RESEARCH ARTICLE

Ethnobiology and Conservation 2019, 8:5 (12 March 2019) doi:10.15451/ec2019-03-8.05-1-22 ISSN 2238­4782 ethnobioconservation.com “Cardos” of two worlds: Transfer and re­ signification of the uses of thistles from the Iberian Peninsula to Argentina J. Esteban Hernández Bermejo1*, Gustavo Delucchi2, Gustavo Charra2, María Lelia Pochettino2,3, Julio Alberto Hurrell2,3*

ABSTRACT

“Thistles” constitute a group of prickly herbaceous plants included in tribe Cardueae (Asteraceae), but in the popular sense that concept is frequently applied to other species of the same family, as well as to some Dipsacaceae, Bromeliaceae, Apiaceae or Cactaceae. Since antiquity, the cultivation and use of thistles for food and medicinal purposes have been well known in the Mediterranean cultures. The different popular knowledge could allow us to refer to a “thistle culture”. During the exploration of America, many of those species and their associated knowledge were transferred from the Old to the New World. In Argentina, several species of thistles, especially Cynara cardunculus, spread extensively throughout the pampas. From early times, they constituted a source of food and low­quality fuel, and in several cases, they were also employed in popular medicine, with diverse uses, some of which are still in practice. The local importance of some species is mentioned in literature, arts, and gastronomy. In the 20th century, a large production of artichokes from introduced crops that increased local agro­diversity was recorded in Argentina. This contribution summarizes some aspects of the transfer and re­signification of the thistle from the Iberian Peninsula to Argentina.

Keywords: "Thistle Culture"; Cynara cardunculus; Botanical Knowledge; Ethnobotany

1Departamento de Ingeniería Forestal, Universidad de Córdoba, España; Banco de Germoplasma Vegetal Andaluz, Córdoba, España.

2Laboratorio de Etnobotánica y Botánica Aplicada (LEBA), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina.

3 Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Argentina.

* Corresponding author. E­mail address: [email protected], [email protected]

INTRODUCTION species of other genera of Asteraceae, like Scolymus and Sonchus (Cichorieae), and The term “thistles” refers to an extensive Xanthium (Heliantheae), as well as to group of prickly herbaceous plants included species of prickly plants of other botanical in the tribe Cardueae (Asteraceae) that families like Dipsacus (Dipsacaceae), generally display thorns on stems, leaves, Eryngium (Apiaceae), Argemone and involucral bracts. Nevertheless, the term (Papaveraceae), Trichocereus (Cactaceae), is also applied in the popular sense to Ononis (Fabaceae), and several

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Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, traditions of that country as it is a Bromeliaceae, and Zygophyllaceae. conspicuous constituent of local flora both in Cardueae includes 73 genera and about the wild (Gutiérrez 2011; Gutiérrez et al. 2400 species, mainly of Mediterranean origin 2017) and as a culture (Del Rio et al. 2007). (Delucchi and Gutiérrez 2014; Susanna and We have identified a process of “re­ Garcia­Jacas 2007, 2009). Almost 10% of signification” of the uses of that species, i.e., the total Cardueae species is represented in changes in the meaning of the uses of plants the Iberian Peninsula and about 130 species due to modifications in the context of their are endemic, some of them with extinction uses in relation to time and space (Hurrell risk (Moreno et al. 2008). Many species 2014), including loss of knowledge of the naturalized in different world temperate traditions of their origin (food uses in Iberian zones, and various cases became weeds or Peninsula), a partial recovery of those invaders. In Argentinian Flora, 10 genera wisdoms due to immigration (Mediterranean with 24 species are recorded, just one of food traditions), and a possible local which is indigenous: Plectocephalus development in Argentina: thistles as tweediei (Hook. & Arn.) N. Garcia & Susanna alternative resources (medicinal, fuel). The (Gutiérrez et al. 2014). interest of this research is reinforced by Since antiquity, the cultivation and use of today’s expectations of cardoons and thistles for food and medicinal purposes artichokes (crops included in the genetic have been well known in Mediterranean heterogeneity of Cynara cardunculus), which cultures. The ensemble of different popular can be priority objectives of contemporary knowledge could allow us to consider a horticulture, both in southern South America “thistle culture”. From the western and in the western Mediterranean. Mediterranean (especially the Iberian Peninsula) to America, a partial transference of germplasm and associated knowledge MATERIAL AND METHODS took place (Hernández Bermejo and García Sánchez 1998, 2000). Several species We have applied the approach of arrived early in Argentina and were widely historical ethnobotany, including the study of dispersed over the pampa plains (Gutiérrez documents from the past (considered as and Delucchi 2011). At first, cultivated first­hand informants, according to Ochoa thistles were a food source; later, naturalized and Ladio 2011), and ethnobotanical thistles were used as emergency food, techniques (like open­ended and semi­ medicines, and/or low­quality fuel facing the structured interviews to growers and local shortage of woody plants (Correa et al. consumers of thistles, participant 2003; Delucchi et al. 2002; Delucchi and observation of the related activities, and the Charra 2012). review of current literature) to record In this contribution, we explore the present­day uses of thistles in different historical antecedents of the use of thistles in cultural contexts. The same multidisciplinary ancient Mediterranean cultures and compare approach used in previous studies for both that information with different testimonies of the Iberian Peninsula and Argentina has their presence and use in Argentina, with a been applied for research on the past special reference to Cynara cardunculus L., (Correa et al. 2003; Delucchi and Charra a species of a particular relevance in diverse 2012; Delucchi et al. 2002; Hernández

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Bermejo 1991; Hernández Bermejo and complemented with botanical and García Sánchez 1998, 2000, 2015; ethnobotanical field work. Botanical work Hernández Bermejo and León 1994; included voucher collections deposited in Hernández Bermejo et al. 1991, 2009, 2013 recognized herbaria: Museo de La Plata a, b), based on reviewing historical (LP), Instituto de Botánica Darwinion (SI), documents from different archives, accounts INTA­Castelar (BAB), and identification by from chroniclers, travelers and naturalists, means of morphological features. The correspondence, and also data obtained ethnobotanical research comprised the from literature, arts, gastronomy, gathering of samples placed in LEBA ethnobiological and biological evidences collections (La Plata University), (species distribution, naturalization ways, micrographic analyses to identify fragmented domestication and genetic processes). In material, photographic records, and fifty this context, the data provided by travelers open interviews held with social actors in that visited the Argentinian pampas during urban, suburban, and rural areas. In total, the 16th and 17th centuries have been twenty five people of both sexes and particularly valuable as they describe local between 25 and 70 years of age were landscape (Delucchi and Charra 2012). interviewed. In all cases the informed The current documentation sources consent was obtained. The interviewees checked (all of them published, and were selected for their locally recognized presented in bibliography list) include: knowledge about the uses of thistles, in scientific reports of diverse disciplines, accordance with qualitative methods and ethnographic and anthropological techniques currently employed in contributions, popular knowledge ethnobiology (Albuquerque et al. 2014). inventories, texts on pharmacobotany, agriculture, food plants and popular RESULTS AND DISCUSSION medicine, reports of scientific expeditions, and regional flora published by various "Cardos" in the historical authors, official documents, newspaper documentation of the western articles and advertisements. The search was Mediterranean made following references to thistles or well described thorny species, as well as In Mediterranean cultures, the cultivation geographical descriptions. Several and use of “cardos” for food and medicine documents available mention “cardos”, being were well known and have been their authors of diverse origin and nature: documented in many references since chroniclers, travelers, navigators, traders, antiquity. Some species have food or soldiers, functionaries, and scientists industrial uses, and several are employed in (Correa et al. 2003; Delucchi et al. 2002; popular medicine due to the presence of Delucchi and Charra 2012). Herbaria active compounds such as sesquiterpene specimens and data from their labels were lactones, alkaloids, and bitter principles also revised. In particular, for the concepts (Alonso 2004). Nevertheless, thistles have related to naturalization processes we have become invasive or weeds in the world followed the contribution of Richardson et al. temperate zones. Consequently, they are (2000). relevant for people not only as useful plants Reviewing tasks have been but also due to their negative aspects.

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(flavoring sauce made of fish entrails), oil 1. Ancient history and chopped boiled eggs; b) thistles with crushed rue, coriander leaves, mint and Theophrastus (ca. 371­287 BC) includes fennel, pepper, wild celery, honey, and oil; c) in his De historia plantarum [ca. 350­287 BC] thistles boiled with mint, cumin, garo and oil (‘Enquiry into Plants’) at least 15 species (Pastor Artigues 1987). under the Greek term kaktoi (‘cactus’ in Columella (4­70 AD), shows interest only Latin). The term “cactus” would change its in two cultivated species: Cynara meaning with Linnaeus and was applied to cardunculus, praising its use to curdle milk, species of genus Cactus (Cactaceae), with and Carthamus tinctorius. Nevertheless, in thorns (modified leaves) and fleshy stems. De re rustica [42 AD] (‘The Agriculture’) the This author recorded among them: Carlina author dedicates a poem to thistles, in which acaulis L., C. corymbosa L., C. gummifera he displays his knowledge of these plants (L.) Less., Carthamus tinctorius L., Cirsium diversity, referring to their morphology and arvense (L.) Scop., Cynara cardunculus characteristics (Columela 1988). [more doubtful C. cardunculus subsp. Pliny the Elder (23­79 AD) mentions at scolymus (L.) Hegi] and Silybum marianum least 15 species in his Naturalis historia [ca. (L.) Gaertn. (Teofrasto 1988). 77] (‘Natural History’), some of them difficult The Greek Dioscorides (ca. 40­90 BC) to identify, such as Carlina acaulis, C. cited about 20 species of thistles in his De gummifera, Carthamus tinctorius, Centaurea materia medica [ca. 65 BC] (‘On Medical benedicta, Cynara cardunculus, Echinops Material’), among them: Arctium lappa L. ritro, Onopordum sp., Picnomom acarna (L.) (arkion, “lampazo”), Carduus pycnocephalus Cass., Silybum marianum, Sonchus asper (“cardo de calvero”), C. tenuiflorus Curtis (Plinio 1999). (“cardo común”), Carlina acaulis, C. The Roman agronomist Palladius (4th gummifera, Carthamus tinctorius, Centaurea century), whose life is little known, wrote aspera L., C. benedicta (L.) L. (“cardo Opus agriculturae (‘Book on agriculture’),a bendito”), C. calcitrapa L., C. cyanus L., work from late antiquity that has maintained Cynara cardunculus (dubiously C. its impact on European agriculture until the cardunculus subsp. scolymus), Dipsacus 14th century. There he cites Cynara fullonum L. (dipsakos), Echinops ritro L. cardunculus (Paladio 1990), and this (probably under the name cocodrilium), reference was recuperated by Alonso de Eryngium vulgare Lam. (eryngion, “cardo Herrera in the 16th century. corredor”), Onopordum sp. (“cardo bravío”), Scolymus maculatus L. (skolymos, 2. Middle Ages “cardillo”), Silybum marianum (“cardo mariano” o “cardo lechero”) and Sonchus Cassianus Bassus, “the Byzantine” (4th asper (L.) Hill (sónkhostrakhýs, “cerraja”) century), makes a single reference in the (Font Quer 1961). Geoponica to Arctium lappa, whose smoke The Roman gastronomist Apicius (ca. 25 repel plagues, probably alluding to vine BC­37 AD), considered the author of De re pests (Baso 1998). Unfortunately, the coquinaria (‘The Roman cookery book’), an Spanish translations available are dubious important source of knowledge of ancient as in some cases they mention species of Roman cuisine, records three recipes Xanthium of American origin. containing thistles: a) thistles with garo

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The Visigoth Isidoro de Sevilla (556­636), of breaking plows (Abū l­Jayr 2004). As for in his Etymologiae [ca. 630] (‘The Carlina gummifera, called “liga” (gum), it was Etymologies’) mentions an aromatic and used to capture birds. It was named “al­ medicinal “centaurea”, but it probably refers bataba” by peasants and also, “taparairola” to Arctium lappa, named “lampazo” by the in Toledo, where the name is still current in translator. He also mentions Cynara National Park of Cabañeros, applied to a cardunculus, identified from a name certain unidentified plant used locally to hunt translated as “cardo” (Isidoro de Sevilla birds (Verde et al. 2000). 1982). The physician and philosopher The following authors can be selected Maimonides (1138­1204) refers to the red from about twenty outstanding “flowers” of Carthamus tinctorius used in representatives of Islamic culture in the Cairo as a yellow dye (added to henna) Iberian Peninsula (al­Andalus). Ibn Bassal († under the name “usfur”. In addition, it was 1085), Toledan agronomist, author of Dīwān used medicinally: as a carminative, laxative, al­filāha (‘The Court of Agriculture’) and aphrodisiac (Lev and Amar 2008). There (Hernández Bermejo and García Sánchez is a confusing reference to “espino blanco” 1998) mentions the “cártamo” (Carthamus (‘white hawthorn’) that the translator links to tinctorius) and provides details about its several “cardos”, like Picnomon acarna and cultivation, its use for dyeing and as a Onopordum acanthium L. substitute for saffron. Besides, he Another Sevillian agronomist, Ibn al­ distinguishes a wild “cártamo” (possibly Awwam (ca. 1160), author of the famous Carthamus lanatus L.). In addition, the Kitāb al­Filāa (‘The book of agriculture’), author also cites Cynara cardunculus, and recovers information from Abū l­Jayr, but he provides data about its cultivation, indicating selects those species of major agricultural the difference between the cultivated and interest: Centaurea benedicta, Cynara wild forms (Ibn Bassal 1995). cardunculus, C. cardunculus subsp. The Sevillian agronomist Abū l­Jayr (11th scolymus and Carthamus tinctorius. In century), the alleged author of Kitābu‘Umdat reference to Silybum marianum he mentions al­abībfīmarifat al­nabāt (‘Physician's basic two “species”, one wild and the other book for the knowledge of botany for all cultivated, that it is sown in September and experts’), is the one most meticulous in the transplanted in November­December, mention of diverse species, taking into although the cycle can be delayed, sowing it account that over 20 different species are in January and transplanting in March. After identified in this work. Some of them are: transplanting, it has to be watered once a Arctium sp., Carlina acaulis, C. gummifera, week, up to rooting. Finally, the author Carthamus tinctorius (“alazor”) and a wild mentions the use of the thorns (“espinas”) “alazor” (perhaps C. lanatus), Centaurea harvested in August, but he does not aspera, C. calcitrapa, Cirsium tuberosum (L.) mention its destiny (García Sánchez 2009; All., Cynara cardunculus, C. cardunculus Ibn al­Awwam 1988). subsp. scolymus, Dipsacus fullonum, Ibn al­Baytar (ca. 1180­1248), physician Eryngium vulgare, Scolymus sp., Sonchus and botanist from Malaga, who wrote Aljami’ asper, Silybum marianum and Onopordum, li­mufradat al­adwiyawa’l­aghdhiya [ca. about which he says that they are wild 1235] (‘Compendium of simple drugs and “cardos” with deep and strong roots capable food’), recovers diverse authors, mainly

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classical Greek and Roman ones, and Ibn Razin al­Tugibi (ca. 1227­1293), a includes plant descriptions that enable their native of Murcia and exiled to Ceuta at 20 identification. He mentions the arktion years of age, was the author of diverse (Arctium sp.) plant with a sweet, tender, and works of which only the titles have remained. white roots, and fruits like cumin. Fruit and He also wrote an interesting cook book: root decoction relieves toothache, and heals Fedalat Al­Jiwan fi tayyibat al­ta'amwa­l­ wounds, and skin cracks caused by the cold. alwan [ca. 1240] (‘Highlights of the table, on It is consumed as a wine for sciatica and delicacies and stews’), which has only partly dysuria. About Carthamus tinctorius he says survived. Among vegetables there are that it colors and aromatizes foods and is mentions of eggplants, gourds [Lagenaria also medicinal. Prepared with vinegar it is siceraria (Molina) Standl.], “alcanería” used for erysipelas and dropsy, and it is also (Cynara cardunculus var. altilis DC., C. carminative and aphrodisiac. He also warns cardunculus subsp. scolymus), wild us that its consumption produces artichokes (maybe Silybum marianum or somnolence. This author recognized two Cynara cardunculus var. sylvestris Lam.), Cynara, one cultivated and the other wild, “cardillo” (perhaps Scolymus sp.), broad but does not make a clear distinction beans, fenugreek, spinach, purslane, lettuce, between thistles and artichokes. The chard, cauliflower, asparagus, among others. mention of a thistle with leaves similar to Unfortunately, only those recipes related to those of Carlina acaulis, probably refers to eggplants and gourds are available (Ibn Echinops strigosus L., with a blackish root Razin al­Tugibi 2007). and thorny capitula, used against scabies. A cook book possibly of andalusí origin, Ibn al­Baytar also addresses the thistle entitled ‘The Hispano­Maghreb cuisine named by Christians “toba” (belonging to during the Almohad period‘, was written in genus Onopordum), which are characterized Morocco by an anonymous 13th century as being highly invasive plants. He also author, and it compiles more than 500 professes a sound knowledge of the ways to recipes, some of them with artichokes in consume Silybum marianum, with its broad, stews with meat, chickpeas, chopped onion, large leaves of a similar color to those of pepper and coriander leaves thickened with “camaleón blanco” (Carlina gummifera), bread crumbs and eggs. There is also a which are consumed young in salads with oil reference to a curious way of preparing and salt; the capitula are picked when “cardoon syrup”, grinding their petioles with immature, fresh and soft, to be consumed bitter almonds, wild carrots seed, aniseed roasted, while their seeds are consumed and “cuscuta”; this preparation is then mixed fried as a snack with wine. In addition, other with three parts of the water in which the more elaborate recipes are included, such chickpeas have been steeped. This mixture as in the case of a broth flavored with these is cooked until it is reduced to half its seeds that were harvested by Hispanic­ volume, and then marinated, filtered, Arabs and sold to young Christians under sweetened with another third part of sugar the name of “okub” (the author does not say and honey and flavored with clove, lavender for what purpose). Minor medicinal uses are and “wild asaro” (possibly Arum italicum mentioned: gum resin of old roots from dry Mill.). Finally, it is boiled until a syrupy plants was used as an emetic (Ibn al­Baytar thickness is obtained, and it is always drunk 1877). with hot water (Huici Miranda 2016).

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3. 16th and 17th centuries in Spain Flora, initiated with works such as the unfinished Flora Española (‘Spanish flora’) Alonso de Herrera (1470­1539) refers by Joseph Quer (1762­1764), Gómez de extensively to the cultivation of Cynara Ortega (1784), and Gómez de Ortega and cardunculus in his Agricultura general [1513] Muñoz de Ugena (1791­1792), allowed the (‘Treatise on Agriculture’). The author number of Iberian thistles to increase recognizes many kinds of thistles, explaining significantly up to the current level of that he considers the cultivated in orchards knowledge. However, at the same time, the that are called “arrecifes” in some places number of thistles mentioned in works on (Herrera 1818). agriculture, and even on pharmaceutical The Flemish horticulturist Charles de botany, decreased. l’Écluse, known as Carolus Clusius (1525­ Esteban Boutelou (1776­1813) and his 1609), wrote Rariorum aliquot stirpium per brother Claudio (1774­1842) authors of Hispanias observatorum historia [1576] Tratado de la Huerta (‘Treatise of the (‘History of the rare species observed in orchard’), mention two species: “cardo de Spain and Portugal). Even when not all España” (‘Spanish thistle’, Cynara species of genus Centaurea can be cardunculus) and “cardo espinoso” (‘thorny considered as thistles, among the number thistle’) with large, hard spines (probably he cites is C. ornata Willd., a native of Dipsacus fullonum). In the first case, petioles Iberian Flora and grown by Belgians as an and leaves are eaten after being cured ornamental plant. He also mentions Carlina (maybe with vinegar) and cooked. They are corymbosa L., Carthamus caeruleus L. [= also used as horse fodder and are Carduncellus coeruleus (L.) C. Presl], considered to be a healthy food (Boutelou Picnomon acarna, Scolymus hispanicus, S. and Boutelou 1801). maculatus, and Silybum marianum Clusio Miguel Colmeiro (1816­1901), in his (2005). Enumeración y revisión de las plantas de la Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547­ Península Hispano­Lusitana é Islas Baleares 1616), author of the immortal El ingenioso (‘Enumeration and revision of the plants hidalgo Don Quijote de La Mancha [1605] Hispano­Lusitanian Peninsula and the (‘The Ingenious Nobleman Sir Quixote of La Balearic Islands’), summarized the Mancha’), showed a sound knowledge of information on Iberian thistles. He cited plants as about 150 species can be counted about 40 Asteraceae especies of Arctium, in his works, 100 of them present in the Atractylis, Carduus, Carlina, Cyrsium, Quijote. Nevertheless, only once are two Centaurea, Cynara, Echinops, Onopordum, thistles mentioned, Scolymus hispanicus L.: Picnomon, Scolymus, Silybum, Xanthium, “my stomach is not made for thistles, or wild among others (Colmeiro 1885). pears, or roots of the woods”, and Arctium The pharmacist Pardo Sastrón (1822­ sp.: “He pulled some green leaves from 1909) explains, in his Catálogo o burdock and ivy” (Morales Valverde 2006). enumeración de las plantas de Torrecilla de Alcañiz, así espontáneas como cultivadas 4. 18th, 19th and 20th centuries in Spain (‘Catalogue of the plants of Torrecilla de Alcañiz, both spontaneous and cultivated’), The ongoing advances achieved during that in the area in the title, located in Teruel these centuries in the knowledge of Iberian province, Aragón, both Cynara cardunculus

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and C. cardunculus subsp. scolymus are resources in seed banks, inventories of cultivated and grow spontaneously in traditional knowledge associated with gardens. About the former, he says that the biodiversity, and the study of historical petioles and middle vein of the leaves should documents on their management in past be eaten, and that the flowers curdle milk cultures (Gálvez Ramírez and Hernández (Pardo Sastrón 1895). Bermejo 1986, 1990; Hernández Bermejo Dantín Cereceda (1881­1963), in his 1991; Hernández Bermejo et al.1991, 2009, Catálogo metódico de las plantas cultivadas 2013 a,b; Hernández Bermejo and García en España (‘Methodical catalogue of the Sánchez 1998, 2015; Pardo de Santayana plants cultivated in Spain’), included only et al. 2014). That expertise has enabled us three thistles: Cynara cardunculus, C. to record the traditional uses in the Iberian cardunculus subsp. scolymus and Scolymus Peninsula of about 90 taxa of thistles hispanicus (Dantín Cereceda 1943). belonging to Asteraceae. Some of them are Font Quer (1888­1964), in his Plantas important, well­known food crops (Cynara medicinales: el Dioscórides renovado cardunculus, C. cardunculus subsp. (‘Medicinal plants, the renovated scolymus, Carthamus tinctorius). Others are Dioscorides’), cites around 20 species of of a marginal agricultural interest or are medicinal thistles, 12 of them are Cardueae, neglected crops (Silybum marianum, Carlina of the genera Arctium, Carlina, Carthamus, gummifera, Scolymus hispanicus, S. Centaurea, Cynara, Echinops, Mantisalca maculatus), along with genera with species and Silybum. In addition, he mentions cultivated as ornamental plants (Carduus, “cardillos” and “cadillos” of the genera Centaurea, Cirsium, Echinops, Onopordum) Centaurea, Sonchus, and Lactuca, and also or for the pharmaceutical industry (Arctium, the American Xanthium, and a single Serratula, Silybum). Their ethnobotanical species of Scolymus. Although not belonging interest is due to the highly diverse uses of to the Asteraceae family, the set is the species: food, dyeing, cosmetics, oil, completed by Dipsacus and Eryngium with honey production, fodder, handcrafts, magic 4­5 species. At least 8 of these medicinal and psychoactive plants, and especially for species are also used as food, particularly: their medicinal uses: antibiotic, wound Cynara cardunculus, C. cardunculus subsp. healing, diuretic, febrifuge, purgative, scolymus, Silybum marianum, Scolymus hepatoprotective, cholesterol­lowering, hispanicus and Carthamus tinctorius (Font hypoglycemic, anti­hemorrhoidal, Quer 1961). antirheumatic, anti­inflammatory, antioxidant.

5. Thistle species of current ethnobotanical interest in Spain "Cardos" in the historical documentation of southern South America At present, there is great expertise in the western Mediterranean in the recording and The arrival of the Spanish in South conservation of thistle germplasm, especially America dates from the first quarter of the of the Cardueae. In the last 30 years diverse 16th century. The first voyages explored ex situ conservation projects have been littoral areas of the Río de la Plata and developed, addressing domestication, Patagonia. Later, in the decades from 1520 agrodiversity management, phytogenetic to 1540, the first European settlements took

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place (for instance, the first foundation of published in Italian in 1524. In it he mentions Buenos Aires was in 1536). Nevertheless, the use of thistles as an emetic by the by 1541 and for a period of 40 years, the patagones (native inhabitants of Patagonia) region was abandoned although the first with whom they came in contact (Pigafetta colonists left behind cattle and horses. When 1986). the Spanish returned (ca. 1580, date of The navigator and explorer of Portuguese Buenos Aires’s second foundation), they origin Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor perceived that the region was invaded by (1470­1535) visited the Patagonian coasts. feral cattle and horses, whose trampling and The results of the expedition were written in grazing modified local plant communities 1935 in two reports or Relaciones, one by and favored the entry of exotic species that, the crewman Juan de Mori, the other by throughout the following centuries, spread Alonso, the King's notary (Benites 2013; over the central region of Argentina. These Mori 1941). The thistles importance as exotic plants are of relevance due to their emergency food for the explorers is weedy character, those outstanding being highlighted. “cardos” and “abrepuños”. Various available Jerónimo de Vivar (16th century) referred documents mention them (Correa et al. to introduced plants, among them “cardos”, 2003; Delucchi et al. 2002; Delucchi and in his Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera Charra 2012). de los reinos de Chile [1558] (‘Chronicle and abundant and true relation of the kingdoms 1. 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. of Chile’) (Vivar 2001). Chroniclers of the Indies The German traveler and chronicler Ulrich Schmidl (1510­1581) arrived at the Río de la In the texts of this period, two Plata in 1536 as a member of the expedition fundamental aspects can be observed: the of Pedro de Mendoza, and he remained introduction of the species known as nearly 20 years in the area, as well as in “cardos” in Europe, along with the spreading northeastern Argentina and Paraguay. In his of the word “cardo” and its application to Verídica descripción de varias navegaciones American native plant species with similar como también de muchas partes features. This was a very frequent procedure desconocidas, islas, reinos y ciudades (‘True among the Spanish who arrived in the New description of several navigations and of World and denominated local plants with the unknown islands, kingdoms and cities’) of names of plants of their land of origin, based 1567, Schmidl cites the “cardos” that were on their similarities. Early references to the part of his rations in Buenos Aires (Schmidl plants known as “cardos” in Spain point to 2009). both vegetables, previously absent in Alonso González de Nájera (1556­1614), America, and weeds, that could occasionally a Spanish soldier participating in the ‘Arauco be used as emergency food, medicine or war’, in Chile, who reported the use of fuel. thistles as emergency food in his Desengaño Antonio Pigafetta (1480­1534) joined the y Reparo de la Guerra del Reino de Chile expedition of Fernando de Magallanes and [1614] (‘Disappointment and Reparation of Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519­1522) and the War of the Kingdom of Chile’) (González wrote Primer viaje alrededor del globo de Nájera 1889). (‘Magellan's Voyage around the World’), first The Chilean Jesuit Alonso de Ovalle

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(1603­1651), in his Histórica relación del mission to Río del Sauce in 1748’) the Jesuit Reyno de Chile [1646] (‘An historical relation José Cardiel (1704­1782), talking about the of the kingdom of Chile’), refers to thistles as reduction of Volcán, near Mar del Plata, a garden crop introduced by the Spanish Buenos Aires province, mentions the (Ovalle 1646). shortage of firewood and the possibility of Since the second half of the 17th century making it available by sowing wild thistles the idea that “cardos” and “cardales” (thistles (Cardiel 1930). populations) were constitutive elements of the pampas landscape had been 2. 19th, 20th, 21st centuries. Naturalists established. For instance, in the comments in Argentina of the French engineer Barthélemy de Massiac (1626­1700), who visited Buenos In this period, the idea that thistles were Aires city between 1660 and 1662, and back natives of the pampas was reinforced. For in Europe published his Mémoires, signed by instance, the quotes of British dealers John his brother Pierre (Molina 1955; Salmon Parish Robertson (1792­1843) and William 1984). José Cipriano de Herrera y Loizaga Parish Robertson (1794­ca. 1850) can be (1695­1736) makes similar references in his mentioned. They referred to the existence of Viajes de España a Buenos Aires, Córdova, huge “cardales” on the road connecting the Mendoza, Potosí, Chile i Lima en los años cities of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe (Parish 1713 i 1717 (‘Travels from Spain to Buenos Robertson and Parish Robertson 1988). Aires, Cordova, Mendoza, Posotí, Chile, and Charles Darwin (1809­1882) writes in his Lima in 1713 and 1717’) (Herrera y Loizaga The narrative of the voyages of H.M. Ships 1785). Adventure and Beagle. Journal and remarks. In addition, in these and other references, 1832­1836: “Near the Guardia [near Buenos the use of thistles as fuel is mentioned, e.g. Aires] we find the southern limits of two the testimony of one anonymous French European plants, now become excessively traveler and that of the Jesuit Michelle common. The fennel in great profusion Herrein in a letter from 1723 sent to Franz covers the ditch banks in the neighbourhood Molinder, Prior of the Austrian Province of of Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, and other the Society of Jesus (Rípodas Ardanaz towns. But the cardoon (Cynara 2002). Similar mentions are made by Father cardunculus) has a far wider range: it occurs Pedro Lozano (1697­1752), in his Historia de in these latitudes on both sides of the la conquista del Paraguay, Río de la Plata y Cordillera, across the continent. I saw it in Tucumán [1745] (‘History of the conquest of unfrequented spots in Chile, Entre Rios, and Paraguay, Río de la Plata, and Tucumán’) Banda Oriental (…) I doubt whether any (Lamas 1873), and by Alonso Carrió de la case is on record, of an invasion on so grand Vandera (1715­1783), known as a scale of one plant over the aborigines. As I Concolorcorvo, in his work Lazarillo de have already said, I nowhere saw the ciegos y caminantes desde Buenos Aires cardoon south of the Salado (…)” (Darwin hasta Lima [1775] (‘The guide for blind 1839). walkers from Buenos Aires to Lima’) (Carrió Among others, both Alcide D’Orbigny de la Vandera 1997). (1802­1857) in his Viaje a la América In his Diario del viaje y misión al Río del Meridional [1826] (‘Travel to South America’) Sauce realizado en 1748 (‘Travel diary and (D’Orbigny 1945), and William Mac Cann:

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Un viaje a caballo por las provincias medicinal use of thistles contrasts with the argentinas [1847] (‘Two Thousand Miles' absence of mentions about food uses. One Ride Through The Argentine Provinces’) hypothesis is that their weedy nature (Mac Cann 1985) refer to thistles. Their impacts negatively on their assessment comments mostly address Cynara (Pochettino 2005), thus their relevance in cardunculus, under the name “cardo de diet remains concealed as they are not Castilla”. Nevertheless, Thomas Woodbine positively valued as “edible weeds” Hinchliff (1825­1882), in his Viaje al Plata en (Rapoport et al. 2009). 1861 [1863] (‘South American Sketches; or a Visit to Rio Janeiro, The Organ Mountains, 3. "Thistles" and Cynara cardunculus in La Plata, and the Parana’) also cites Silybum Argentinian arts, literature and folklore marianum (Woodbine Hinchliff 1955). The first mention of the therapeutic use of In Argentinian folklore, thistles symbolize thistles as a group belongs to the 19th the wild, because does not need cares and century in the pioneering work on grow by its own. As an example, in the Argentinian popular medicine by Jorge Martín Fierro by José Hernández (1872): Hieronymus (1845­1921), Plantae “And they who come into an inheritance, will Diaphoricae. Florae Argentinae (‘Diaphoretic fall into ruin anywhere. There's no way a plants. Argentinian Flora’) (Hieronymus man can avoid what fate has decided on. 1882). This author includes Centaurea The thistle cannot help pricking you as it is calcitrapa, C. benedicta, C. melitensis, made of thorns” (Hernández 1967). Carthamus tinctorius, Cynara cardunculus, C Even now the thistle is used as a source cardunculus subsp. scolymus, of inspiration, such as in the case of the Plectocephalus tweediei and Silybum tango Ser mina flor de cardo (‘Thistle flower marianum as the species known as “cardos”. girl’), of 1990, with lyrics by Adriana Turchetti Among their diverse uses, those related to and music by Javier González, in which the their bitter flavor and diseases like “side first verse is used as a synonym for the ache” or jaundice stand out, in accordance courage and resistance of women. with the cholagogue properties of several of Diverse landscapes and plants (thistles in these plants (Hurrell and Puentes 2013). these cases) were depicted by different Since then, frequent references to the Argentinian and foreign painters during the use of different thistles in local phytotherapy 19th and 20th centuries. In this context, we in Argentina have been made in diverse selected three representative examples. The contributions, from, for instance, Marzocca German painter Johann Moritz Rugendas (1977) and Toursarkissian (1980). Several (1802­1858), known as Mauricio Rugendas, species have been added to those cited by valued in several Latin American countries Hieronymus: Carduus acanthoides L., C. for his paintings of landscapes, people and tenuiflorus, C. thoermeri Weinm., Cirsium plants. Prilidiano Pueyrredón (1823­1870), vulgare, Eryngium eburneum Decne., E. an outstanding Argentinian painter and horridum Malme, E. pristis Cham. & Schltdl., architect that carried out important Lactuca serriola, Onopordum acanthium, engineering works and beautification Sonchus asper, S. oleraceus (L.) L., projects in Buenos Aires city, as well as his Xanthium spinosum (Martínez­Crovetto paintings entitled Un alto en el campo and 1968, 2012). These voluminous data of the Un alto en la pulpería. Juan Carlos

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Castagnino (1908­1972), Argentinian with both cultivated cardoon and artichoke, architect and artist, among whose works although the latter two would soon be stand out his illustrations in the Martín Fierro separated from the wild cardoon (Raccuia et by José Hernández published by the al. 2004). University of Buenos Aires. Wild cardoon is a robust plant with big, The silversmith Juan Carlos Pallarols was spiny rosette­shaped leaves, and branched the person in charge of the manufacturing of inflorescences with thorny involucral scales. the Presidential batons from 1983 to 2015. Domestication was addressed to obtain Many of these items have adornments on cultivated less spiny taxa and for two useful their handles of 24 thistles, one for each purposes: a) to take advantage of its veins province of Argentina, as well as three thistle and foliar bases of lower leaves by means of buds representing the southern Atlantic earthing to bleach the petiole, thus becoming islands. This symbolism supports the an edible organ store (cultivated cardoon), b) popular deeply­rooted local idea that thistles to take advantage of its capitula for food, are natives of Argentina. However, the use of particularly of the fleshy, spineless involucral thistles in silversmithing may be of European scales (artichoke). inspiration. For instance, they were found on Agronomy historians along with botanists Viking metal objects from the 8th to 12th and geneticists agree in considering the centuries, including “thistle flower brooches” species –taken as a whole– as both an from Ireland (Kelly 2007), and in Scotland, archaeophyte as well as an ancient crop in for the Scottish, the thistle is their national the western Mediterranean, and later in flower, a symbol of the tenacity of their other parts of the world, for instance South national identity (Green 2010). America. However, authors differ on which of the two entities was domesticated first, and Cynara cardunculus: particular whether the domestication processes considerations occurred in Sicily during the Middle Ages or earlier, under the Islamic Culture in North 1. Taxonomy and domestication Africa. In this sense, Gatto et al. (2013), Pignone and Sonnante (2004), Sonnante et Cynara cardunculus L. is a species with a al. (2007) think that artichoke domestication controversial taxonomy (Gutiérrez 2011; took place at about the beginning of the first Gutiérrez and Sonnante 2014); even when, millennium, possibly in Sicily, and was later at present, it is usually considered to include spread by the Arabs during the Middle Ages. three taxa: a) wild cardoon, C. cardunculus On the other hand, cultivated cardoon could var. sylvestris (Lam.) Fiori (= C. sylvestris have been domesticated in the first half of Lam.), a native of the eastern Mediterranean the second millennium in the western and recognized as the wild ancestor of the Mediterranean. This hypothesis is based on other two taxa, domesticated in the western both molecular data originating from studies Mediterranean; b) cultivated cardoon, C. performed on individuals obtained from cardunculus var. altilis DC., frequently diverse germplasm banks and collections, naturalized in zones outside its origin area; and on historical documents produced by c) artichoke, C. cardunculus subsp. naturalists and agronomists of Greco­Roman scolymus (L.) Hegi (= C. scolymus L.). Wild antiquity (Theophrastus, Pliny, Columella). cardoon is totally compatible and inter­fertile Not with standing, they do not take into

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consideration the contributions of medieval to consume them, as well as in salads andalusí agriculturalists and other specialists including other ingredients (like ham or (philologists, historians, agronomists), who shrimps); served with almond and olive oil studied that culture and its documents. On sauce; fried with clams or cod; in omelets; this basis, Andrew M. Watson, the pickled; in stews; or in the more traditional agriculture historian most cited in the Islamic “esparragado”, that is a stir­fry of bread or World, offers a different approach: flour, garlic, paprika and eggs. This recipe is a) The eastern Mediterranean origin of also used to prepare “tagarninas” the wild taxon, Cynara cardunculus var. (Scolymus) and other species of thistles in a sylvestris, has been accepted according to broad sense. In Aragon and Catalonia, some the results of molecular analyses performed recipes have been found that use milk or by Gatto et al. (2013) and Sonante et al. even cream to prepare béchamel sauce, (2007). For this reason, wild populations of adding almonds, nuts, raisins, and pine nuts. C. cardunculus in the western Mediterranean According to Pardo de Santayana et al. (including the Iberian Peninsula) and even (2014), the petioles (called pencas) are the populations introduced into southern eaten in different parts of Spain, raw in South America (although this has to be salads or cooked, fried or coated, with rice, confirmed by means of molecular biology) do and in vegetable stews. To prepare them not belong to that type of species but to their foliar laminae are removed, and their naturalized C. cardunculus subsp. altilis (Fig. petioles cut and rubbed longitudinally with 1 a, b). salt, or peeled to take off the whitish, bitter b) During the Roman Empire only C. epidermis. In Catalonia, the inflorescences cardunculus subsp. altilis was grown in the are used to curdle milk to prepare western Mediterranean and is at present homemade cheese, highly appreciated for its naturalized in that region. taste. c) C. cardunculus subsp. scolymus, was In Italy, an alcoholic beverage used as an domesticated and cultivated in medieval aperitif and digestive, named “Cynar”, has times and in the Islamic World, maybe in the been produced since 1953. Its consumption Maghreb, from where it possibly entered and manufacture spread during the 20th Sicily earlier than into other territories such century to other Mediterranean countries, as as, for instance, the Iberian Peninsula well as to Latin America. In Argentina, for (Watson 1998) (Fig.1 c). example, it became a popular drink immediately and is still produced as per the 2. Cultivated thistle: culinary traditions on original Italian recipe. Although the formula both sides of the Atlantic remains secret, it is well known that its main ingredient is artichoke, and it contains about In current Spanish cuisine, as it was a dozen different herbs (Campari Group observed several times in different parts of 2019). the country and registered in published Many localities of the Piedmont region works (e.g. Pardo de Santayana et al. 2014), (northwestern Italy) claim bagna cauda to be the thistles are always boiled and then unique to it. In fact it originated long ago on prepared in various ways, all of them using the Provence coast (South of France), with olive oil. The simple seasoning of thistles the name anchoïade that is composed of with this oil is one of the most common ways raw vegetables cut into sticks, what are

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steeped in a sauce made of salty anchovies, importance lies in that, with bagna cauda, garlic and olive oil. It is presumed that the vegetable side dish had arrived. Thus, it medieval merchants from Asti, a Piedmont is said that in immigrants’ gardens, cardoons city, encountered bagna cauda on their were grown practically only for their use in journeys to the zone to stock up on salt and this dish. However, although bagna caudais anchovies, and then spread the dish to still widespread at present, cardoon northwestern and southern Piedmont consumption has decreased, having been (Leoncini 2016). The ancient Provençal displaced by other crops, and also by foods recipe was adapted by Asti peasants to of an animal origin. vegetables that were more common as food Consequently, cultivated thistles are in popular country communities. For a long seldom offered at greengrocer’s shops time, it conserved this popular nature, and (Rapoport et al. 2003). Wild thistles are even was despised by the upper­class, more rarely used, except for certain presumably for its invasive garlic flavor. individual cases, like a restaurant in the Therefore, this recipe does not appear department of Magdalena (Buenos Aires before 1875 in Piedmont gastronomic province), that serves diverse dishes testimonies, and was first described by prepared with “weeds”, including thistle Roberto Sacchetti (1847­1881) in petioles, both boiled and pickled. In addition, accordance with the dish still current in this at Comahue University (Viedma, Río Negro region of Italy: a paste of anchovies, garlic province), different assays have been and olive oil made into a hot sauce placed in carried out to make cookies and pastry with the middle of the table and in which diners whole plants of Cynara cardunculus var. could dip diverse vegetables (with the altilis (including their spines), dehydrated, exception of aromatic ones, like celery or ground and mixed with wheat flour fennel), with “cardo gobbo” (hunchback (Rapoport et al. 2009). However, it should be thistle) standing out among them, a thistle noted that this taxon, as a weed, was from Niza Monferrato (appellation of origin) officially declared to be an agricultural pest (Geraci 2017). in 1963 by the Argentine government, so its Piedmont immigrants arrived in Argentina control is mandatory (Rapoport et al. 2009). in 1860 and settled in the so­called “Pampa Gringa” (provinces of Santa Fe and Córdoba 3. Cultivated thistle and artichoke and, to a lesser extent, in Entre Ríos and inpresent­day Argentina Buenos Aires); there, they generated the largest milk catchment in South America Cynara cardunculus var. altilis, is both the (Gori 1988). According to the statements of wild thistle, known in Argentina as “cardo de immigrants' descendants, the abundance Castilla”, and the cultivated thistle (cardoon). and cheapness of cream were the cause of It is of importance only as a regional crop the gradual replacement of the more currently in Europe in several parts of Spain, expensive olive oil. For Piedmont peasants France and Italy (Raccuia et al. 2004). In and their descendants, bagna cauda is a Argentina, it is cultivated on a commercial winter food, symbolizing fraternity and scale in Buenos Aires province, in the area happiness it constitutes a tradition denominated La Plata horticultural belt transmitted from generation to generation, (Pochettino et al. 2014) and it is usually sold and is even present in urban areas. Its rootless in packs of four plants. Its

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consumption is limited and it is mainly eaten suitable for manufacturing. The present by members of the Piedmont community and production is based on those cultivars by their descendants (Cravero 2007). As means of clonal propagation, and the mentioned above, its sale in greengrocers in surface devoted to seed culture is still very urban areas is sporadic. The varietal nature limited (Larrazabal and García 2014). of cultivated material is not known with any certainty, but it includes several cultivars like 4. Naturalized thistle and re­signification ‘Cardo Blanco’, ‘Cardo Semence’, and of its uses ‘Cardo Florensa’, although the two latter ones seem to be trademarks (Cravero et al. As in other works above mentioned, the 2007; Espósito et al. 2011). In Spain, the effectiveness of a multidisciplinary vision in cultivars include: ‘Blanco de tours’, ‘Lleno sin ethnobotanical research is demonstrated. pinchos de España’, ‘Blanco de ivoire’, The simultaneous use of documentary ‘Lleno blanco’, ‘Blanco mejorado’, ‘Raza sources such as historical texts of very Bérgamo’, and ‘Verde inerme’ (Maroto different nature (agronomic, botanical, 2002). literary texts, narrations of famous travelers, As for Cynara cardunculus subsp. culinary treatises, historical archives) artistic scolymus, the artichoke, for a long time this manifestations (paintings, pottery, was cultivated in Argentina in an estimated silversmithing) and archaeological remains area of about 4000 hectares. However, since has allowed us to analyze the travel and 1980, a significant reduction of the cultivated transfer of the rich "Mediterranean culture of area has taken place, due mainly to its loss thistles" towards South America, identifying of profitability, although this diminution has particular processes such as the re­ not been reflected in its consumption (2.6 signification of the uses of Cynara kg/person/year). At present, the cultivated cardunculus area is nearly 2000 hectares (Larrazabal and Effectively, Cynara cardunculus var. altilis, García 2014). The major production area is has been early introduced by Spanish and located on the outskirts of La Plata (Buenos naturalized in southern South America, Aires province), representing 64% of mainly in the pampas of Argentina and Argentinian production (Fig. 1 d). Other Uruguay, and also in central Chile (Gutiérrez production zones include Santa Fe (14%), et al. 2017). The expansion without human and Mendoza and San Juan provinces intervention of these plants in the new (19%) (Cravero 2007).This cultivation is geographical context was very extensive, to based on two cultivars: ‘Ñato’ (of uncertain the point that, as we discussed earlier, these origin and almost extinguished, but thistles were considered locally as a symbol recognized as own variety by producers of of the wild. In this framework, the divergence La Plata horticultural belt), and ‘Francés’ between “native” and “exotic” plants, usual in (which is in fact the ‘Romanesco' cultivar, biology, differs from the established by the originating in Lazio, central Italy, one of the local botanical knowledge that distinguishes best known cultivars, with purple capitula). In between “cultivated” and “wild” plants (which other areas of Argentina, those “white” grow spontaneously, thus including both cultivars, derived from the Spanish cultivar native and naturalized ones in biological ‘Blanco de Tudela’, prevailed, giving the terms). Similar approaches have been used ‘Criollo’ or ‘Blanco Argentina’, that was more in Argentina when studying, for instance, fruit

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Figure 1. Cynara cardunculus subsp. altilis naturalized in Córdoba, Andalucía, Spain (a) and between Bahia Blanca and Olavarría, Buenos Aires, Argentina (b). Cynara cadunculus subsp. scolymus cultivated in Vélez­Málaga, Andalucía, Spain (c), and near La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina (a, b, c: by E. Hernández Bermejo; d: Néstor D. Bayón). trees in the northeast and northwest of the sometimes includes the adjustment of some country (Hilgert et al. 2014), or in reflecting uses of the original biocultural context (the on the contribution of ethnobotany to the Iberian Peninsula) to the local biocultural study of the naturalization process (Hurrell context (Argentina); e.g., the culinary uses and Delucchi 2013). mentioned above. Other times, the re­ As Gama and collaborators say: signification includes the adjudication of new "Although many studies have attempted to uses (absent in the original biocultural understand the complexity of relationships context); e.g., the use of these plants as between humans and their environments, it emergency fuel, according to the local is still necessary to advance the needs. This case exemplifies the concept of understanding of the human behavior biocultural adaptation, in terms of Gama et associated with these relationships" (Gama al. (2018). et al. 2018). In this context, the local uses of In regard to popular medicine, both in Cynara cardunculus var. altilis have Spain (Pardo de Santayana et al. 2014) and undergone processes of re­signification over in Argentina (Hurrell and Puentes 2013), the time. The re­signification (Hurrell 2014) following medicinal uses are registered:

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depurative, hypotensive, digestive, extensively throughout the pampas and cholesterol­lowering, hepatoprotective, constituted from those early moments a wild cholagogue, choleretic, and antidiabetic. resource to be employed as emergency Medicinal uses registered only in Spain: food, as plants with therapeutic uses, some antidiarrheal, anti­constipation, of them still in use, as well as a source of antihemorrhagic, and vulnerary. Medicinal low­quality fuel, used to resolve the scarcity uses registered only in Argentina: appetizer, of woody plants. With this background antispasmodic, antacid, diuretic, naturalized thistle expansion became a antinephritic, antilithic, antirheumatic, symbolic element of identity for pampas slimming, and aphrodisiac. In this frame, inhabitants, as is shown in comments from some traditional uses in Spain are travelers, as well as in the works of painters, conserved in Argentina, other medicinal uses silversmiths, and men of letters. Even now, in Spain are lost in Argentina, and other uses many local people consider the thistles as are novel in Argentina regarding Spain. native plants which are typical of each local situation. CONCLUSIONS In spite of what has been said above, since the 18th century the food culture of According to the historical documents thistles has been lost, including the from the western Mediterranean review, consumption of Cynara cardunculus, nearly 20 taxa constituted the “thistle culture” introduced by Spanish into the New World. in antiquity, i.e. those it was possible to In the particular case of Argentina and the identify in the texts. This level of bio­ and three intra­specific taxa of Cynara agro­diversity rose to at least 25 species cardunculus, it can be concluded that: during the andalusí Middle Ages in the a) It is not possible to confirm the Iberian Peninsula. Then, since the presence of Cynara cardunculus var. Renaissance and under the regime of sylvestris in Argentina, and the naturalized Christian Iberian culture, the amount fell to populations probably belong to C. less than 10 taxa. During the 15th century, cardunculus var. altilis. the “thistle culture” was to a great extent lost, b) In present­day Argentina, the although it has been kept alive up to today cultivation of Cynara cardunculus var. altilis due to the traditional dissemination of is restricted, above all, to families of popular Iberian wisdoms. Thus, a heritage of descendants of Italian immigrants. It was about 90 species of thistles of the possibly introduced with the first arrival of Asteraceae family is accounted for in the Spanish during the 16th century, but, as contemporary ethnobotanical studies. By the time went by, it became a marginalized, 16th century, these plants and their even neglected, crop, simultaneously with its associated knowledge had been transferred naturalization. For this reason, it is assumed to southern South America, along with the that a second introduction took place in naturalization processes of those thistles about 1870 by Italian immigrants. introduced both voluntarily (the cultivated c) The cultivation of Cynara cardunculus ones) or involuntarily (weeds). subsp. scolymus in Argentina began towards Regarding their transfer to the territory of the end of the 19th century, mainly with the what is now Argentina and to the local creole arrival of Italian and Spanish immigrants, cultures, many thistle species spread who introduced the first cultivars and

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adapted their traditional agricultural practices Alonso J (2004) Tratado de Fitofármacos y to local environmental conditions. Nutracéuticos. Corpus, Buenos Aires, Argentina Summing up, despite the above Baso C (1998) [4th century] Geopónica. INIA, mentioned loss and as is evidenced by the Madrid, Spain present diversity of food knowledge, a re­ Benites MJ (2013). “Vigilias, fatigas y signification process can be observed, due peregrinaciones”: viaje, relato y desamparo en los confines del imperio. Telar 11­12:80­97 to the arrival of Spanish and Italian Boutelou C, Boutelou E (1801) Tratado de la immigrants. Traditional cooking that is still Huerta. Villalpando, Madrid, Spain kept up in rural areas in the center of the Campari Group (2019) Cynar. The artichoke country validates this process, whose liqueur known for its versatility and taste analysis proves the great opportunities [https://www.camparigroup.com/en/brands/liqueu offered by “cardos de Castilla” and rsothers/cynar?legalRadio=1#legalage] “alcauciles”, in local horticultural and food Accessed January 30th 2019 innovation in Argentina. Cardiel J (1930) [1748] Diario del viaje y misión al Río del Sauce realizado en 1748. Coni, Buenos Aires, Argentina ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Carrió de la Vandera A (1997) [1771]. El lazarillo de ciegos caminantes. Emecé. Buenos Aires, This work has been carried out under the Argentina objectives program of the CultIVA­CYTED Clusio (2005) [1576] Descripción de algunas network. We appreciate the collaboration of plantas raras encontradas en España y the entire team that of the CYTED Portugal. Junta de Castilla y León, Valladolid, Secretariat to meet the proposed objectives. Spain In particular and in relation to this Colmeiro M (1885) Enumeración y revisión de contribution we would like to thank also the las plantas de la Provincia Hispano­Lusitana é Islas Baleares. Fuentenbro, Madrid, Spain help and cooperation in the administration tasks and communication among network Columela (1988) [42 AD] De los trabajos del campo. Siglo XXI, Madrid, Spain members of Paquita Tarifa (BGVA and Correa RF, Delucchi G, Charra G (2003) IMGEMA Jardín Botánico de Córdoba, Etnobotánica de los “cardos” en la Argentina. Spain) and Diana Badder's review of the Delpinoa 45:149­156 English version of this manuscript. Also, the Cravero V (2007) Incorporación de authors value the suggestions of the metodología no convencional en un plan de anonymous reviewers and especially mejora vegetal. Universidad Nacional de acknowledge all those people who shared Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina their time and wisdom and consent in the Cravero V, Martín E, Cointry E (2007) Genetic publication. Diversity in Cynara cardunculus determined by SRAP markers. Journal of The American Society for Horticultural Science 132:208­212 REFERENCES D’Orbigny A (1945) [1826] Viaje a la América Meridional II. Futuro, Buenos Aires, Argentina Abū l­Jayr. (2004) [11th century] Kitābu‘Umdat al­abībfīma rifat al­nabāt.CSIC, Madrid, Spain Dantín Cereceda J (1943) Catálogo metódico de las plantas cultivadas en España. Ministerio Albuquerque UP, da Cunha LVFC, Lucena RFP, de Agricultura, Madrid, Spain Alves RRN (2014) Methods and Techniques in Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology. Springer­ Humana Press, New York, USA

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Received: 29 November 2018 Accepted: 28 February 2019 Published: 12 March 2019

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