INDEX

N.B: italicized page numbers indicate figures

9/11, 3 anarchy, 257–260 coordination problem Abigail through objection to, 259–260 time, 157 anatta, 176 Adams, Douglas, 84 Anselm of Canterbury, 69 afterlife, 89–91 Aquinas, Thomas, 73, 78 agent causation, 133–135, Aristotle see also free will, cosmological argument, 75 dilemma argument ethical views, 52–54, 56–57 magic objection to, 135 function argument, 56–57 mystery objection to, 134 on agent causation, 133 vs. event causation, 135 on future contingents, agnosticism 116–117 definition of, 92 pinnacle of philosophical Aldrin, Buzz, 188 reason for Luther, 63 alien hand, 174 sea battle argument, Alighieri, Dante, 152 116–117 Allah, 6, 91, 95 zoon politikon, 261 altruism, 11 Armstrong, Neil, 188 examplesCOPYRIGHTED of, 12–13 Aspect, MATERIAL Alain, 127 Amish, 57–58 atheism analytical engine, 206 definition of, 92

This Is Philosophy: An Introduction, Second Edition. Steven D. Hales. © 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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atheists Book of Mormon, 66 distrust of, 93 Boyle’s law, 94 percentage, 93 brain Atman, 151 corpus callosum, 173–175 Autrey, Wesley, 104 fission, 174–175 fusion, 175 Babbage, Charles, 206 hemispheres, 173–174 balancing positive evidence, 229 seat of psychology, 163 balancing zero evidence, 229 structure, 196 barber paradox, 94–95 switching, 161–163 Barry, Sue, 199–200, see also the transplants, 161–163 knowledge argument brave officer paradox, 166–168, beer see also clos- comparative ratings est psychological of, 34–35 continuer relation pleasure in, 34–36 Brown, Donald E., 21 beetle in a box, 191–192 Brown, James, 149 begging the question, 67, Buddha, 64, 176 122, 249–250, see also Buddhism, 173 circular reasoning Bundle Theory behaviorism, 192–195 as solution to personal error theory about mentalistic identity, 173–178 language, 193 Buddhist chariot analogy, mental states without 176 behavior objection, pragmatic 193–195 identification in, 178 toothache example, bushmen of the Kalahari, 81 193, 195 Butler, Joseph Bell, John, 127 on personal identity, Bentham, Jeremy, 31–32 168–169 Berkeley, George, 134 Bernoulli numbers, 206 Cantor, Georg, 74 Bhagavad Gita, 66 Catechism of the Catholic Bible, 66–67, 88, 91 Church, 151 Big Bang, 76–77, 125, 187 categorical imperative, 45–51 Bin Laden, Osama, 3–4, 101 version 1, 44–46 blameworthiness, 30, 37 act selfishly case, 46 blank slate, see tabula rasa definition of, 44

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false promising memory interpretation case, 44–45 of, 164–169 inconsistency objection to, brave officer 44–45 paradox inconsistent willing objection to, 166–168 objection to, circularity objection 45–46 to, 168–169 version 2, 46–48 sleep objection to, definition of, 46 165–166 causation, 74–75 rope analogy, 169–170 Chanania, Joshua ben, 147 severe psychological child rearing disruption analogy, as example of altruism, 13 169–173 does not make parents cogito ergo sum, 186, 243 happy, 13–14 commisurotomy, see split children, 13–14 brain surgery Chinese room, see functionalism comparative pleasure Chisholm, Roderick curves, 35 on agent causation, 134 compatibilism, 135–139, Chou, Chuang (a.k.a. Master see also free will, Chuang, Chuang dilemma argument Tzu, Zhuangzi) and coerced action, 137–139 butterfly dream of, 238 definition of, 136 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 53 intuitive appeal of, 136 circular reasoning, 67, see also too little freedom objection begging the question to, 137 Clifford, W. K., 222–226, too much freedom 228, 230 objection to, 137–139 shipowner example, conceivability, 187–188 222–223 congenital insensitivity to closest physical continuer pain with anhidrosis relation, 157–163 (CIPA), 198 causation in, 158 consciousness definition of, 158 puzzle of, 183–184 physical similarity in, 158 rarity of, 184 closest physical continuers, 159 consequentialism closest psychological continuer definition of, 28 relation, 164–173 contractarianism, 260–265

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explanatory justification generality objection for, 260–261 to, 49–50 moral justification horrible consequences for, 261–262 objection to, 51–52 practical justification Descartes, René for, 262–264 on substance dualism, lack of consent objection 184–192 to, 264–265 on radical skepticism, Cope, David, 207 237–244 cosmic microwave background, 77 design argument, see God, cosmological argument, see arguments for God, arguments for determinism cosmology, 76–77 definition of, 124 counterfeit detector, 245–250 difference engine, 206 cricket difference principle, 279 paralyzed by digger different pathways to the same wasp, 122–123 facts, 198–199 critical thinking, 222 digger wasp, 122–123 Cullen, Sean, 104 Dilemma argument, 123–129, cultural relativism, see see also free will relativism, moral discredited scientific views, 21, 96 Data, Lt Commander, 205 discrimination, 17–18 Dawkins, Richard, 94 Divine Comedy, 152 death divine command theory, 6–10 vagueness of, 172–173, 178 objections to, 8–9 decision making, 117–121 divine foreknowledge, regress, 120 114–117, see Deep Blue, 208 also free will Defenestrator (supervillain), DNA 129–130, 132 as solution to personal demon argument, 239–243, see identity, 148 also radical skepticism in identical twins, 149 deontology, 42–52 testing of grapes, 197 agent-neutral intuitions Doppler shift, 198 objection to, 50–51 Doris, John, 58 crappy results objection Dow Jones Industrial to, 48–49 Average, 81

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Dr. Zorg (supervillain), epistemic luck, 234–235 130–132 epistemic principle, 242, 245 dream argument, 237–238, epistemology, 215 see also radical ethical egoism, see egoism skepticism ethnocentrism, 23 Dugard, Jaycee Lee, 16 Euthyphro, 7 Evidence echolocation, see perception Value of, 219–222 Eco, Umberto, 232 Amount needed, 222–230 egoism, 10–18 Sources of, 230–233 ethical, 27, 29, 40 evolution through natural argument for, 14–15 selection, 82 compatible with reci- existence procity, 15 as a logical quantifier, definition of, 11 72–73 equal treatment as a perfection, 70–71 objection to, as an imperfection, 71–72 17–18 not a property, 72–73 horrible consequences experimental psychology, objection 57–58 to, 16 experiments in musical subjectivity objection intelligence to, 17 (EMI), 207–208 psychological, 11–14 argument for, 11 definition of, 11 faith evidence against, as belief without 12–14 reason, 63–64 Einstein, Albert, 193–194 as confidence, 63 élan vital, 150, see also soul, as false memories, 168–169 vitalist force Faraday, Michael, 141 Elizabeth, Princess of felicific calculus, 31–32, see Bohemia, 188–189 also hedonism empiricism, 231–233 female genital mutilation, Empiricus, Sextus, 226, 237 22–23 ends in themselves, see Fichte, Johann, 218 categorical imperative, finches, 82 version 2 fine-tuning, 79–80 epilepsy, 128, 173 fingerprints, 148

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first cause, 47–76, see also value of, 103 God, arguments for, friendly fire, 30 cosmological functionalism, 202–211 argument Chinese room objection Frankfurt, Harry, 130, 132 to, 209–211 fraud and quackery, 219–222 creativity objection free choice, see free will, to, 206–209 libertarian feelings, emotions, and free will sensations objection and character, 138 to, 205–206 and moral responsibility, fundamental objective of the 129–133 legal system, 227 and randomness, 126–128 compatibilist definition Gage, Phineas, 171–173 of, 136 gain truth and avoid error, 216, defense against the 225–226, 228, 236, 246, problem of evil, see also rational 102–105, see also principle God, arguments Galileo, 62, 74 against Garrido, Nancy, 16 degrees of, 137 Garrido, Phillip, 16–17 dilemma argument, 129 Gaunilo of Marmoutier, 70 agent causation as solution general relativity, 76, 96–97 to, 133–135 genuine memory, 168–169 compatibilism as solution germ theory vs. miasma, 96 to, 135–139 ghost in the machine, 192 divine foreknowledge ghosts, see soul, as ghost argument, 114–117, 124 Gilbert, Daniel, 13 Aristotle’s answer God, 6–10, 63–110, 174, 228 to, 116–117 arguments against, atheism and agnosticism 93–105 objection to, religious pluralism, 115 95–97 feeling of, 139–142 scientific analogy libertarian definition objection to, 96 of, 113, 136 problem of evil, 97–99 neuroscience of, 139–142 free will defense, 102 regress of reasons give up an attribute argument, 117–122 objection to, 99

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God’s greater plan teleological argument objection to, 99–101 or argument from arguments for, 66–92 design, 78–85 argument from scripture, alternative scientific 66–69 explanations cosmological argument, objection to, 81–83 73–77 complexity of God alternative scientific objection to, 84–85 explanations problem of the attributes objection to, 76–77 objection to, 83–84 cause of God objection uniqueness objection to, 84 to, 75 weaknesses in the watch problem of the analogy objection to, attributes objection 79–81 to, 75–76 attributes of, 64–65, 99 ontological argument, complexity and simplicity 69–73 of, 84–85 existence is not a knowledge of the property objection future, 114–117, 124 to, 72–73 mind of, 84–85 fool’s response objection God’s greater plan, see God, to, 70–71 arguments against, reverse parody objection problem of evil to, 71–72 Gods Must Be Crazy, 80–81 Pascal’s wager, 85–92 golden mean, 53 alternate ending golden rule objection to, 90–91 and categorical imperative, involuntarism of belief 46–47 and self-deception objection to, 5 objection to, 91–92 GPT–2, 206–209 odds of God objection GPT–3, 208–209 to, 87–88 greatest desires, 120–122 presumes Christian Greek gods, 7, 68 theology objection Guyenet, Stephan J., 111 to, 88–89 unforced wagering head transplants, 161 objection to, 87 hedonism, 30, 36 value of life objection measuring pains and to, 89–90 pleasures, 31–32

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quality of pains and incest taboo, 21 pleasures, 33–36 incompatibilist definition of, 33 argument, 126–128 Hedonist Principle, 217–219 inference to the best Hindu gods, 66 explanation, 231 Hinduism, 66, 151 infinity, 74 Hobbes, Thomas initial conditions on the Leviathan, 267, 270 of a game of pool, 125 on state of nature, 255, 256 of the universe, 125 Hogan, Krista and Tatiana, 175 intentional states, 243–244 Hollopeter, Cameron, 104 intentions Holmes, Sherlock, 230–231 in morality, 42–43, see Holocaust, 105 also utilitarianism, holy land role of motives archeology in, 67 and intent holy scripture, 10, 66–69 intuition Homer (Greek poet), 68 acting on, 3 honeybees agent–neutral, 50–51 brains of, 201 agent–relative, 40–41 color perception in, 201 moral, 4–5 genetics of, 201 Islam, 6, 52 waggle dance of, 203 five pillars of, 6 Hubble, Edwin, 76 Islamic caliphate, 3 human eye, 78, 82 ivory–billed woodpeckers, 87 human universals, 21 Hume, David James, William, 224–226, 235 on contractarianism, 264 Jefferson, Blind on personal identity, 176 Lemon, 202–203 on the problem of evil, Jesus Christ, 64, 115 100–101 Journey, 177–178 on the theater of the Judaism, 6 mind, 176 Judas Iscariot, 115 hypothetical imperative, 43 Kant, Immanuel Iliad, 68 ethical views, 42–52 impossibility on the ontological economic, 120 argument, 72–73 metaphysical, 120, 187–188 Kantianism, see deontology physical, 120, 187–188 Kasparov, Garry, 208

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Kenny over time, 160 Libet, Benjamin, 140–141 Khan, Genghis, 10 Locke, John khandhas, 176 and epistemic King, Ada (Countess of methodism, 248 Lovelace), 206 on empiricism, 231–233 knowledge argument, 199–200 on personal iden- knowledge tity, 163–167, a priori, 232–233 179, see also psycholog­ analysis as justified true ical criterion belief, 235–236 on state of nature, 255–258, analysis as true belief, 234–235 261, 271–272 nature of, 233–236 Loebner prize, 204, see also paradoxical foundations Turing test of, 250 Loftus, Elizabeth, 168 requires the truth, 234 London Sinfonietta, 170 Krypton–85, 126–127 lost island, 70–71 Luther, Martin, 63–64 Laplace, Pierre–Simon, 124, 126 luz bone, 147 Lassus Ensemble, 170 Lydia Pinkham’s Vegetable laws of nature, 124–125, 128 Compound, 220–221 left–side neglect, 139–140 leptin deficiency, 111–112 marital satisfaction, 14 Leviathan, 266–267, 270–271 Mary the neuroscientist, 199, tyranny objection to, 270–271 see also the knowledge son of SoN objection to, 271 argument liberal state, 276–281 Matrix, 239–245, see also radical limited freedom objection skepticism to, 281 maximin, 278 no luck objection to, 280 McGinnis, Private Ross, 12–13, why maximin? objection 38, see also altruism, to, 280 examples of libertarian free will, see free meaning as use, 192–193 will, libertarian Men in Black, 233–234 liberty mental substances negative, 256 definition of, 185 positive, 256 metaphysical principle, libertarianism, see minimal 241–242 state methodism, 247–250

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Mill, John Stuart, 33–36, see moral virtue, 52–53 also hedonism, quality moral vs. natural evil, 102–103 of pains and pleasures morality as subjective, see mind as hardware, see mind– also egoism, ethical, brain identity theory subjectivity mind as software, see objection to, 17 functionalism motives mind control machine, 131–132 in morality, 43, see also mind–body dualism, see utilitarianism, role of substance dualism motives and intent mind-body problem, see Muhammad, 9, 66, 216 substance dualism multiple realizability, see mind– mind-brain identity brain identity theory theory, 196–202 multiple realizability Nadal, Rafael, 71–72 objection to, 200–202 Nash equilibrium, 267 subjectivity of experience National Academy of objection to, 197–200 Sciences, 93 minimal state, 272–276 natural law, 256 can’t build a state natural theology, 64 objection to, 275–276 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 139 collective action objection normative universe, 1, 9 to, 275 normativity negative externalities types of, 1–2 objection to, 274–275 Nozick, Robert mitzvot, 6 on experience machine, 38 modest skepticism, 236 on the minimal state, 274 Montaigne, Michel de, 19 Moore, G. E., 244–245, 249 Obsessive Compulsive moral character, 54–58 Disorder, 112 moral dilemmas, 2, 28 Ockham’s Razor, 105 moral law, 43 omnibenevolence moral principles definition of, 65 problems with, 3–4 omnipotence moral relativism, see relativism, definition of, 65 moral omniscience moral responsibility definition of, 65 and free will, 129–133 ontological argument, see God, acts vs. omissions, 132–133 arguments for moral rights, 47–48 organ robber case, 41–42, 49–50

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pain, 31–32, 192–193, 195, see higher and lower also hedonism quality of, 33–36 Paley, William, 78–81 how to measure, 31–32 Pali Sutras, 66 polytheism, 91, 95 Parker, Kristen Diane, 16–17 praiseworthiness, 30, 37 particularism, 247–250 previous decisions vs. outside Pascal, Blaise, 88–92 forces, 118–119 Pascal’s wager, see God, principle of alternate possibilities, arguments for 130–133 people on a desert island, 39 principle of equality, 278 perception principle of equal as source of evidence, treatment, 17–18, 27 230–231 principle of indifference, 88 echolocation in bats, 197–198 prisoner’s dilemma, 267–271 olfactory in dogs, 197–198 figure of, 269 visual, 196, 204 privileged access, 196 personal identity problem of difference, 145–146 mystery of, 145–147 problem of evil, see God, personal integrity, 54 arguments against phantom limbs, 139 problem of sameness, 146–147 phenomenal states, 243–244 Proudhon, Joseph, 257–258 physical substances proving a negative, 93–95 definition of, 185 psychological crite- extension of, 185 rion, see also closest physicalist criterion, see psychological also closest physical continuer relation continuer relation as solution to personal and loss of parts, 160–161 identity, 168–178 as solution to personal psychological egoism, see egoism identity, 156–163 Pythagoras, 232 and ordinary aging, 157–159 Pythagorean theorem, 232 Plato, 225 on knowledge, 234–235 quack medicine, see fraud on morality and and quackery religion, 7–10 quantum physics on philosopher randomness in, 126–127 kings, 266–267 Qur’an, 3–4, 10, 66 pleasure, 30–36, see also hedonism Race Across America, 219–220

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radical skepticism, 185, 236–245 risk positive principle definition of, 236 for guilt and innocence, 237 main argument for, 242 for pleasure and pain, 236 Moore’s commonsense for truth and error, 226–230 criticism of, 244–245 Roman gods, 95 Ramachandran, V. S., 174 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 256 Rand, Ayn, 10 rational principle, 216–219 Sacks, Oliver, 199–200 definition of, 216 schizophrenia, 153 Rawls, John, 276, 278, 280 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 77 reductio ad absurdum, 98 scientific method, 232, 248 Reid, Thomas sea battle argument, see Aristotle on agent causation, 134 séances, 141 on personal identity, 166–168 Searle, John, 209–210 relativism self-deception, 223 descriptive self-organizing systems, 82–83 argument against, 20–22 sensations, 183 definition of, 19 possible causes of, 237–240 moral, 18–24 Sex Pistols, 177–178 argument for, 19–20 sharia law, 3 criticism objec- Shermer, Michael, 219–221 tion to, 22–24 shingles (disease), 112 definition of, 19 Ship of Theseus puzzle, 156–157 religious pluralism, see God, shopping mall experiment, 168, arguments against see also false memories religious Simpson’s paradox, 39–40, see art, music, architecture, 62 also utilitarianism rights Sixx, Nikki, 112 in personam, 272–274 skeptic’s challenge, 236–250 in rem, 272–274 skeptical possibilities, 237–240 in the state of nature, slavery, 23–24 255–256, 272 social lottery, 277 negative, 272–274 social reality, 254 positive, 272–274 societies and salaries, 279 Rig–Veda, 66 soul criterion, 149–156 risk averse principle soul for guilt and innocence, 227 as ghost, 150 for pleasure and pain, 227 as mind, 149–150 for truth and error, 226–230 as part, 153

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as possession, 153 supererogation, 38, see also as supernatural entity, 151 utilitarianism analogous to a box of chocolates, 154–155 tabula rasa, 231 definition objection to, 151 Tale–Yax, Hugo Alfredo, evidence objection 98–99 to, 152–153 teleological argument, see God, identification objection arguments for to, 153–155 ten commandments, 6 as vitalist force, 150–151 terrorism, 3–4 conceptions of, 149–151 Tertullian, 63 existence of, 155–156 Testone Radium Energizer, 221 recognition of, 154 theater of the mind, sources of evidence, 230–233 176, 240–245 Sparta figure of, 240 harsh morality of, 20 theism Sphex ichneumoneus, see definition of, 92 digger wasp Tourette’s syndrome, 128 sphexish behavior, 123 trading brains, 161 split brain surgery tragedy of the commons, as treatment for epilepsy, 173 268–270 psychological effects of, 174 Trobriand Islands state of nature, 255–258 free love morality of, 20 stellar nucleosynthesis, 183 Trojan war, 68 stereopsis, 199 Troy (city), 68 stock picking scam, 81 truth stopped clock problem, contingent, 233 235–236 necessary, 233 subconscious routines, 117–118 value of, 215–219 substance dualism, 184–192 Turing test, 203–210 conceivability and possibility definition of, 204 objection to, 187–188 Turing, Alan, 210 conceivability argument two different ropes connected for, 185–186 by a thread, or one rope mind–body problem severely frayed in the objection to, 188–189 middle? 170 other minds objection types of rights, 273 to, 190–192 types of rights in the minimal summum bonum, 30 state, 274

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universalizability, see categorical moral character in, 54 imperative, version 1 no such thing as character utilitarianism, 27–42 objection to, 57–58 agent-relative intuitions relativism about virtues objection to, 40–41 objection to, 56–57 calculating outcomes, 31–32 collapses to utilitarianism definition of, 30 or deontology duties under, 29 objection to, 54–55 experience machine objec- vitalism, 150–151, see also soul, tion to, 38–39 as vitalist force highest good, 30 voir dire, 223 invasiveness objection to, 37–38 volenti non fit injuria, 270 nothing is absolutely wrong objection waggle dance, 203 to, 41–42 Wearing, Clive, 170–172 obligations under, 29 Wearing, Deborah, 170 permissible actions under, 29 Wegner, Daniel, 140–141 practicality objection to, 37 wheel of belief, 249 role of motives and wheel of money, 248 intent, 29–30 why be moral?, 59 Simpson’s paradox Wittgenstein, Ludwig, objection to, 39–40 184, 188, 191 supererogation Wittgenstein’s beetle, see objection to, 38 beetle in a box Wizard of Oz, 237–238 veil of ignorance, 278 Wöhler, Friedrich, 150–151 viral encephalitis, 170–171 World Health Organization, 22 virtue ethics, 52–58 World Naked Bike Ride, 56–57 clashing virtues objection to, 55–56 Yahweh, 6, 95

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