DOCSLIB.ORG

Major Edward Austin Burke, Reconstruction New Orleans and the Road to Central America

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Major Edward Austin Burke, Reconstruction New Orleans and the Road to Central America University of New Orleans ScholarWorks@UNO University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations Dissertations and Theses Spring 5-18-2012 The Making of an American Imperialist: Major Edward Austin Burke, Reconstruction New Orleans and the Road to Central America Kathryn K. Conley University of New Orleans, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td Part of the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Conley, Kathryn K., "The Making of an American Imperialist: Major Edward Austin Burke, Reconstruction New Orleans and the Road to Central America" (2012). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. 1428. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/1428 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by ScholarWorks@UNO with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights- holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Making of an American Imperialist: Major Edward Austin Burke, Reconstruction New Orleans, and the Road to Central America A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of New Orleans in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In History Public History Concentration By Kathryn Keenan Conley B.A. Clemson University, 2009 May 2012 Copyright 2012, Kathryn Keenan Conley ii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible had it not been for the guidance of Dr. Connie Atkinson, Dr. Mary Niall Mitchell and the continuous encouragement of my husband, Chris Conley. Upon telling Dr. Atkinson of my interest in studying Major Burke, her enthusiasm and excitement was what encouraged me to pursue his story as the basis for my thesis. Dr. Mitchell, as my major professor, was able to provide me with much needed direction and helpful ideas that ensured this project actually became a thesis. Dr. Gunter Bischof, as my seminar professor, provided an interest in the subject that encouraged me to present it in a more global context, a decision which shaped my thesis greatly. I am incredibly grateful for all the assistance that was provided to me throughout this process. iii Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1: The Making of An American Imperialist .................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Major Edward Austin Burke: An American Imperialist ............................................. 6 American Reconstruction as a Precursor to American Imperialism .................... 8 Chapter 2: The History of Major Edward Austin Burke in Reconstruction New Orleans ..................................................................................................................................................... 10 Historiography ........................................................................................................................ 10 Arrival and Early Years in New Orleans ....................................................................... 16 Participation in the Battle of Liberty Place .................................................................. 24 City Administrator Burke ................................................................................................... 30 Participation in the Compromise of 1877 .................................................................... 31 Chapter 3: Major Edward Austin Burke During the Period of the New South Role as a Newspaper Editor............................................................................................... 36 American Imperialism in Central America .................................................................. 38 Director General Burke and the World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition ............................................ .40 Chapter 4: Scandalous Burke and His Move to Honduras.................................................... 45 Conclusion: Imperialist Burke ........................................................................................................ 50 Bibliography........................................................................................................................................... 52 Appendices ............................................................................................................................................. 55 Appendix A: Image of Edward Austin Burke .............................................................. 55 Appendix B: Timeline of Burke’s Career ....................................................................... 56 Appendix C: Image of Baby Bonds at the Center of the Treasury Scandal ...... 57 Vita ............................................................................................................................................................. 58 iv Abstract The period of Reconstruction following the American Civil War, and its legacy, have been the subjects of long debate among historians. Scholars, though, have yet to fully explore important connections between American Reconstruction, the New South that followed, and the period of U.S. imperialism in Central America in the late nineteenth century. The storied career of Major Edward Austin Burke—a Kentucky-born Louisiana Democrat who went on to become a proponent of expansionism and imperialism in Honduras—illuminates the transnational implications of Reconstruction and its aftermath. Through careful examination of personal papers, news accounts, promotional materials, Congressional testimonies and other government records, this thesis finds the roots of Burke’s involvement in Central America in postbellum New Orleans. It demonstrates the importance of participation in Reconstruction and New South politics to the long political career of one of the most prominent U.S. imperialists in Central America in the late nineteenth century. Reconstruction, New South, Edward Austin Burke, New Orleans, Battle of Liberty Place, Compromise of 1877, World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, Imperialism, Honduras v Chapter 1: The Making of An American Imperialist Introduction [Reconstruction] is undoubtedly a period full of rich and tragic and meaningful history, a period that should be studiously searched for its meanings, a period that has many meanings yet to yield. — C. Vann Woodward, “The Political Legacy of Reconstruction” 1 The causes surrounding the American Civil War have long been debated and although it is difficult to agree upon any one specific cause, historians agree that Reconstruction in the years following was also a period of conflict, filled with possibilities, both positive and negative. Reconstruction underwent several different routes, first under the leadership of President Abraham Lincoln, then President Andrew Johnson, then Radical Republicans. Each of these Reconstruction policies was subjected to scrutiny and the rapid pace in which they were carried out resulted in none of them gaining a solid ground. Although these policies had different focuses, they all maintained the ultimate goal of reuniting the nation that had been so distinctly divided. 2 Some politicians seized upon the opportunities provided by the ever-evolving political environment of the former Confederate 1 C. Vann Woodward, “The Political Legacy of Reconstruction,” in Reconstruction: An Anthology of Revisionist Writings , ed. Kenneth M. Stampp, et al. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), 531. 2 President Abraham Lincoln began practicing Reconstruction policies in New Orleans in 1862, during the Civil War. After his assassination, President Andrew Johnson began Presidential Reconstruction with a different policy and goal than Lincoln. Following Presidential Reconstruction, Radical Reconstruction began with yet more policy changes. The instabilities and discontinuities of Reconstruction policies resulted in a convoluted and contestable period of questionable policies that would not officially end until 1877. 1 South, including those who came to be known as “carpetbaggers” and “scalawags.” 3 Although those considered carpetbaggers were Northern in origin and scalawags from the South, both groups, according to these stereotypes, joined the Republicans and sought to capitalize on the policies of Reconstruction for personal gain. According to Richard N. Current, the stereotype that the carpetbagger was “attracted southward by the chance for power and plunder that he [saw] when the vote [was] given to Southern Negroes and taken from some of the Southern white” was preeminent in the study of the Reconstruction South. 4 These characters were vilified in Southern culture and became indelible caricatures in the history and public memory of Reconstruction. Allen W. Trelease stated that Reconstruction era Southerners believed “native white Republicans [that were
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Civil War Ended in April of 1865 When Robert E. Lee Surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant
    The Civil War ended in April of 1865 when Robert E. Lee surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to Union General Ulysses S. Grant. General General Lee Grant The Civil War saw the greatest number of deaths of any American war. 700000 600000 500000 CIVIL WAR WW 2 400000 VIETNAM WAR KOREAN WAR 300000 MEXICAN WAR REVOLUTIONARY WAR 200000 SPANISH AMERICAN WAR WAR OF 1812 100000 PERSIAN GULF WAR (1991) 0 TOTAL DEATHS Richmond, Virginia 1865 The Civil War and its aftermath impoverished the South and dramatically decreased its share of the nation’s wealth between 1860 and 1870. 90 88 75 80 70 60 50 40 North 25 30 South 20 12 10 0 % of wealth in % of wealth in 1860 1870 Celebration of the passage of the 13th Amendment. Post-Civil War engraving explaining the difficulty many white Southerners had in realizing that slavery was over. The Freedmen’s Bureau Act, March 1865 The Freedmen’s Bureau was implemented under the War Department, with Major General Oliver O. Howard as its commissioner. The ex-slave states were divided into 10 districts, and an assistant commissioner was appointed to each. At first, some of the freed population settled on 850,000 acres of abandoned and confiscated Southern land; but this was stopped and the land given back to its former white owners. The Bureau then concentrated on negotiating contracts between freed people and plantation owners on a wage labor Oliver O. Howard, basis. The contract labor system quickly Commissioner of the evolved into various sharecropping and Freedmen’s Bureau tenancy arrangements as most freedmen refused to work in conditions that reminded Howard University is named after him.
    [Show full text]
  • PRO/CON: Should Cities Be Allowed to Take Down Confederate Monuments? by Mitch Landrieu, Washington Post, and Alfred L
    PRO/CON: Should cities be allowed to take down Confederate monuments? By Mitch Landrieu, Washington Post, and Alfred L. Brophy, The Conversation, adapted by Newsela staff on 05.16.17 Word Count 1,623 Level 1100L Workers prepare to take down the Jefferson Davis statue in New Orleans, Louisiana, May 11, 2017. This was the second of four Confederate monuments slated for removal in a contentious process that has sparked protests from both sides. Davis served as president of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. AP Photo PRO: These monuments should be removed because they honor slavery and segregation Last month, New Orleans began the long-overdue process of removing four statues honoring the lost, and immoral, Confederate cause. This week, we continue the job. Getting here wasn't easy. It took a two-year review process, a City Council vote and victories over multiple legal challenges. The original firm we'd hired to remove the monuments backed out after receiving death threats and having one employee's car set ablaze. Nearly every heavy-crane company in southern Louisiana has received threats from opponents. This article is available at 5 reading levels at https://newsela.com. 1 Some have compared these monuments to other monuments around the world from bygone eras. They say that taxes would be better spent trying to educate the public about the history behind the monuments. Respectfully, that's not the point. As mayor, I must consider their impact on our entire city. It's my job to look forward, not simply to worship the past.
    [Show full text]
  • Reconstruction Report
    RECONSTRUCTION IN AMERICA RECONSTRUCTION 122 Commerce Street Montgomery, Alabama 36104 334.269.1803 eji.org RECONSTRUCTION IN AMERICA Racial Violence after the Civil War, 1865-1876 © 2020 by Equal Justice Initiative. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, modified, or distributed in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means without express prior written permission of Equal Justice Initiative. RECONSTRUCTION IN AMERICA Racial Violence after the Civil War, 1865-1876 The Memorial at the EJI Legacy Pavilion in Montgomery, Alabama. (Mickey Welsh/Montgomery Advertiser) 5 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 6 THE DANGER OF FREEDOM 56 Political Violence 58 Economic Intimidation 63 JOURNEY TO FREEDOM 8 Enforcing the Racial Social Order 68 Emancipation and Citizenship Organized Terror and Community Massacres 73 Inequality After Enslavement 11 Accusations of Crime 76 Emancipation by Proclamation—Then by Law 14 Arbitrary and Random Violence 78 FREEDOM TO FEAR 22 RECONSTRUCTION’S END 82 A Terrifying and Deadly Backlash Reconstruction vs. Southern Redemption 84 Black Political Mobilization and White Backlash 28 Judicial and Political Abandonment 86 Fighting for Education 32 Redemption Wins 89 Resisting Economic Exploitation 34 A Vanishing Hope 93 DOCUMENTING RECONSTRUCTION 42 A TRUTH THAT NEEDS TELLING 96 VIOLENCE Known and Unknown Horrors Notes 106 Acknowledgments 119 34 Documented Mass Lynchings During the Reconstruction Era 48 Racial Terror and Reconstruction: A State Snapshot 52 7 INTRODUCTION Thousands more were assaulted, raped, or in- jured in racial terror attacks between 1865 and 1876. The rate of documented racial terror lynchings during Reconstruction is nearly three In 1865, after two and a half centuries of brutal white mobs and individuals who were shielded It was during Reconstruction that a times greater than during the era we reported enslavement, Black Americans had great hope from arrest and prosecution.
    [Show full text]
  • Louisiana History HIST Q245-001
    Louisiana History HIST Q245-001 Course Term: Spring 2020 Course Location: Class hours: MWF 1:30-2:20 Monroe 628 Instructor: Kevin McQueeney Email: [email protected] Required Materials: Title: Louisiana: A History (6th Edition) Author: Bennet H. Wall et. al. ISBN: 9781118619292 Brief Course Overview: The course provides an overview of Louisiana’s social, economic, political, and cultural development from the pre-colonial period to the early 21st century. Students will learn about the people, geography, politics, culture, agriculture, and natural resources that have shaped the history of Louisiana. Expected Student Learning Course Outcomes: Students will have the opportunity to broaden their knowledge of Louisiana history and develop a greater understanding of the significance of Louisiana to U.S. history and world history. Students will enhance their knowledge of historical issues and their skills in historical research, including gaining proficiency in critical reading of primary and secondary sources; the ability to coordinate primary and secondary sources to support their ability to frame and answer historical questions; the ability to locate sources with appropriate search tools; ability in the historical process by drafting and answering questions that reflect understanding in the form of evidence-based arguments; and the skills to write papers/ carry out research projects that reflect their ability to read critically and use basic research tools. Participation Expectations: Students are expected to complete the reading before the class meeting period and participate in class discussions and activities. Attendance Policy: Students are expected to attend every class period. Grading: The course grade will be based on 1. Class participation in discussions.
    [Show full text]
  • Use Our Printable .PDF File to Take with You on the Self-Guided Tour Of
    Unlike the War of 1812, New Orleans did not see major fighting during the American Civil War. Yet, the city was the largest in the South. It was a commercial, shipping and manufacturing center without equal in Dixie. The Union coveted the city, and sent major army and naval units to complete this task. In April 1862 the city fell after the Union navy ran passed the guns at Fort Jackson and Fort St. Phillip. The city was occupied for the rest of the war; only once did Confederate forces come close to recapturing it. New Orleans has a variety of Civil War sites. This Self-Guided Tour of the French Quarter in the Civil War will offer tourists in the French Quarter a look into the various buildings and dramatic moments that can be easily visited by anyone sticking to the Vieux Carre. A. Washington Artillery Park – Decatur Street Opposite Jackson Square This park and amphitheater honors one of America’s most prestigious units: the Washington Artillery. The outfit was founded in 1838 by the elite of Creole society. Many came to drill and practice in fine coaches, wearing posh clothes. Still an active unit today, the artillery’s most famous service was during the Civil War, hence the choice of a Napoleon cannon to honor the unit’s history. The Napoleon was the main cannon used by both sides in the war. The outfit was made up of five companies. One through four fought in Virginia and Company Five in the western theater. The men of this unit fought in nearly every major battle of the war, including Bull Run, Shiloh, Fredericksburg, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, Cold Harbor, and Atlanta to name only a few.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Record Group 1 Judicial Records of the French
    RECORD GROUP 1 JUDICIAL RECORDS OF THE FRENCH SUPERIOR COUNCIL Acc. #'s 1848, 1867 1714-1769, n.d. 108 ln. ft (216 boxes); 8 oversize boxes These criminal and civil records, which comprise the heart of the museum’s manuscript collection, are an invaluable source for researching Louisiana’s colonial history. They record the social, political and economic lives of rich and poor, female and male, slave and free, African, Native, European and American colonials. Although the majority of the cases deal with attempts by creditors to recover unpaid debts, the colonial collection includes many successions. These documents often contain a wealth of biographical information concerning Louisiana’s colonial inhabitants. Estate inventories, records of commercial transactions, correspondence and copies of wills, marriage contracts and baptismal, marriage and burial records may be included in a succession document. The colonial document collection includes petitions by slaves requesting manumission, applications by merchants for licenses to conduct business, requests by ship captains for absolution from responsibility for cargo lost at sea, and requests by traders for permission to conduct business in Europe, the West Indies and British colonies in North America **************************************************************************** RECORD GROUP 2 SPANISH JUDICIAL RECORDS Acc. # 1849.1; 1867; 7243 Acc. # 1849.2 = playing cards, 17790402202 Acc. # 1849.3 = 1799060301 1769-1803 190.5 ln. ft (381 boxes); 2 oversize boxes Like the judicial records from the French period, but with more details given, the Spanish records show the life of all of the colony. In addition, during the Spanish period many slaves of Indian 1 ancestry petitioned government authorities for their freedom.
    [Show full text]
  • Louisiana and New Orleans During Reconstruction 2
    The Historic New Orleans Louisiana and Collection New Orleans MUSEUM • RESEARCH CENTER • PUBLISHER During Reconstruction u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u o o o o o o o o o o u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u o o o o o o o o o o u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u o o o o o o o o o o u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u o o o o o o o o o o u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u u Teacher’s guide: grade levels 7–12 Number of class periods: 4–6 Copyright © 2017 The Historic New Orleans Collection; copyright © 2017 The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History All rights reserved Copyright © 2016 The Historic New Orleans Collection | www.hnoc.org | Copyright © 2016 The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History | www.gilderlehrman.org Louisiana and New Orleans During Reconstruction 2 Louisiana and New Orleans During Reconstruction Teacher’s guide: grade levels 7–12 Number of class periods: 4–6 What’s Inside Lesson One....p. 4 Lesson Two....p. 15 Lesson Three....p. 27 Lesson Four....p. 40 Common Core State Standards CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.2: Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text.
    [Show full text]
  • The Last Years of Reconstruction the Last Years of Reconstruction
    Section33 The Last YearsYears ofof Reconstruction As you read, look for: • efforts by white Democrats to regain political control, • the end of Reconstruction in the South, and Below: Violence sometimes • vocabulary terms anarchy and White League. erupted when both parties claimed victory in an Early in this period, Governor Warmoth recorded in his diary that another election. The so-called Republican said “he [Warmoth] intended to beat the rebels and keep them from Colfax Riot in Grant Parish power [even] if in doing so he destroyed the state government and produced was one example. Over fifty anarchy for twenty years.” This promise was almost fulfilled. Anarchy is an people were killed in the absence of government or a state of lawlessness. Louisiana came very close to fighting. anarchy during the last years of Reconstruction. 360 Chapter 11 Louisiana’s Reconstruction Era: Riots and Rebuilding Violence Because of voter intimidation in the South, Congress passed the Enforcement Act in 1870 making it a crime to interfere with the rights of a citizen. But federal laws did not stop the vio- lence and political fighting in Louisiana. The state spiraled out of control. One bitter clash took place in Colfax. Grant Parish was one of the new parishes formed by the Republican government during Reconstruction. The parish was named for President Grant. Colfax, the new parish seat, was established at the site of a former plan- tation. The old stable became the parish courthouse. After the 1872 election in Grant Parish, a conflict developed. The black Republican candidate and the white Democrat both claimed the office of sheriff.
    [Show full text]
  • History 139J: the American South Since Reconstruction Professor Glenda Gilmore
    History 139J: The American South Since Reconstruction Professor Glenda Gilmore By submitting this essay, I attest that it is my own work, completed in accordance with University regulations.—Jacob L. Wasserman Big Trouble in the Big Easy: The Battle of Canal Street and the Independence of Black Political Power by Jacob L. Wasserman The carnage of the Civil War arrived in the streets of New Orleans just over a decade late. While in 1862, the city had surrendered mostly peaceably to the Union Navy, simmering tensions had threatened the fragile peace ever since.1 On September 14, 1874, the political divisions of the postbellum city took shape in two opposing battle lines. On one side, a newly organized force, pledged by their leader to uphold “the rights of the colored as well as of the white race,” awaited further orders.2 Facing them, a ragtag militia, commanded by one of the highest-ranking former Confederate generals, arrayed itself along the downtown waterfront. With a sudden volley, the two armies launched into a combat which would soon claim far more lives than the Civil-War capture of New Orleans itself.3 While the extent of the bloodshed may have shocked New Orleanians, the clash seemingly pitted against each other the same elements which had been fighting since secession. However, the smoke of battle obscured the truth about the combatants. The troops whose commander proclaimed protection of both races were actually members of the Crescent City White League, New Orleans’ foremost Redeemer organization. Meanwhile, the force under ex- Confederate James Longstreet was the integrated Metropolitan Police, the militia propping up 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Confederate Monuments and Their Removal
    THE CURRENT EVENTS CLASSROOM CONFEDERATE MONUMENTS AND THEIR REMOVAL More than 150 years after the Civil War, there is a new drive to remove Confederate monuments. In April and May 2017, the New Orleans City Council voted to remove four Confederate monuments from their city. This decision came on the heels of other cities such as Austin, TX and Louisville, KY, who also voted to remove their statues; additional cities are also considering removing them. New Orleans Mayor Mitch Landrieu championed the effort to take down the four Confederate monuments, stating, “It is self-evident that these men did not fight for the United States of America; they fought against it. These monuments purposefully celebrate a fictional, sanitized Confederacy; ignoring the death, ignoring the enslavement, and the terror that it actually stood for.” The latest national push for the removal of Confederate monuments and names began in 2015 after Dylann Roof, who idolized the Confederate flag, killed nine African-American worshippers at Emanuel AME Church in Charleston, SC. Racial justice activists have been working for decades on the removal of Confederate monuments and other related symbols. Taking down these monuments has come with significant opposition including pushback, threats against work crews and in some cases, protest and demonstrations. This lesson provides an opportunity for students to learn more about Confederate monuments and the push to remove them, through the lens of what took place in New Orleans. It encourages them to reflect on their own points of view about the issue while exploring others’ positions, and to create sketches of monuments to replace the Confederate monuments or to memorialize a significant person or event in history.
    [Show full text]
  • OF MONUMENTS“ and MEN” by M
    OF MONUMENTS“ AND MEN” By M. Kelly Tillery he Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, sitting in New Orleans, recently ruled that the City of New Orleans T may remove from prominent public display long- standing statues of Confederate States of America President Jefferson Davis and Confederate Generals Robert E. Lee and Pierre Gustave Touton Beauregard. I rode by those statues on my way On July 9, 1776, the first public to school every day for 13 years, reading of the Declaration of often wondering why the city so Independence in New York City honored racist traitors. My father, a inspired the citizenry to pull down lawyer, Civil War buff, and grandson the equestrian statue of King George of a Confederate cavalry veteran, III in Bowling Green. It had been tried to explain that it was just “part commissioned and erected only six of our heritage.” years earlier to commemorate the I did not buy that then and still king’s “beneficence” in repealing the do not. Stamp Act. The irony of honoring an IN THE BEGINNING… unelected monarch for repealing his own onerous enactment in the face Americans have a legacy of of potential rebellion was never lost removing statuary of detested on the incipient patriots. Made of leaders, a legacy that began even lead, the decapitated remains were before the Republic was formed. converted into 42,088 musket balls 30 the philadelphia lawyer Fall 2017 that the Continental Army soon put to good use against the “accomplishments,” “character” or “greatness,” but rather, real King George’s Redcoats in the name of liberty.
    [Show full text]
  • 8Th Grade Social Studies Unit 3 Family Guide How To
    Name: _______________________________ 8th Grade Social Studies Unit 3 Family Guide How to use: ❏ For each topic, create your own test questions. Write the answer, too. ❏ Practice writing: How did Louisiana change from 1803 to the end of the Civil War? Overview: The period from 1803 to 1812 was a landmark in Louisiana history. In these ​ years, the land that became Louisiana went from a European colony to a federal territory and finally to the eighteenth state in the union. In the midst of these political changes, Louisianians experienced social unrest, racial revolt, and international conflict. Meanwhile, determining what would become of Louisiana and its residents forced people in the United States and in Europe to consider what it meant to be American. Although Louisiana became a state in 1812, that hardly settled the questions unleashed by the Louisiana Purchase. Describe the conflicts caused between the Americans and Creoles when forming a new government: Being transferred to the United States caused (once again) confusion and panic in the more European thinking creoles of Louisiana. After the Louisiana Purchase, there would be an influx of protestant, English-speaking Americans into the region. The Louisiana Purchase created confusing political circumstances within the Territory of Orleans. The treaty granted immediate citizenship to white Louisianans. However, many people outside the territory claimed that the Louisianans did not know how to act as good Americans. The political battle over Louisiana statehood often reflected the tense ethnic relations among whites within Louisiana. At the time of the Purchase, the territory’s white population consisted primarily of Creoles born in Louisiana, as well as migrants from Canada, the French Caribbean, and France itself.
    [Show full text]