the General results showed that across the institutions a wide variety of food institutions holding Humboldt penguins, 35.1% fed only one food type, categories were used to feed the penguins. However, the most common whereas 29.7% offered two and another 29.7% offered between three items fed were herring, sprat and mackerel. Other items offered in the and four types of food. Only 5.4% of the institutions offered five or more diets were capelin, squid, shrimp, anchovy, sardine, whiting, krill, smelt different items (Figure 1b). and mussel. Only one item was offered by 40.0% of the respondents, 50.0% offered between two and four and less than 10.0% fed five or more The results obtained for Spheniscus demersus, held by 33.3% of the different items. institutions, showed that less variety of food categories were given (Figure 2a). Herring and sprat were also the most common food types offered to these The results obtained per species of penguins showed some differences. penguins by institutions (60.0% and 45.0%, respectively). However, Spheniscus humboldti was kept by nearly 65.0% of the institutions. The 63.1% of institutions fed only one type of food and the rest (36.9%) results demonstrated that a wide variety of food categories were offered, offered between two and four food categories. There were no institutions although herring and sprat were the items most commonly used, offered that fed five or more items (Figure 2b). 31

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 31 08-09-2008 13:51:18 eaza news 2008 zoo penguin nutrition nutrition issue 4

h=herring m=mackerel s=sprat c=capelin sq=squid sh=shrimp a=anchovy sa=sardine w=whiting k=krill sm=smelt mu=mussel o=other

Fig. 1a Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) Fig. 1b Food categories offered Number of species fed 100 100 80 80 60 60

% Institutions 40 40 20 20 0 0 h m s c sq sh a sa w k sm mu 1 2 3-4 ≥5

Fig. 2a African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) Fig. 2b Food categories offered Number of species fed 100 100 80 80 60 60

% Institutions 40 40 20 20 0 0 h m s c sq sa w 1 2 3-4 ≥5

Fig. 3a Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua) Fig. 3b Food categories offered Number of species fed 100 100 80 80 60 60

% Institutions 40 40 20 20 0 0 h m s c sq sh sa k sm mu o 1 2 3-4 ≥5

Fig. 4a Southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) Fig. 4b Food categories offered Number of species fed 100 100 80 80 60 60

% Institutions 40 40 20 20 0 0 h m s c sq sh sa w k sm mu 1 2 3-4 ≥5

Fig. 5a King penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) Fig. 5b Food categories offered Number of species fed 100 100 80 80 60 60

% Institutions 40 40 20 20 0 0 32 h m s c sq sh sa w k sm mu 1 2 3-4 ≥5

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 32 08-09-2008 13:51:19 eaza news 2008 penguin nutrition zoo nutrition issue 4

Pygoscelis papua was kept by 10.5% of the institutions. The results institutions (40.3%) used different methods together to thaw the fish; showed a wide variety of food offered by institutions. All (100%) provided e.g. refrigerator plus ambient temperature or refrigerator plus running sprat to the penguins and 83.3% also used herring. Squid was offered by fresh water. Only 26.3% of the institutions used just the refrigerator for 66.7% of the institutions and mackerel by half of them (50.0%) whereas thawing fish as recommended in the literature (Crissey, 1998), and 17.5% 33.3% fed capelin, shrimp and/or krill (Figure 3a). Compared to the used only running freshwater. Some institutions (10.5%) still thawed previous results, this species received a higher variety of food categories the fish at ambient temperature and 1.7% of them used the standing across institutions. It is also remarkable that more than 60.0% of the freshwater method. One of the 57 institutions thawed the fish in a institutions offered five or more types of food (Figure 3b). heating room for 17 hours; one institution used methods to thaw the ﬁ sh that were not an option on the questionnaire and another one did The variety of food types fed to Eudyptes chrysocome (held by 8.8% of not answer the question. the institutions) was similar to those described for Pygoscelis papua. The most common items provided were herring and sprat (both offered Diet design by 60.0% of the institutions) whereas capelin, krill and squid were offered Finally, it was determined how each of the institutions formulated the by 40.0% of institutions (Figure 4a). Two of the institutions keeping this diet for the penguins. Almost half (47.4%) of the institutions used penguin species fed only one type of food, one offered between two and different sources (e.g. own experience, other institutions’ experience four food types while the other two provided between five or more food and/or literature). Slightly over 28% based the diet offered only on types (Figure 4b). their own experiences and 21% established the diet based on other institutions’ experience. There were no institutions that formulated Finally, the diet of the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) (kept by the diet based on literature only. The question was not answered only 7.0% of institutions) included a wide variety of food. Again, the most by 3.5% of the respondents. common fish species fed were herring (fed by all institutions) and sprat. Nevertheless, mackerel, squid, capelin and krill were also quite common, Conclusions offered by more than 40.0% of the institutions (Figure 5a). All institutions Based on the results obtaineded itit isis had at least three different types of food in the diet: half of them fed possible to confirm that therere isis no between three and four different food types and the other half offered consistency in penguin dietaryary five or more food types (Figure 5b). husbandry among EAZA institutions, not even Supplementation within the same species: The type of supplements provided by the institutions was also deter- 1. Diets offered to captive penguinspenguins not onlyonly varyvary amongamong mined. The supplements were categorized by nutrient composition into: species but also within eachach species across different institutions. vitamins; minerals (excluding salt); salt; vitamins and minerals; vitamins 2. Although the variety of foodfood categoriescategories (herring,(herring, mackerel,mackerel, sprat, and salt, salt and minerals; and all together (vitamins, minerals and salt). capelin, squid, shrimp, anchovy,nchovy, sardine,sardine, whiting,whiting, krill,krill, smeltsmelt andand The results obtained showed that more than 40.0% of the institutions mussels) offered to the pepenguinsnguins iiss extensextensive,ive, tthehe most common offered only a vitamin supplement and around 30.0% offered a supplement species included in the dietsiets were herringherring (94.7%),(94.7%), spratsprat (89.5%),(89.5%), stock

that included vitamins and minerals. Less than 20.0% of the institutions mackerel (42.1%) and capelinpelin (35.1%). photo offered all three components. There was only one institution that offered 3. Only 26.1% of the institutionsutions followfollow fishfish handlinghandling andand no supplements at all. preparation protocols as recommendedrecommended inin thethe literature.literature.

4. Most diets are designed accordingaccording to own/others experience. Chinstrap penguin The type of water used by the institutions to keep the penguins (salt water, fresh water or brackish water) was taken into account to evaluate Next steps the salt supplementation. Slightly over 42.0% of the institutions used The EAZA Penguin TAG nutrition advisory will use these results and the fresh water and supplemented the diet with salt; 40.0% used fresh ones obtained from the open questions (currently being processed) to: water and did not use any salt supplementation (Table 1). Salt water – Establish and standardise general feeding practices across was used by 12.3% of the institutions, 3.5% supplemented the penguins institutions. with salt whereas 8.8% of them did not give salt supplementation. Only – Develop a ﬁ sh handling protocol in order to provide a practice two institutions used brackish water, one of the institutions used salt guideline as a reference starting point. supplementation while the other did not. – Give species-specific recommendations when necessary. •

Thawing method Another point evaluated through the survey was the different fish Crissey, S.D. (1998). Handling fish fed to fish-eating animals: a manual of standard thawing methods used by the institutions before feeding the birds. The operating procedures. US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, results showed that a wide variety of methods were used. Most of the National Agricultural Library, USA. 33

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EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 35 08-09-2008 13:51:22 eaza nutrition group s

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Specialist subject advisors (veterinary, scientific etc.) are increasingly Abstracts of the first three volumes of Zoo Animal Nutrition are also being added to steering committees for zoo-based conservation bree- online, with direct links to Filander Verlag should you want to purchase ding programmes worldwide and the EAZA Nutrition Group (ENG) is a the books themselves. working group, reporting to the EAZA Research Committee. In keeping with the theme of creating a nutrition ‘library’ of reference The current committee members are: material, publishing agreements with similar, like-minded meetings – Dr. Andrea Fidgett, Chester Zoo [chair] have been established. On this basis you will find abbreviated abstracts – Dr. Marcus Clauss, University of Zurich from the International Symposiums on Pet Bird Nutrition (Issues 1 – Dr. Tjalling Huisman, Van Hall Institute and 2), plus details of how to purchase the complete versions at very – Prof. Geert Janssens, University of Ghent reasonable cost. – Michael Jorgensen, Copenhagen Zoo – Dr. Joeke Nijboer, Rotterdam Zoo A number of books are recommended, as are some useful weblinks for nutrient requirements and food composition in particular. Of course A primary responsibility of the ENG and its members is to provide this area should not remain static and suggestions for links are always nutrition advice to zoo-based conservation breeding programmes, welcome. developing guidelines and protocols for general use.

Following extensive discussion on how to freely share information generated, a dedicated ‘nutrition’ area was added to the EAZA website, which in due time will be moved to the new EAZA website which is currently under construction.

Membership is open to all individuals who support the aims of the EAZA Nutrition Group or need to know how they can improve nutrition in their zoo – more details can be found under the ‘Join’ heading. Probably the most useful section for any collection or individual is the library. Here you will find a number of ENG publications available to Information about the 6th European Zoo Nutrition Conference in download, including: January 2010 will be posted on the ‘Conference’ section. Meanwhile – EAZA Nutrition Group E-Newsletters this is where you can freely download the most recent conference – European Zoo Nutrition Conferences - Programmes and abstracts abstract book. • – EAZA News - Special Issues on Zoo Nutrition (Issues@ 1-3)

EAZA Zoonutr5|12.indd 36 08-09-2008 13:51:24