Solving Quantified First Order Formulas in Satisfiability Modulo Theories by Yeting Ge
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“The Church-Turing “Thesis” As a Special Corollary of Gödel's
“The Church-Turing “Thesis” as a Special Corollary of Gödel’s Completeness Theorem,” in Computability: Turing, Gödel, Church, and Beyond, B. J. Copeland, C. Posy, and O. Shagrir (eds.), MIT Press (Cambridge), 2013, pp. 77-104. Saul A. Kripke This is the published version of the book chapter indicated above, which can be obtained from the publisher at https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/computability. It is reproduced here by permission of the publisher who holds the copyright. © The MIT Press The Church-Turing “ Thesis ” as a Special Corollary of G ö del ’ s 4 Completeness Theorem 1 Saul A. Kripke Traditionally, many writers, following Kleene (1952) , thought of the Church-Turing thesis as unprovable by its nature but having various strong arguments in its favor, including Turing ’ s analysis of human computation. More recently, the beauty, power, and obvious fundamental importance of this analysis — what Turing (1936) calls “ argument I ” — has led some writers to give an almost exclusive emphasis on this argument as the unique justification for the Church-Turing thesis. In this chapter I advocate an alternative justification, essentially presupposed by Turing himself in what he calls “ argument II. ” The idea is that computation is a special form of math- ematical deduction. Assuming the steps of the deduction can be stated in a first- order language, the Church-Turing thesis follows as a special case of G ö del ’ s completeness theorem (first-order algorithm theorem). I propose this idea as an alternative foundation for the Church-Turing thesis, both for human and machine computation. Clearly the relevant assumptions are justified for computations pres- ently known. -
Solving SAT and SAT Modulo Theories: from an Abstract Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland Procedure to DPLL(T)
Solving SAT and SAT Modulo Theories: From an Abstract Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland Procedure to DPLL(T) ROBERT NIEUWENHUIS AND ALBERT OLIVERAS Technical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain AND CESARE TINELLI The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa Abstract. We first introduce Abstract DPLL, a rule-based formulation of the Davis–Putnam– Logemann–Loveland (DPLL) procedure for propositional satisfiability. This abstract framework al- lows one to cleanly express practical DPLL algorithms and to formally reason about them in a simple way. Its properties, such as soundness, completeness or termination, immediately carry over to the modern DPLL implementations with features such as backjumping or clause learning. We then extend the framework to Satisfiability Modulo background Theories (SMT) and use it to model several variants of the so-called lazy approach for SMT. In particular, we use it to introduce a few variants of a new, efficient and modular approach for SMT based on a general DPLL(X) engine, whose parameter X can be instantiated with a specialized solver SolverT for a given theory T , thus producing a DPLL(T ) system. We describe the high-level design of DPLL(X) and its cooperation with SolverT , discuss the role of theory propagation, and describe different DPLL(T ) strategies for some theories arising in industrial applications. Our extensive experimental evidence, summarized in this article, shows that DPLL(T ) systems can significantly outperform the other state-of-the-art tools, frequently even in orders of magnitude, and have -
Axiomatic Set Teory P.D.Welch
Axiomatic Set Teory P.D.Welch. August 16, 2020 Contents Page 1 Axioms and Formal Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Preliminaries: axioms and formal systems. 3 1.2.1 The formal language of ZF set theory; terms 4 1.2.2 The Zermelo-Fraenkel Axioms 7 1.3 Transfinite Recursion 9 1.4 Relativisation of terms and formulae 11 2 Initial segments of the Universe 17 2.1 Singular ordinals: cofinality 17 2.1.1 Cofinality 17 2.1.2 Normal Functions and closed and unbounded classes 19 2.1.3 Stationary Sets 22 2.2 Some further cardinal arithmetic 24 2.3 Transitive Models 25 2.4 The H sets 27 2.4.1 H - the hereditarily finite sets 28 2.4.2 H - the hereditarily countable sets 29 2.5 The Montague-Levy Reflection theorem 30 2.5.1 Absoluteness 30 2.5.2 Reflection Theorems 32 2.6 Inaccessible Cardinals 34 2.6.1 Inaccessible cardinals 35 2.6.2 A menagerie of other large cardinals 36 3 Formalising semantics within ZF 39 3.1 Definite terms and formulae 39 3.1.1 The non-finite axiomatisability of ZF 44 3.2 Formalising syntax 45 3.3 Formalising the satisfaction relation 46 3.4 Formalising definability: the function Def. 47 3.5 More on correctness and consistency 48 ii iii 3.5.1 Incompleteness and Consistency Arguments 50 4 The Constructible Hierarchy 53 4.1 The L -hierarchy 53 4.2 The Axiom of Choice in L 56 4.3 The Axiom of Constructibility 57 4.4 The Generalised Continuum Hypothesis in L. -
Propositional Logic
Propositional Logic - Review Predicate Logic - Review Propositional Logic: formalisation of reasoning involving propositions Predicate (First-order) Logic: formalisation of reasoning involving predicates. • Proposition: a statement that can be either true or false. • Propositional variable: variable intended to represent the most • Predicate (sometimes called parameterized proposition): primitive propositions relevant to our purposes a Boolean-valued function. • Given a set S of propositional variables, the set F of propositional formulas is defined recursively as: • Domain: the set of possible values for a predicate’s Basis: any propositional variable in S is in F arguments. Induction step: if p and q are in F, then so are ⌐p, (p /\ q), (p \/ q), (p → q) and (p ↔ q) 1 2 Predicate Logic – Review cont’ Predicate Logic - Review cont’ Given a first-order language L, the set F of predicate (first-order) •A first-order language consists of: formulas is constructed inductively as follows: - an infinite set of variables Basis: any atomic formula in L is in F - a set of predicate symbols Inductive step: if e and f are in F and x is a variable in L, - a set of constant symbols then so are the following: ⌐e, (e /\ f), (e \/ f), (e → f), (e ↔ f), ∀ x e, ∃ s e. •A term is a variable or a constant symbol • An occurrence of a variable x is free in a formula f if and only •An atomic formula is an expression of the form p(t1,…,tn), if it does not occur within a subformula e of f of the form ∀ x e where p is a n-ary predicate symbol and each ti is a term. -
MASTER THESIS Strong Proof Systems
Charles University in Prague Faculty of Mathematics and Physics MASTER THESIS Ondrej Mikle-Bar´at Strong Proof Systems Department of Software Engineering Supervisor: Prof. RNDr. Jan Kraj´ıˇcek, DrSc. Study program: Computer Science, Software Systems I would like to thank my advisor for his valuable comments and suggestions. His extensive experience with proof systems and logic helped me a lot. Finally I want to thank my family for their support. Prohlaˇsuji, ˇzejsem svou diplomovou pr´acinapsal samostatnˇea v´yhradnˇe s pouˇzit´ımcitovan´ych pramen˚u.Souhlas´ımse zap˚ujˇcov´an´ımpr´ace. I hereby declare that I have created this master thesis on my own and listed all used references. I agree with lending of this thesis. Prague August 23, 2007 Ondrej Mikle-Bar´at Contents 1 Preliminaries 1 1.1 Propositional logic . 1 1.2 Proof complexity . 2 1.3 Resolution . 4 1.3.1 Pigeonhole principle - PHPn ............... 6 2 OBDD proof system 8 2.1 OBDD . 8 2.2 Inference rules . 10 2.3 Strength of OBDD proofs . 11 3 R-OBDD 12 3.1 Motivation . 12 3.2 Definitions . 12 3.3 Inference rules . 13 3.4 The proof system . 13 4 Automated theorem proving in R-OBDD 16 4.1 R-OBDD solver – DPLL modification for R-OBDD . 17 4.2 Discussion . 22 ii N´azevpr´ace:Siln´ed˚ukazov´esyst´emy Autor: Ondrej Mikle-Bar´at Katedra (´ustav): Katedra softwarov´ehoinˇzen´yrstv´ı Vedouc´ıdiplomov´epr´ace: Prof. RNDr. Jan Kraj´ıˇcek, DrSc. e-mail vedouc´ıho:[email protected] Abstrakt: R-OBDD je nov´yCook-Reckhow˚uv d˚ukazov´ysyst´em pro v´yrokovou logiku zaloˇzenna kombinaci OBDD d˚ukazov´ehosyst´emu a rezoluˇcn´ıho d˚ukazov´eho syst´emu. -
First Order Logic and Nonstandard Analysis
First Order Logic and Nonstandard Analysis Julian Hartman September 4, 2010 Abstract This paper is intended as an exploration of nonstandard analysis, and the rigorous use of infinitesimals and infinite elements to explore properties of the real numbers. I first define and explore first order logic, and model theory. Then, I prove the compact- ness theorem, and use this to form a nonstandard structure of the real numbers. Using this nonstandard structure, it it easy to to various proofs without the use of limits that would otherwise require their use. Contents 1 Introduction 2 2 An Introduction to First Order Logic 2 2.1 Propositional Logic . 2 2.2 Logical Symbols . 2 2.3 Predicates, Constants and Functions . 2 2.4 Well-Formed Formulas . 3 3 Models 3 3.1 Structure . 3 3.2 Truth . 4 3.2.1 Satisfaction . 5 4 The Compactness Theorem 6 4.1 Soundness and Completeness . 6 5 Nonstandard Analysis 7 5.1 Making a Nonstandard Structure . 7 5.2 Applications of a Nonstandard Structure . 9 6 Sources 10 1 1 Introduction The founders of modern calculus had a less than perfect understanding of the nuts and bolts of what made it work. Both Newton and Leibniz used the notion of infinitesimal, without a rigorous understanding of what they were. Infinitely small real numbers that were still not zero was a hard thing for mathematicians to accept, and with the rigorous development of limits by the likes of Cauchy and Weierstrass, the discussion of infinitesimals subsided. Now, using first order logic for nonstandard analysis, it is possible to create a model of the real numbers that has the same properties as the traditional conception of the real numbers, but also has rigorously defined infinite and infinitesimal elements. -
Logic and Proof
Logic and Proof Computer Science Tripos Part IB Lent Term Lawrence C Paulson Computer Laboratory University of Cambridge [email protected] Copyright c 2018 by Lawrence C. Paulson I Logic and Proof 101 Introduction to Logic Logic concerns statements in some language. The language can be natural (English, Latin, . ) or formal. Some statements are true, others false or meaningless. Logic concerns relationships between statements: consistency, entailment, . Logical proofs model human reasoning (supposedly). Lawrence C. Paulson University of Cambridge I Logic and Proof 102 Statements Statements are declarative assertions: Black is the colour of my true love’s hair. They are not greetings, questions or commands: What is the colour of my true love’s hair? I wish my true love had hair. Get a haircut! Lawrence C. Paulson University of Cambridge I Logic and Proof 103 Schematic Statements Now let the variables X, Y, Z, . range over ‘real’ objects Black is the colour of X’s hair. Black is the colour of Y. Z is the colour of Y. Schematic statements can even express questions: What things are black? Lawrence C. Paulson University of Cambridge I Logic and Proof 104 Interpretations and Validity An interpretation maps variables to real objects: The interpretation Y 7 coal satisfies the statement Black is the colour→ of Y. but the interpretation Y 7 strawberries does not! A statement A is valid if→ all interpretations satisfy A. Lawrence C. Paulson University of Cambridge I Logic and Proof 105 Consistency, or Satisfiability A set S of statements is consistent if some interpretation satisfies all elements of S at the same time. -
Satisfiability 6 the Decision Problem 7
Satisfiability Difficult Problems Dealing with SAT Implementation Klaus Sutner Carnegie Mellon University 2020/02/04 Finding Hard Problems 2 Entscheidungsproblem to the Rescue 3 The Entscheidungsproblem is solved when one knows a pro- cedure by which one can decide in a finite number of operations So where would be look for hard problems, something that is eminently whether a given logical expression is generally valid or is satis- decidable but appears to be outside of P? And, we’d like the problem to fiable. The solution of the Entscheidungsproblem is of funda- be practical, not some monster from CRT. mental importance for the theory of all fields, the theorems of which are at all capable of logical development from finitely many The Circuit Value Problem is a good indicator for the right direction: axioms. evaluating Boolean expressions is polynomial time, but relatively difficult D. Hilbert within P. So can we push CVP a little bit to force it outside of P, just a little bit? In a sense, [the Entscheidungsproblem] is the most general Say, up into EXP1? problem of mathematics. J. Herbrand Exploiting Difficulty 4 Scaling Back 5 Herbrand is right, of course. As a research project this sounds like a Taking a clue from CVP, how about asking questions about Boolean fiasco. formulae, rather than first-order? But: we can turn adversity into an asset, and use (some version of) the Probably the most natural question that comes to mind here is Entscheidungsproblem as the epitome of a hard problem. Is ϕ(x1, . , xn) a tautology? The original Entscheidungsproblem would presumable have included arbitrary first-order questions about number theory. -
Solving the Boolean Satisfiability Problem Using the Parallel Paradigm Jury Composition
Philosophæ doctor thesis Hoessen Benoît Solving the Boolean Satisfiability problem using the parallel paradigm Jury composition: PhD director Audemard Gilles Professor at Universit´ed'Artois PhD co-director Jabbour Sa¨ıd Assistant Professor at Universit´ed'Artois PhD co-director Piette C´edric Assistant Professor at Universit´ed'Artois Examiner Simon Laurent Professor at University of Bordeaux Examiner Dequen Gilles Professor at University of Picardie Jules Vernes Katsirelos George Charg´ede recherche at Institut national de la recherche agronomique, Toulouse Abstract This thesis presents different technique to solve the Boolean satisfiability problem using parallel and distributed architec- tures. In order to provide a complete explanation, a careful presentation of the CDCL algorithm is made, followed by the state of the art in this domain. Once presented, two proposi- tions are made. The first one is an improvement on a portfo- lio algorithm, allowing to exchange more data without loosing efficiency. The second is a complete library with its API al- lowing to easily create distributed SAT solver. Keywords: SAT, parallelism, distributed, solver, logic R´esum´e Cette th`ese pr´esente diff´erentes techniques permettant de r´esoudre le probl`eme de satisfaction de formule bool´eenes utilisant le parall´elismeet du calcul distribu´e. Dans le but de fournir une explication la plus compl`ete possible, une pr´esentation d´etaill´ee de l'algorithme CDCL est effectu´ee, suivi d'un ´etatde l'art. De ce point de d´epart,deux pistes sont explor´ees. La premi`ereest une am´eliorationd'un algorithme de type portfolio, permettant d'´echanger plus d'informations sans perte d’efficacit´e. -
Self-Similarity in the Foundations
Self-similarity in the Foundations Paul K. Gorbow Thesis submitted for the degree of Ph.D. in Logic, defended on June 14, 2018. Supervisors: Ali Enayat (primary) Peter LeFanu Lumsdaine (secondary) Zachiri McKenzie (secondary) University of Gothenburg Department of Philosophy, Linguistics, and Theory of Science Box 200, 405 30 GOTEBORG,¨ Sweden arXiv:1806.11310v1 [math.LO] 29 Jun 2018 2 Contents 1 Introduction 5 1.1 Introductiontoageneralaudience . ..... 5 1.2 Introduction for logicians . .. 7 2 Tour of the theories considered 11 2.1 PowerKripke-Plateksettheory . .... 11 2.2 Stratifiedsettheory ................................ .. 13 2.3 Categorical semantics and algebraic set theory . ....... 17 3 Motivation 19 3.1 Motivation behind research on embeddings between models of set theory. 19 3.2 Motivation behind stratified algebraic set theory . ...... 20 4 Logic, set theory and non-standard models 23 4.1 Basiclogicandmodeltheory ............................ 23 4.2 Ordertheoryandcategorytheory. ...... 26 4.3 PowerKripke-Plateksettheory . .... 28 4.4 First-order logic and partial satisfaction relations internal to KPP ........ 32 4.5 Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory and G¨odel-Bernays class theory............ 36 4.6 Non-standardmodelsofsettheory . ..... 38 5 Embeddings between models of set theory 47 5.1 Iterated ultrapowers with special self-embeddings . ......... 47 5.2 Embeddingsbetweenmodelsofsettheory . ..... 57 5.3 Characterizations.................................. .. 66 6 Stratified set theory and categorical semantics 73 6.1 Stratifiedsettheoryandclasstheory . ...... 73 6.2 Categoricalsemantics ............................... .. 77 7 Stratified algebraic set theory 85 7.1 Stratifiedcategoriesofclasses . ..... 85 7.2 Interpretation of the Set-theories in the Cat-theories ................ 90 7.3 ThesubtoposofstronglyCantorianobjects . ....... 99 8 Where to go from here? 103 8.1 Category theoretic approach to embeddings between models of settheory . -
Automated and Interactive Theorem Proving 1: Background & Propositional Logic
Automated and Interactive Theorem Proving 1: Background & Propositional Logic John Harrison Intel Corporation Marktoberdorf 2007 Thu 2nd August 2007 (08:30–09:15) 0 What I will talk about Aim is to cover some of the most important approaches to computer-aided proof in classical logic. 1. Background and propositional logic 2. First-order logic, with and without equality 3. Decidable problems in logic and algebra 4. Combination and certification of decision procedures 5. Interactive theorem proving 1 What I won’t talk about • Decision procedures for temporal logic, model checking (well covered in other courses) • Higher-order logic (my own interest but off the main topic; will see some of this in other courses) • Undecidability and incompleteness (I don’t have enough time) • Methods for constructive logic, modal logic, other nonclassical logics (I don’t know much anyway) 2 A practical slant Our approach to logic will be highly constructive! Most of what is described is implemented by explicit code that can be obtained here: http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/jrh/atp/ See also my interactive higher-order logic prover HOL Light: http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/jrh/hol-light/ which incorporates many decision procedures in a certified way. 3 Propositional Logic We probably all know what propositional logic is. English Standard Boolean Other false ⊥ 0 F true ⊤ 1 T not p ¬p p −p, ∼ p p and q p ∧ q pq p&q, p · q p or q p ∨ q p + q p | q, por q p implies q p ⇒ q p ≤ q p → q, p ⊃ q p iff q p ⇔ q p = q p ≡ q, p ∼ q In the context of circuits, it’s often referred to as ‘Boolean algebra’, and many designers use the Boolean notation. -
Monadic Decomposition
Monadic Decomposition Margus Veanes1, Nikolaj Bjørner1, Lev Nachmanson1, and Sergey Bereg2 1 Microsoft Research {margus,nbjorner,levnach}@microsoft.com 2 The University of Texas at Dallas [email protected] Abstract. Monadic predicates play a prominent role in many decid- able cases, including decision procedures for symbolic automata. We are here interested in discovering whether a formula can be rewritten into a Boolean combination of monadic predicates. Our setting is quantifier- free formulas over a decidable background theory, such as arithmetic and we here develop a semi-decision procedure for extracting a monadic decomposition of a formula when it exists. 1 Introduction Classical decidability results of fragments of logic [7] are based on careful sys- tematic study of restricted cases either by limiting allowed symbols of the lan- guage, limiting the syntax of the formulas, fixing the background theory, or by using combinations of such restrictions. Many decidable classes of problems, such as monadic first-order logic or the L¨owenheim class [29], the L¨ob-Gurevich class [28], monadic second-order logic with one successor (S1S) [8], and monadic second-order logic with two successors (S2S) [35] impose at some level restric- tions to monadic or unary predicates to achieve decidability. Here we propose and study an orthogonal problem of whether and how we can transform a formula that uses multiple free variables into a simpler equivalent formula, but where the formula is not a priori syntactically or semantically restricted to any fixed fragment of logic. Simpler in this context means that we have eliminated all theory specific dependencies between the variables and have transformed the formula into an equivalent Boolean combination of predicates that are “essentially” unary.