The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Humanities Master Dissertations
2018 Gogo fairy tales as communicative genres
Suleiman, Salama Rashid
The University of Dodoma
Suleiman, S. R., (2018). Gogo fairy tales as communicative genres. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/1397 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. GOGO FAIRY TALES AS COMMUNICATIVE GENRES
SALAMA RASHID SULEIMAN
MASTERS OF ARTS IN LINGUISTICS
THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA
OCTOBER, 2018 GOGO FAIRY TALES AS COMMUNICATIVE GENRES
BY
SALAMA RASHID SULEIMAN
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
IN LINGUISTICS
THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA
OCTOBER, 2018 DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I, Salama Rashid Suleiman, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for similar or any other degree award.
Signature………………
No part of this dissertation may be produced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma. If transformed for publication in any other format shall be acknowledged that, this work has been submitted for degree award at the University of Dodoma”.
i CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma, a Dissertation entitled The Gogo Fairy Tales as
Communicative Genres, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts in Linguistics of the University of Dodoma.
…………………………………………….
Dr. Stanislav Beletskiy
(SUPERVISOR)
Date:…………………………….
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The accomplishment of this study is the result of the supervision and assistance I received from numerous people. First of all, I would like to explain my sincere gratitude to the Almighty God for His abundant grace that enabled me to do this study.
Further, my appreciation and grateful thanks go to my Supervisor, Dr. Stanislav
Beletskiy, for his guidance, constant supervision, valuable advice and clarification during all stages of doing this work. His patience, constructive ideas and motivation helped me to complete this dissertation.
Moreover, I would like to express my gratitude to my informants. These are residents of the village of Hombolo and the leader of the village.
I should also thank Dr. Sane, my lecturer and adviser, during the course of conducting this research. He has instilled in me the basic knowledge and skills on how to conduct research in languages. He put, in my mind, the valuable foundation in conducting research.I would also like to send my heartful thanks to my colleagues, particularly Mr. Hashir M. Hashir, Mr. Rashid Suleiman Mohd and Mr.
Hilal Abdul-malik for their constructive comments and ideas on this study. I express my sincere gratitude to my beloved colleagues, for their devoted and faithfully hearts of encouragement during my studies. May our Almighty God bless them!
Finally, my special appreciation goes to my lovely husband, Muhammed H. Swaleh, my son, Suleiman Omar Suleiman, and my daughter, Murshayna Muhammed, for their moral support and for shouldering the most of the home responsibilities during my absence. May Almighty God bless them!
DEDICATION
iii I dedicate this work to my beloved sisters and brothers, Saada Juma Said, Maryam
Rashid Suleiman, Asha Rashid Suleiman, Ghaniya Rashid Suleiman, Amour Rashid
Suleiman, Salum Rashid Suleiman, and Massoud Rashid Suleiman, who paid much attention for me during my school time, and my beloved husband and children who built a bridge for my success in education.
iv ABSTRACT
This study report has shown the findings of the study of the Gogo fairy tales in Gogo community of Dodoma Region. In particular, the study makes a description and analysis of the linguistic practices and language used in Gogo fairy tales. In doing so, the study collected the fairy tales of Gogo community, and creates a data base of
Gogo fairy tales drawing extensively from the theory of communicative genres that helped in the analysis of the linguistic and structural communicative features of
Gogo fairy tales.
Using qualitative research approach, data were generated through interviews, observations, focused group discussions, and audio visual recording. 10 informants
(i.e. 2 males and 8 females) were purposively sampled from Hombolo Village in
Dodoma Urban to inform the research. The analysis of the data obtained revealed that the Gogo fairy tales are rich in linguistic and structural features. These are marked by linguistic structures, like turn-taking, stress, intonation, pitch, overlapping, interactional unit, silence, pauses, strengthening, aspiration, latching, and other parentheses. Other features recognised in Gogo fairy tales are the initiation rituals, the use of songs, feedback, non verbal features and other vocalizations, which are all used to make the completion of the act of narrating the stories.
Further, the study has discovered that the Gogo people have used fairy tales as a tool to create and control morals and customs of their future generations. Generally, the study provides information useful for developing a new understanding of Gogo fairy tales as communicative genre in the field of linguistics. In the end, the study recommends that there is a need of documentation and description of the communicative genres that circulate within societies through their local languages.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... i CERTIFICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiv
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Gogo Language: A Brief Overview ...... 1 1.2.1 Geographical Location ...... 1 1.2.2 Linguistic Classification ...... 3 1.2.3 Dialects in Gogo Language ...... 4 1.2.4 Structural Features ...... 5 1.2.5 Orthography ...... 5 1.2.6 Vowels and Tones ...... 7 1.2.7 Consonants ...... 8 1.2.8 Syllable Structure and Phonetic Changes ...... 10 1.2.9 Nominal Morphology ...... 13 1.2.10 Verbal Morphology ...... 18 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 25 1.4 Objectives of the Study ...... 26 1.5 Research Questions ...... 27 1.6 Significance of the Problem ...... 27 1.7 Scope of the Study ...... 28 1.8 Limitations of the Study ...... 29
vi 1.9 Concluding Remarks ...... 29
CHAPTER TWO ...... 31 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 31 2.1 Introduction ...... 31 2.2 Literature Review ...... 31 2.2.1 The Concept; Meaning and the Importance of Fairy Tales...... 31 2.2.2 Fairy Tales as Folklore Genre ...... 34 2.2.3 Fairy Tales as Literary Genre ...... 36 2.2.4 Fairy Tales as an Object of Linguistic Study ...... 39 2.2.5 Concept Terms ...... 51 2.2.6 Theoretical Framework ...... 53 2.2.6.1 Introduction ...... 53 2.2.6.2 The Theory of Communicative Genres ...... 54 2.2.6.3 The Theory of Conversational Analysis ...... 61 2.2.7 Concluding Remarks ...... 64
CHAPTER THREE ...... 65 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 65 3.1 Introduction ...... 65 3.2 Research Design ...... 65 3.3 Area of the Study ...... 66 3.4 Sample Size and Sample Procedures ...... 68 3.4.1 Purposive Sampling ...... 69 3.4.2 Research Instruments ...... 69 3.5 Techniques and Methods of Data Collection ...... 70 3.5.1 Primary Data ...... 70 3.5.1.1 Interviews ...... 70 3.5.1.2 Focused Group Discussion (FGDs) ...... 71 3.5.1.3 Observations ...... 72 3.5.1.4 Audio Visual Recording ...... 72 3.5.2 Secondary Data ...... 72
vii 3.5.3 Data Analysis Procedures ...... 73 3.5.4 Concluding Remarks ...... 74
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 75 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 75 4.1 Introduction ...... 75 4.2 Data Presentation ...... 76 4.3 Characteristics of Gogo Fairy Tales as Folklore Genre ...... 77 4.4 Data Presentation and Analysis ...... 79 4.4.1 The Internal Structure of Gogo Fairy Tales ...... 80 4.4.1.1 Verbal, Prosodic and Kinetic Features ...... 80 4.4.1.1.1 Patterns of Raising and Falling Utterances ...... 83 4.4.1.1.2 Melodies of Speech ...... 84 4.4.1.1.3 Repetition Markers ...... 85 4.4.1.1.4 The Expressive Signs and Gestilatory Elements ...... 87 4.4.1.1.5 Lexico Semantic Elements ...... 89 4.4.1.1.6 The Morpho-syntactic Devices ...... 90 4.4.1.1.7 Melodic Contours ...... 91 4.4.1.2 Situative Level of Gogo Fairy Tales ...... 92 4.4.1.2.1 The Interactive Features ...... 92 4.4.1.2.2 Interactive Modality Phones ...... 94 4.4.1.2.3 Interactional Sequential Markers ...... 95 4.4.1.2.4 The Conversational Elements and Integral Part Patterns ...... 96 4.4.1.2.5 Non-verbal Communication Flows ...... 98 4.4.1.2.6 The Opened and Closed Markers ...... 100 4.4.1.2.7 Participation Framework and Isomorphic Features ...... 102 4.4.1.2.8 Non-linguistic and social arrangements ...... 103 4.4.1.3 External Structure of Gogo Fairy Tales ...... 104 4.4.1.3.1 Communicative Milieus and Situation ...... 104 4.4.1.3.2 Communicative Actions and Participants‟ Relationship ...... 105 4.4.2 The Gogo fairy tales analysis with the conversational theory ...... 115 4.4.2.1 Turn Taking, Silence and Actions ...... 115
viii 4.4.2.2 Interaction of Openings and Closing Features ...... 117 4.4.2.3 The Analysis of Linguistic and Structural Communicative Features in Gogo Fairy Tales ...... 118 4.4.2.3.1 Suprasegmental Features ...... 119 4.4.2.3.2 Accent, Terminal Pitch and Lengthening Contours ...... 119 4.4.2.3.3 Stress Symbols ...... 121 4.4.2.3.4 Carriage Returns (Intonation Units) ...... 121 4.4.2.3.5 Emphasis Segments ...... 123 4.4.2.3.6 Overlapping Codes ...... 124 4.4.2.3.7 Pauses ...... 125 4.4.2.3.8 Extra Utterances ...... 126 4.4.2.3.9 Raising and Lengthening Segements ...... 127 4.4.2.4 Phonetic Symbols and Prosodic Features in Gogo Fairy Tales ...... 128 4.4.2.4.1 Streches Sequences ...... 128 4.4.2.4.2 Degree Signs ...... 128 4.4.2.4.3 Interruption Codes ...... 129 4.4.2.4.4 Aspiration Signs ...... 130 4.4.2.4.5 Unclear Phrases and Doubts Signs ...... 131 4.4.2.4.6 Other Parentheses ...... 132 4.4.2.4.7 Pitch Signs ...... 133 4.4.2.4.8 Non Linguistic (Structural) Features that Existed in Gogo Fairy Tales... 135 4.4.2.4.9 Initiation and Pre-telling Fragments ...... 135 4.4.2.4.10 Song ...... 136 4.4.2.4.11 The Audience‟s Feed-back Channelling Unit ...... 137 4.4.2.4.12 The Existence of Variation in Performance ...... 138 4.4.2.4.13 Interacting Closing Remarks ...... 139 4.5 Concluding Remarks ...... 139
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 141 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 141 5.1 Introduction ...... 141 5.2 Summary of the Findings ...... 141
ix 5.3 Conclusion and Recommendations ...... 142 REFERENCES ...... 144 APPENDICES ...... 152
x LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1: Number of speakers of Gogo language according to various sources ...... 3 Table 1. 2: Gogo Orthography ...... 6 Table 1. 3: Classification of Gogo vowels ...... 7 Table 1. 4: Classification of Gogo Consonants ...... 9 Table 1. 5: Formation of voiceless nasals in Gogo language ...... 9 Table 1. 6: Gogo Noun Class System ...... 14 Table 1. 7: Structure and Semantics of Demonstratives in Gogo language ...... 17 Table 1. 8: Subject Markers, Personal and Possessive Pronouns in Gogo language ...... 18 Table 1. 9: Order of the Elements in a Verbal Form ...... 20 Table 3. 1: The sample of Dodoma Area ...... 69
xi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3. 1: Administrative Division of Tanzania ...... 67 Figure 3. 2: Dodoma Region ...... 68
xii LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Guiding Questions for Interviews ...... 152 Appendix 2: Leading Questions ...... 154 Appendix 3: Steps in doing Transcription ...... 155 Appendix 4: Diacritics and Structural Features that are Used in Gogo Fairy Tales Transcriptive Analysis: ...... 156 Appendix 5: Linguistic Variations from Gogo Language and Standard Swahili Pronounciation ...... 163 Appendix 6: The Harmonization of Orthography from the Bantu Languages Specific in “Gogo Language” Of Tanzania ...... 164 Appendix 7: The Sample of Data ...... 165
xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1st Pl First person plural
3rd sg Third person singular
APPL Applicative
ASS Associative
AUG Augment
AVR Audio Visual Recording
BVS Basic Verbal Suffix
CAUS Causative
CLT clitics
CP Class Prefix
EXT extensions
FGD FocusedbGroup Discussion
FUT Future tense
FV final vowel
FV Final Vowel
HAB Habitual
I initiator
INF Infinitive
IPA International Phonetic Alphabet
L listener
N narration: (N1=Narration one)
NEG negative marker
NS Noun stem
xiv OM object marker
PASS Passive
POSS Possessive
PRS Present tense
PST Past tense
REC Reciprocal
REF Reflexive
REFL reflexive marker
ROOT root
SM subject marker
STAT Stative
TAM tense-aspect marker F
TCU‟s Turns Constructions Units
TPHC Tanzania Population Housing Census
xv CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the Gogo language. In particular, the chapter informs about the linguistic facts of the Gogo, its classification, its dialects, available publications and the problem that had not yet been studied and documented. Of course, the gap that this dissertation bridges as reflected on the research objectives and questions.
The chapter ends by a description of the rationale of the study.
1.2 Gogo Language: A Brief Overview
This part gives a brief survey of Gogo language: its geographical location, dialects and linguistic features. Previous publications about the language under investigation are also analysed.
1.2.1 Geographical Location
Gogo language is spoken by the Gogo people (Wagogo) which is a society located in Dodoma Region. There are also few Gogo located in Manyoni District of Singida
Region. This is to say that the language is predominantly spoken in the Central
Tanzania covering the areas of Mpwapwa, Chamwino, Kongwa, Bahi, and Dodoma
Urban, and also in Manyoni District of Singida Region. The Gogo land in Dodoma is divided into five (5) parts where the language is used, namely:- the Western part,
Central part, Northern part, Southern part and Eastern (Mnyampala, 1954). The language is typically Bantu (Mnyampala, 1954).
The name Gogo probably originated in 19th Century, from Nyamwezi caravans that crossed through the Region Rigby, 1950 cited in Mnyampala, 1917) states: “From
1 one tradition records that the caravans had given the people of the Region because they used “logs” (Gogo in Swahili) to block the path to water.”
During this time, the communities developed flexible social and productive strategies designed to make life possible in the arid region. Throughout, that time, their political authority in the region was Mtemi or Watemi in clan‟s position. As for the origin of the people, Mnyampala (1954), informs that the origin of Gogo people were from the presence of the Cushitic – speaking groups. This was the time before the coming of other Bantu speakers. It was about the early centuries of 500 A.D. He claimed by saying:
A little direct work has been done on central Tanzania that allow more precise dating of their spread into what became “Ugogo”... while the movement of the first Bantu speakers into Region was about 1300 A.D. The presence of Cushitic languages in neighbouring regions and the association of Gogo clans as indigenous with Cushitic speakers …Began to move into Ugogo (Mnyampala, 1954).
The Cushitic speakers (Kw‟adza) identified themselves using local names
„Wang‟omvia, Wamankala, and Wanyazi.‟ These people were hunters, root digging, agriculture and gathering honey. They were also spoke the language of Waburunge and a group of Cushitic people who lived in the North area (Ehret, 1991). Other people were Wambambali or Wanyenzere, Mbilikimo (Wanghulimba), Wanya- ugogo, Wetumba, Maseya, Takama and Nyambwa. These were migrants who came from western, northern and southern part of Dodoma. Later on Wanguu, Wasagara, and Wakaguru societies, from the eastern part, also migrated to the region
(Balisidya, 1977).
2 Currently, there is no a clear statistics of the actual number of native speakers of
Gogo language, but researchers agree that the population is more than one million native speakers (Ndalahwa, 2002). The statistics is provided in the table below.
Table 1. 1: Number of speakers of Gogo language according to various sources
Source of TPHC Atlasi ya TPHC Ethnologue Political Joshua Population report Lugha za report (2013) map of, Project (Ndalahwa, Tanzania (2012) (Tanzania, (Data, 2002) (2009) 2012) 2018) (Statistics, 2013) Total: 1,692,025 1,023618 2,083,588 1,930,000 1,698,996 2,526,000
1.2.2 Linguistic Classification
Gogo language has been classified in different groups according to numerous scholars. These scholars vary in their system of division. Either, Guthrie (1948) has classified the Gogo language into Zone G (G.11) along with Kagulu which is called
Zone G.12. This normally differs from (Nurse and Philipson, (1999) who categorized it into Western member of the Ruvu language and a sub-group of Great
Ruvu. Within this group of language, there is the existence of Kagulu, Zaramo,
Ruguru, Kami, Kutu, Ci-Vidunda, and Kisagara. Generally, all these languages are found in Zone G in Guthrie classification and in Kagulu is (G.12).
Besides, the scholar Hinnesbusch (1973) investigated the area of Northeast Coast
Bantu whereas in turn, a scholar called Heine (1972) classified the categorization of language with its Southern neighbours into Kihehe and Kibena in a group of a
Gogo–Hehe. Generally, all these classifications can be divided into linguistic criteria
3 rather than geographical boundaries. The more and the best related classification is a division which is divided by Kagulu as classified by (Guthrie, 1948). Gradually, it is better from which Gogo and Kagulu are nearly the same in linguistic perspective.
1.2.3 Dialects in Gogo Language
According to Mnyampala (1954), Gogo language has numerous dialects. Their differences are based on vocabulary, pronounciation, and accent, though they are intelligible to each other. There are five sub-regions in Dodoma; each region is speaking its own dialect. A group of people who live in Western area of Dodoma and half in Manyoni are known as Wanyambwa, and they speak Nyambwa
(Cinyambwa) Dialect. These people are near to Kimbu, Nyaturu, Nyiramba and
Nyamwezi people. They live in the territory of Kinyambwa.
More generally, there is a group of people who live in the Eastern area, and in the centre of Dodoma. These speakers are called Wanya-Ugogo or (Ngogo). It is estimated that, this group is the mother dialect which bears all the other remainings.
The dialect is spoken at the central part of Dodoma, and it is surrounded by hills of
Maseya between Hombolo and the one of Ung‟omvia.
Moved quiet often, there is another dialect that is spoken at the Northern part of
Dodoma by speakers known as Wanya-Maseya (Cinamaseya). These speakers live closer to the Maasai and Sandawe societies. They differ from other dialects due to their specific linguistic features.
4 Another dialect is the one of Wanya-Takama (Cinya-Takama). It is a dialect which mixes Kinyambwa and Kinya-Ugogo. The speakers of this dialect live in the
Southern area of Dodoma and their neighbours are the Hehe.
Finally, is a group of the dialect known as Kozisamba. This dialect is spoken in interior Southern area of Dodoma. The speakers of the dialect live in the South along teh Kizigo river, the areas of Iwimbi, Nyangahi, Mbula, Mutwango, Masukunti,
Iwambara, Mkwambe and very few in Malolo.
Generally, instead of different dialects comprised in the Gogo language, people in their sayings, elegant speech, accent and sound; still, their speech is intelligible to each other.
1.2.4 Structural Features
This section briefly introduces practical orthography, phonological and morphological sketches of Gogo language based on the previous studies published in the forms of monographes and Master dissertations.
1.2.5 Orthography
The practical orthography for Gogo language was designed and developed through
Bible translations of which currently there are four versions: published in the years
1886, 1899, 1962, and 2002 (Dapila, 2008). The newest translation from 2002 is considered to be the standard version of the language and sets up the modern orthography. In other words it creates regular correspondences between sounds of the language and letters to represent them. It is summarized in the table below, as modified from (Rugemalira & Muzale, (2014).
5 Table 1. 2: Gogo Orthography Sound Letter Example Meaning /a/ a gaya get sick /i/ i icisi spirit /u/ u ibulu mouse /e/ e ibeleje dry grain stalk /o/ o longola lead /b/ b bana kick /p/ p pepa smoke (pipe) /m/ m mama grandmother m mh mhogo bracelet /v/ v vunda ferment /f/ f funda instruct /d/ d dima tend /t/ t tima descend /n/ n nembo mark n nh nhembo elephant /z/ z zuka rise from the dead /s/ s suka weave /l/ l luma cut /ɟ/ j jenda walk /c/ c cenga cry /ɲ/ ny nyenye you /ɲ / nyh nyhende gap in teeth /g/ g gola harvest /k/ k kola pass ŋ ng‟ ng'ombe cow ŋ ngh nghambi camp /h/ h heha speak w , β , ʋ/ w winga run after /j/ y yaya his / her mother
6 1.2.6 Vowels and Tones
According to Rugemalira and Phanuel (2009), Gogo language exhibits 5 vowels system that include the most common vowel across languages: /i, e, a, o, u/ that are classified in the table below.
Table 1. 3: Classification of Gogo vowels Front Central Back High i u Mid e o Low a
Vowels can bear tones – high and low. They are not reflected in the orthography, but when necessary, they are indicated with the appropriate diactrics (´ for high and ^ for low tone). The tones can be lexical, in other words, sometimes they distinguish the meaning of two words consisting of the same string of sounds. For example,
(1a) kufú: ta „to be impossible‟
(1b) kufû: ta „wipe‟ (Rugemalira & Phanuel, 2009).
Besides lexical tones, Cinyambwa dialect exhibits grammatical and pragmatical tones. Accroding to Kiruya (2012), the speakers of Cinyambwa place the high tone on the root vowel to mark the remote past, in other words, they assign this grammatical category while placing a high tone to the root of the verb, as in the following examples (Kiruya, 2012: 57-58).
(2) a-gúl-a mtuka wakwe
SM-buy-FV car his
„S he bought her his car‟.
7 The pragmatical function of the tone consists in converting optative form of the verb into a strong command while assigning the high tone to the final vowel, as in the following examples:
(3a) cehee baho „sit there‟
(3b) cehéé baho „sit there (command)‟ (Kiruya, 2012).
Rugemalira and Muzale (2014) points out that the tonal patterns across dialects of
Gogo vary significantly and are the main difference between them. This statement can be backed by the fact discovered by Grosserhode and published in his monograph (Grosserhode, 1998). While analyzing the Mpwapwa dialect he came to the conclusion that Gogo language is experiencing changes in its tonal system. The language is developing stress system to replace the tones and this process is going on with different speed and in different directions in different dialects.
1.2.7 Consonants
According to Rugemalira and Phanuel (2009), the consonant inventory of Gogo language includes 24 sounds. They are represented in the following table.
8 Table 1. 4: Classification of Gogo Consonants Bilabial Labio- Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental voiced b d ɟ g Plosive voiceless p t c k voiced m n ɲ ŋ Nasal voiceless m n ɲ ŋ voiced b v z Fricative voiceless f s h voiced vw Affricate voiceless fw ʣ Approxi ʋ l voiced mant Glide voiced w j
Nasals in Gogo, language appears as voiced and voiceless. The voiceless variants are allophones of voiced counterparts and are in complementary distribution with them. The voiceless nasals appear as the outcome of the collision between homorganic nasal and a voiceless stop that results in consecutive aspiration and destopping: NC > NCh > Nh. This process can be illustrated by the formation of the names of fruits that are derived from the names of trees while prefixing them with the homoorgamic nasal (Beletskiy, 2016).
Table 1. 5: Formation of voiceless nasals in Gogo language
Process Outcome N + k ng‟h mukole „plant‟ ng‟hole „fruit‟ N + p mh mupelemehe „plant‟ mhelemehe „fruit‟ N + t nh mutupa „plant‟ nhupa „fruit‟ N + c ny‟h mucuyu „plant‟ nghuyu „fruit‟
9 1.2.8 Syllable Structure and Phonetic Changes
According to Rugemalira and Muzale (2014), the basic Gogo syllables structure is
CV (4a). However, some modifications of the basic structure are possible. A syllabe can be formed by only one vowel at the beginning of the word (4b), by a nasal and a consonant (4b), by only a nasal when the subsequent vowel is omitted in spoken language (4c), by a consonant, a nasal and a vowel (4d) by a consonant, a glide and a vowel (4e):
(4a) ku.hu.li.ci.za
CV.CV.CV.CV.CV
„to listen‟
(4b) u.mu.bi.ci
V.NV.CV.CV
„at to near the tree‟
(4c) u.m.bi.ci
V.N.CV.CV
„at to near the tree‟
(4d) mu.gu.nda
CV.CV.NCV
„field‟
(4e) ku.lya
CV.CGV
„to eat‟
10 Gogo language does not permit sequences of vowels (VV) and sequences of consonants (CC). To splite these sequences when they emerge as a result of morphological changes several strategies are employed that will be further be referred to and described as phonetic changes. Either phonetic changes are „fairly small changes in the phonetic realization of certain segments‟ (Trask, 1996). Chipalo distinguishes the following changes: 1) palatalization, 2) vowel harmony, 3) elision,
4) gliding (Chipalo, 2012).
1. Palatalization is „the phenomenon in which a segment whose primary articulation is at some other location is articulated with a secondary articulation involving the raising of the front of the tongue toward the palate‟ (Trask, 1996). In Gogo, language velar plosives /k/ and /g/ become palatalized when preceded by front vowels /i/ and /e/ and result in palatal sounds /c/ and /ɟ/ respectively. These changes take part in the prefix of noun class 7 that is „ci‟ in Gogo and in applicative forms of verbs after suffix -il-/-el-, for example:
(5a) tug-a tuj-il-a
get-FV get-APPL-FV
„get‟ „get on behalf of someone‟
(5b) fik-a fic-il-a
arrive-FV arrive-APPL-FV
„arrive‟ „arrive at‟ or „meet‟
2. Vowel harmony is „the phenomenon, occurring in some languages, in which only certain combinations of the language‟s vowel phonemes are permitted to occur within some specified phonological domain, most usually those which agree
11 (harmonize) in respect of one or more phonetic features, such as [back], [round], or
[ATR]‟ (Trask, 1996). In Gogo, verbs the quality of the stem vowel determines the quality of the vowel in the extensions: the mid vowels /o/ and /e/ cause the mie vowel /e/ in extensions (6a, b), high /i/ and low /a/ in stem cause the high /i/ in extensions (6c, d).
(6a) gomol-a gomol-el-a
return-FV return-APPL-FV
„return‟ „return for‟
(6b) cem-a cem-el-a
call-FV call-APPL-FV
„call‟ „call for‟
(6c) gaw-a gaw-il-a
distribute-FV distribute-APPL-FV
„distribute‟ „distribute to for‟
(6d) hiz-a hiz-il-a
steal-FV steal-APPL-FV
„steal‟ „steal for‟
3. Elision is „any of various processes in which phonological material is lost from a word or phrase‟(Trask, 1996). In Gogo, language the elision involves vowels in verbal agreement prefixes when they are followed by some of tense-aspect markers:
(7a) cabita [ci-a-bit-a]
1PL-PST-GO-FV
„we went‟
12 (7b) yaza [ya-á-z-a]
3SG-PST-COME-FV
„s he came‟
(7c) cogula [ci-o-gul-a]
1PL-FUT-BUY-FV
„we will buy‟
4. Gliding is a formation of a glide that is „a very brief phonetic vowel which functions in some languages as a phonological consonant‟ (Trask, 1996). In Gogo, language the high vowels /i/ and /u/ form glides /j/ and /w/ respectively when they are followed by a not identical vowel, for examples:
(8a) kwimba [ku-imb-a]
INF-SING-FV
„to sing‟
(8b) kung‟wa [ku-ng‟u-a]
INF-DRINK-FV
„to drink‟
1.2.9 Nominal Morphology
The term morphology refers to the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure, and how they are formed (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011). Besides, the nominal morphology concerns with the structural and agreement patterns of nominal parts of speech and their formation to accomplish. The key element of Bantu nominal morphology is the class
13 marker – actually it is a functional morpheme that can be prefixed to a nominal, adjectival or pronominal stem so as to make the agreement and concord with the head word within a nominal phrase. Either, in this case the structure of Bantu nominal parts of speech can be described as pre-prefix + prefix + stem while pre- prefix is found not in all languages and if they can be found than so far its use is being governed by pragmatical reasons rather than by purely morphological rules.
According to Rugemalira (2009), the noun class system of Gogo can be summarized in the following table.
Table 1. 6: Gogo Noun Class System Nominal Pronominal Object Possessive Class Example Meaning Prefix Prefix Marker -a 1 munhu person mu (y)a mu wa 2 wanhu people wa wa wa wa 3 mubici tree mu u u wa 4 mibici trees mi i i ya 5 itunda mountain i/li li li lya 6 matunda milima ma ga ga ga 7 cinhu thing ci ci ci ca 8 vinhu things vi vi vi vya 9 mhene goat n i i ya 10 mihene goats n zi zi za 10a zingwagu *firewoods zi zi zi za 11 lugwagu firewood lu lu lu lwa 14 wudoba laziness wu u u wa 15 kulima cultivating ku ku ku kwa 16 hacanyha on top ha ha ha ha 17 kumubici to the tree ku ku ku kwa 18 mumalenga in water mu mu ha mwa
14 Odd classes represent nouns in singular forms; even classes represent corresponding plural forms. The basic semantics of the classes can be represented with these examples: classes 1/2 – this normally are used for nouns which are associating with people, classes 3/4 – stand to represent the actual uses for plants, classes 5/6 – affirm to fruits, classes 7/8 – function to represent body parts things, 9/10/10a – stand for animals and various things (default classes), classes 11 and 14 – can be associated with the abstract nouns with generalized meaning, 15 – substantivized infinitives, classes 16, 17, 18 – are more useful for locatives. Sometimes, because of pragmatical reasons, nouns are used with the pre-prefixes that are vowels /u/ (used before prefixes containing this vowel) and /i/ (in other cases).
In addition, noun classes are also called agreement classes as they determine the way a noun would agree to other parts of speech, according to its class. Nominal prefixes are used with noun and adjectival stems (9a), pronominal prefixes are used with verbs (9b), demonstratives (9c), possessives (9d), relative -ono (9e) and universal -ose (9f) pronouns.
(9a) mu-nhu mu-waha wa-nhu wa-waha
1CL-PERSON 1CL-BIG 2CL-PERSON 2CL-BIG
„big person‟ „big people‟
(9b) li-bwe li-ku-z-a liwafuniceni [li-wa-funik-eni]
7SM-STONE 7SM-PRS-COME-FV 7SM-OM-COVER-SUFF
„if the stone falls down it will squash all of you‟
15 (9c) ng‟-ombe i-yo
9SG-COW 9SG-DEM1
„that cow‟
(9d) i-kaburi lyao [li-ao]
5CL-GRAVE 5CL-THEIR
„their grave‟
(9e) li-tuwa lyono [li-ono] si-li nyal-ag-a
5CL-FLOWER 5CL-WHICH NEG-BE DRY_UP-HAB-FV
„a flower that never withers‟
(9f) wa-nhu wose [wa-ose] wa-wa-lya ishirini ne [na i-] hano
2CL-PERSON 2CL-ALL 2CL-2CL-DEM4 TWENTY AND 9AUG FIVE
„all those twenty five people‟
Besides, the Gogo demonstratives are organized into four series whose semantics and structure can be summarized in the table below (Rugemalira & Muzale, 2014).
16 Table 1. 7: Structure and Semantics of Demonstratives in Gogo language
Serie Semantics Structure Example mubici wuwu Proximal: very close to the 1 prefix+prefix+u (mu)bici (wu)w+u speaker (CL3) wanhu wawano (wa)nhu 2 Proximal: close to the speaker prefix+prefix+no (wa)wa+no „these people‟ (CL2) siku yiyo Distal: close to the hearer, far 3 prefix+prefix+o (si)ku (yi)y+o from speaker „that day‟ (CL9) Distal: far from both speaker nzoka lililya and hearer; referencial: for (n)zoka (li)li+lya 4 mentioning something that is prefix+prefix+lya „that (mentioned) not visible but known by both snake‟ (CL9) speaker and hearer
The table above contains full forms of demostratives; however, they are often shortened while replacing the first prefix with the morpheme “a” (mubici awu, wanhu awano, siku ayo, nzoka alilya).
The table below summarizes personal pronouns, subject markers and possessive pronouns of Gogo language.
17 Table 1. 8: Subject Markers, Personal and Possessive Pronouns in Gogo language Number Person Personal Subject Possessive Pronoun Marker 1 nene n -angu Sg 2 gwegwe u -ako (singular) 3 mwene ya -akwe 1 ase ci -etu Pl 2 anye mu -enyu (plural) 3 weneco wa -ao
1.2.10 Verbal Morphology
Morphology refers to the mental system involved in word formation, or the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure, and how they are formed
(Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011). In other side, verbal morphology is the analysis of verbs and its internal structure. Gogo language is like any other Bantu languages, it has a tendency of attaching a number of affixes in verbal roots. This particularly can be attached before and after the verb roots to convey different and numerous meanings. The term is seen to be very complex under a certain regular system of uses. The Gogo language has universal categories of verb extensions as other Bantu languages. However, it can be described and categorized according to semantic category. According to Hyman (2007) has further asserted that those verbal suffixes which are also called extensions, most frequently, have what would be identified as derivational functions. Again, this is to describe that the verb extensions always do not change the category of the words in which they are attached with. Instead, they are considered to have derivational property. Booij (2007) pointed out that the extension refers to the criterion to start with for categorizing verb extensions in
18 derivational morphology. Hyman (2007), while reconstructing the nature of verb unit in Proto-Bantu, has observed the elements such as obligatory verb root or radical, optional extensions or derivational suffixes and the obligatory inflectional of final vowel.
Though, the verb extensions have an ability to create different semantic sub- categories of the verbs in which they are attached to.
Hence, the structure of Bantu languages specifically Gogo verbs can be included the following elements and particles which are also realized in width range of patterns in the following order: the negative marker (NEG), subject marker (SM); tense-aspect marker (TAM); object marker (OM); reflexive marker (REFL); root (ROOT); extensions (EXT); final vowel (FV); clitics (CLT).
The table below illustrates the use of the structural elements within a verbal form in
Gogo language.
19 Table 1. 9: Order of the Elements in a Verbal Form NEG SM TAM OM REFL ROOT EXT FV CLT Si Ya Ku Wa lunj [lung] Il a S/he is not concealing them. I Ku Ci lanj [lang] Il a It [the story] teaches us. Ci lec [lek] El E If we let [the stone fall down]. c [ci] Olo gum il-w a We will be thrown. vy [vi] e [a- -i] lund Ik a They [animals] came to a meeting. Ci M cem a Je What should we say to him/her?
Negative marker is used to negate the meaning of the verbal form. It has only one form “si” and is always prefix to the subject marker. Examples:
(1a) Zuwalili sinobita kumgunda
Zuwalili si-n-o-bita ku-m-gunda.
TODAY NEG-1SG-FUT-GO CL18-CL3-FIELD
“Today I won‟t go to the farm”
(1b) Aysha siyanozize usafi kuchumba
Aysha si-ya-nozize usafi kuchumba
AYSHA NEG 1SG-PST-DO CL14-CLEAN-CL17-ROOM
“Aysha didn‟t do the clean in her room”
Subject marker coordinates verbal form and the subject of phrase, or sentence. The subject marker denotes the noun class of the subject in case of nouns which are not
20 animated (see Table 6) or person and number in case of animated nouns (see Table
8). Examples:
(1a) Askari analinda lindo lya usiku a-skari a-n-a-linda lindo lya usiku
1CL-POLICE 1CL-1SG-PST-GUARD 5CL-GUARD 16CL-OF 14CL-NIGHT
“A police is guarding the night shift”
(1b) Zabibu nzuri zimeozea kushamba
Zabibu n-zuri zi- me- ozea kushamba
8CL-GRAPE 8CL-GOOD 8CL-PRS-DESTROY 17CL-FARM
“Good grapes are destroying in farm”
Tense-aspect marker indicates tense and/or aspect that might be associated with a certain tense. According to Cordell (1941) Gogo language possesses the following tense-aspect markers:
ku for present tense (u-ku-bita „you are going‟);
a for past (yabita [ya-a-bita] „s he went‟);
ka for narrative past (ya-ka-bita „and then s he went‟);
Ø for near past (wa-Ø-bita „they have gone‟);
o for near future (n-o-bita „I will go‟);
olo for remote future (n-olo-bita „I will [probably] go [in the remote
future]‟).
Object marker indicates the object that might or might not be introduced with a noun. The forms of the OB reflect the noun class of the object (see Table 6).
Examples:
21 (1a) Wanhu wanalinda
Wa-nhu wa-n-a linda
2CL-PERSON 2CL-2PL-PST GUARD
“People were guarded”
(2b) Mubici mswanu
Mu-bici m-swanu
3CL-TREE 3CL-GOOD
“A good tree”
Reflexive marker (k)-i indicates the reflexive nature of an action; that is, the action is being done by the doer to him / herself. Examples:
(1a) Yakugogomoka
Ya-k-u-gogomoka
1CL-Ø-RM-2SG-PRS-VOMMIT
S/he is vomiting to him/herself.
(2b) Yakiandichela baluwa
Ya-ki-a-ndichela baluwa
1CL-Ø-RM-3SG-PST-WRITE-7SG-LETTER
S/he has wrote a letter for him/her
A root contains the lexical meaning of the verbal phrase and is the structural center to which other components of languages are prefixed or suffixed. Examples:
(1a) Yakamnugulilya inumba mafwifwi
Ya-ka-m-nu[gulil]ya i-numba ma-fwifwi
1CL-PST-1CL-BUY 9CL-BIRD 8PL-FOOD
22 S/he has bought the bird a food
(2b) Yakanisolela ndigwa nene
Ya-ka-ni [solel]a ndigwa nene
1CL-PST-1SNG-TAKE FOOD 1CL-ME
“S he went to take the food for me”
Extensions: the term refers to all the posts-radical or pre-final elements of a verbal stem (Miehe, 1989). The description of verbal extensions in Gogo language goes in hand with the verbal derivation. Potentially, Gogo language is like any other Bantu languages has an attribute of attaching a large number of affixes before and after the verb roots. This is done for the purpose of conveying numerous meanings as follow:
Applicative construction: Applicatives can be defined as specific grammatical elements, verbal affixes that increase valence (Shibatani, 1996). Constantly, the
Gogo language uses the applicative markers of (el- or -il). In this, therefore, the system guides by verb suffixations that are controlled by the rule of vowel harmony.
Substantially, the roots with vowels [e] and [o] take –el- whereby those verb roots with vowels [a], [i] and [u] take –il-. Such examples: e, o =el (yakuhela – yakuhelela), a, i, u= il (kwamila –kwamilila).
Causative construction: Causative extension refers to the indication that cause to do or cause to be (Lodhi, 2012). Whenever the causative particle is attached to a verb in
Gogo language, it either adds more meaning or brings changes to the argument of particular verb. It has also the characteristic of using a new argument to the syntactic framework in their forms and semantic roles. Indeed, the most frequently causative
23 particles for Gogo language are two. Namely: [i]- and [is]. Such examples are words like: vaa-val-i-a and fu- is- a.
Stative construction: this is the type of extension which allocates the position or posture (Lodhi, 2012). In Gogo language, verbs can be suffixed using the particles
[ik] and [ek] for stative extension. Further, this exists with the semantic notion of being in a position or possibility of the action verb upon its object. To be sure, the suffixes [ik] and [ek] are determined by vowel coalescence depending on the verb root vowel. These examples provide more illustrations for such description: ikusumikana =i-ku-sum-ik-an-a and ukutemekana=u-ku-tem-ek-a-na.
Passive construction: The term indicates a form of the subject acted upon by an agent (Lodhi, 2012). In Gogo language, the passive is morphologically indicated by the representation of a pre-final element (suffix) [w]. Slightly, the analysis of verbs structures in Gogo language shows that passive extension is only applicable to the canonical verb structure consonant, vowel consonant (CVC), also syntactically restricted to transitive verbs. In co-occurrence with other particles, the passive extension actually occupies the position of the last slot in a sequence of several extensions. Like: sola-sol-w-a and ndijite-ndijit-w-e.
Associative construction: the related form of this extension indicates two or more subjects associated in action (Lodhi, 2012). In fact, the associative extension in
Gogo language is formed by the parameter of [an] to the verb root. The application to the verbs in Gogo language aims at expressing the concept of association or togetherness of action doers or agents. In that case, the reflexive marker must be used with plural subject markers. The reciprocal verbs require more than one agent
24 which at the same time are said to be mutual patients of those verbs, examples: wakubananila mpira = wa-ku-bana-an-il-a m-pira and wakutanilanila hamonga = wa-ku-tanil-an-il-a hamonga.
Generally, it is confirmed that Gogo language has verb extensions which are used to increase or change the number and or roles of participants of verbs. Thus, with such cases, the verb extension is treated as a derivational property in Gogo language in a verb morphology.
Final vowel: this is a final morpheme that exists after a root of a verb which functions to accomplish the intended meaning of the action (Pius, 2015). In Gogo language the final vowel is „a‟ fuka=fuk-a and lunda=lund-a.
Clitics: refers to the elements that prefixed to the verb stem (Gunnink, 2018). It is generally used as independent syntactic constituents that appear phonologically as part of a host word or derived word. In Gogo language clitics obviously can be seen in words like:
(1a) Ci-m-cem-a=je?
1PL-OM-SAY-FV=WHAT
„What should we say to him‟
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Although, Gogo language is vigorous and has a big number of speakers, there are still few publications about it. The available works include:
One trilingual (Gogo-Swahili-English) dictionary (Rugemalira, 2009)
Two grammar descriptions: one reference grammar (Botne, 1980)
25 One unpublished sketch (Rugemalira & Muzale, 2014)
Two monographs: one about tone and stress in Gogo (Grosserhode, 1998),
another about oral literature of Gogo people (Balisidya, 1977)
8 Master dissertations: four of them addressed the morphology of Gogo
language (Chipalo, 2012; Goliama, 2011; Rossel, 1988; Sakaya, 2011) and
one examined the tone of Cinyambwa Dialect of Gogo language (Kiruya,
2012) while, another three examine sociolinguistical issues of Gogo
language such as language attrition (Utamwa, 2016), ritual communication
(Chilongali, 2016) and usage of proverbs.
The researcher is also aware of the four translations of the Bible into Gogo language that were published in the years 1886, 1899, 1962, 2002 (Dapila, 2008).
The published works hardly cover two of the three areas of language documentations –grammar and vocabulary – leaving the third aspect – collection of texts – blank. With this study, the researcher covers this area through a collection of traditional Gogo narratives (fairy tales) followed by a description of their linguistic and communicative features. However, it should be noted that the Bible cannot be treated as a collection of texts for this language because it is a translation and not an authentic Gogo texts.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are divided into the general objective, which gives the over-all idea of the research, and the specific objectives, which highlight the specific areas studied in this research.
26 Through this study, the researcher generally describes and analyzes the linguistic practices of fairy tales of Gogo language. This is well achieved through the following specific objectives:
Specifically the study aimed to:
i. To collect fairy tales in Gogo language
ii. To create the data base of Gogo fairy tales
iii. To provide overview on the theory of communicative genres
iv. To analyze the linguistic and structural communicative features of Gogo
fairy tales
1.5 Research Questions
This dissertation provides answers to the following research questions:
i. What are the fairy tales of Gogo community?
ii. What do Gogo traditional fairy tales mean?
iii. What is the theory of communicative genre?
iv. What is the importance of fairy tales for Gogo generations and why the fairy
tales are not working properly to Gogo generations nowadays?
1.6 Significance of the Problem
This study aims at analyzing and describing Gogo narrations (fairy tales) as spoken genres. It was focused on the specific area of fairy tales. It is clear that, the study showed the direct effectiveness in linguistic knowledge which is concerning with how Bantu languages are structured.
27 Furthermore, the study has two sides these are:- the first area is concerned with the findings that are based on the study. In this area, the researcher helped to provide a review of publications about the Gogo language which have not been documented before. Either, it is expected that the collective of Gogo fairy tales can be useful guide and a core economic structures for other people to understand some aspects about the Gogo language.
The other aspect is about the findings of the study which provide a reference to linguists who are interested in doing research about Bantu languages specifically in linguistic analysis of fairy tales. This is because; the findings of this study have created a data base and documentary on fairy tales in Gogo language. In doing so, it has provided a review of publications about fairy tales. Consequently, the study provides help and motivational power to promote the people who want to engage in traditional narrations of Bantu languages using their local languages. Similarly, it has provided a contribution in linguistic knowledge, showing a starting point and indicating further study in other areas that have not been studied yet.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study was conducted in the rural area of Gogo community of Dodoma. This study substantiated and explored the language used in traditional narratives.
However, the study does not show all Gogo traditional narratives of spoken genres.
Rather, it has limited itself in investigating the nature of fairy tales of communicative system. Above all, the general argument and focus was done on specific area of fairy tales. Indeed, it was investigating the nature of fairy tales and its direct effectiveness in linguistic knowledge. The study was carried out in one
28 District which is Hombolo in the Municipal of Dodoma Region. The researcher chose the village because of its indigenous and actual speakers of Gogo language compared to the other areas. Therefore, in this area is suitable for this research due to elders and other common people of high ranks (village leaders) are lived.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
In summary of this study, the researcher faced several problems in such away that, thie situation caused the work to delay. The main challenge was concerned with the culture of the Gogo community towards strangers in Hombolo Village. Thereby, this applied in the process of availability of pure and natural data. The situation was very worst and difficult to due to their norms, attitudes, views and perspectives.
Another challenge was about the data (narrations) obtained from the field were based on a matter of local language (Cigogo). This caused difficulties for a researcher to understand and interprete them, due to, she is a non native speaker of
Gogo language.
1.9 Concluding Remarks
The chapter has explained the main intention of the study. It started by providing back-ground information of the Gogo language and its speakers in brief overview as well as the status of linguistic research in the related language. Again, it explained the geographical location, linguistic classification, dialects of Gogo language and its structural features, orthography, vowels and tones, consonants, syllable structure and phonetic changes, nominal morphology and verbal ones.
29 Thoroughly, the chapter has introduced the research problem together with the objectives of the study and research questions. Eventually, the chapter has ended by showing the justification of the study with some challenges that a researcher encountered during undertaking data in the study.
30 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter provided a ground on short historical information about the
Gogo language. This chapter now presents the literature review and the theoretical framework that is guided the study. Indeed, it focuses on what other scholars have done on the study about Gogo language. The discussion either develops the definition of fairy tales, concept of fairy tales, structure of fairy tales, and the earlier studies on fairy tales, examples of fairy tales as a communicative genre aspect as well as giving out findings from other researcher‟s works.
Meanwhile, in theoretical frame work, the chapter provides a clear description on the theories. These are:- the theory of communicative genre and the theory of conversational analysis. These two theories have been used in this study because they are both are relating to the study of communicative analysis of Gogo fairy tales.
These theories provided a great contribution and guidance to this study. Finally, a conclusion has been drawn which is based on what the reviewed works have revealed.
2.2 Literature Review
2.2.1 The Concept; Meaning and the Importance of Fairy Tales
Conceptually, according to Balisidya (1977), fairy tales are traditional narrations that provide morals and have been received orally from generation to generation. Of course, Elcin (2013) defined fairy tale as a story which teaches a lesson while containing a moral lesson in itself. In addition, a scholar August (1991) has states
31 that the fairy tales are reflections of the social order in a given historical epoch, and as such represent and symbolize the aspirations, needs, dreams, and wishes of common people in tribes, community or society. Perhaps, a fairy tale exists for the purpose of affirming the dominance of social values and norms and reveals the necessity to change them. The storyteller adopts the devices of verbal magic, the animate forces ascribed to the world of fairy tales as a genre. Yet, they were fluid conversations and events that appeared in the past centuries. A story like: potato soup “Is a true story that was based on real-life which considers the real life of poverty and starvation with dysfunctional of families. Of course, they were dramatized the ordinary circumstances of daily sufferings, needs, desires, and dangers which they faced.
More general, the fairy tales are imaginative stories that are told to children as a means of entertainment and as a medium of teaching moral values (Rahizam, 2008).
Potentially, fairy tales were received and narrated using oral form and they stay for a long time.
In Gogo society the concept of fairy tales are characterized by two narrators. The first one is who has the responsibility of creating the community rules and prohibitions according to Gogo norms and culture. Likewise, the second narrator is one who is narrating the tales to people from one generation to the other (Balisidya,
1977). They have direct chronological events and they are very short. In traditional sense, most of the times Gogo fairy tales contain songs which have a full message of the story. Thereafter, the characters of Gogo fairy tales are mostly animals that carry human beings attributes. However, sometimes they vary. Indeed, they may be devils,
32 or other non-existing creatures like dragons and ghosts. This was purposely done in order to avoid confrontations in the society of common people.
Constantly, fairy tale is the most important communicative genres in reflecting the children sensitivity, feeding children‟s souls, enriching the imagination and preparing the future. To a large extent, societies used them as instruments of training in the past and they still have the same function today. Again, scholars confirm that fairy tales have a special position in teaching reading, writing, speaking and listening skills to children. In this way, they can exploit teaching in various talents, fluency, diversity and politeness in the mother tongue (Boratav, 1973). On the other hand fairy tales can contribute to the understanding of children‟s inner life.
According to Yassin, (2015), fairy tales are important be taught to children because they teach them the way of challenging in life and overcoming the problems, acting independently and living in harmony with nature. They also contribute to personality development in children. They can express themselves comfortably; search for the love they desire and make them softened in conflicts.
According to Biechonski (2004), the fairy tales offer the possibility to view the imagination as a defensive mechanism or distortion of reality. Again, they can similarly offer more positive perspective through the expression of creativity and health. By working with adults using hypo therapy of fairy tale unconscious can be accessed to facilitate personality integration. Besides, fairy tales have endless amount of possibility. They are full of wonder and magic hope, that they make us to believe that the best can actually happen (Babauta, 2015).
33 2.2.2 Fairy Tales as Folklore Genre
The term folklore refers to the knowledge and skills that people have acquired about the world and societies themselves that have not learn in schools or textbooks.
Scholars asserted that “we learn folklore from each other” (Sims & Stephens, 2005).
It is the informally learned, un-official knowledge that people share with peers, families and other groups we belong to. Substantially, the folklore is informally learned, un-official knowledge about the world of ourselves, communities, beliefs, cultures and traditions, that are expressed creatively using words, music, customs, actions, behaviors and materials (Sims and Stephens, 2005). In other side folklore is, understood as customs, stories, rituals and traditions, is a useful lens through which to look at disparate cultures (Samora, 2011). Its origin exists from cultures and human existence, and these stories validate and justify the status quo and serve to develop stability and agreed culture.
Substantially, they serve to teach the culture to the young, conforming to mores and accepted patterns of positive behaviours. Besides, folklore enables human beings to deal with the repressive nature of the dominant culture (Georges & Jones, 1995).
Folklore similarly provides the form of interacting the dynamic process of creating things, communicating on between people, and performing to events as people are sharing their knowledge with other groups. In addition, fairy tales is one of the several genres by which folk narrative tradition is classified. Either, folklore is used primarily as a means of communication while it is as communication that it needs to be studied (Arewa & Dundes, 1984).
Genre is one of the fundamental concepts of folklorists, reminding us about the vernacular orality takes traditional forms. Genres are produced and reproduced and
34 changed over time (Orlikowski & Yates, 2002). These changes have often been established the new genre may emerge. Either, fairy tale provides a gap that bound the ties of society together and it is a bound typing of texts. In sofar from that concept a fairy tale could be considered as a sort of homogeneous within the greater space of folklore. So far, it is a kind of narrative as folklore therefore it shares certain number of folklores qualities.
The very clear cut distinction between these two is:- aside of folklore should base on society belief, historical and cultural context of the storyteller and listeners‟ sphere.
Henceforth, they are prose which are narrated and regarded as fiction. In this remarkable therefore, they are removed from their original contexts and re-framed in a literary sphere. In the face of fairy tales work to tell a story concerns figures, phenomena, situations, beliefs and other supernatural things with realistic boundaries and daily life.
Because, folklore contains the people‟s body of culture that are shared by a particular group of people in certain society. It, therefore, encompasses the people traditions common to that culture and subculture group in certain tribes. Yet, the nearly relationship is in fairy tales include the material things in culture which are ranging from traditional building styles to the people in society. It similarly has the ability to the forms of rituals of celebrations and initiation rites. Normally, these essentials are often then be transmitted from one generation to another either by single person or group in the society.
35 2.2.3 Fairy Tales as Literary Genre
The fairy tale began hundreds if not thousands of years ago as an oral form of storytelling and narrations that were created by adults, who told all kinds of tales in diverse settings in which adults‟ village leaders and determined the forms and contents. They told tales to communicate important information (Jack, 2011).
Gradually, many researchers did different studies about the fairy tales in relation to the genre. In Europe and North America, communities developed various modes of storytelling by different dialects closely connected to their customs, laws, morals and their own beliefs. In this time, the narrative element issues begin from the real life experiences and customs of social classes.
Scholars, like Charles Perrault and Jean de Mailly (1890 Cited in Bottigheimer,
2002) asserted that in the (1700‟s), had contributed much to the fairy tales to be a genre. From this point of view in 1720 fairy tale was institutionalized to be a fully genre and was fully focused on children views in all areas. Perrault and Mailly have suggested that: “Any fairy tale however varied in length it should be about 10-60 pages and most of them should address to the children.”
In such cases, the structure of narrating enables the listener to recognize, store, remember, and reproduce the stories and make changes in order to fit in the daily experiences and desires. Certainly, they are acceptable fairy tales to be as a genre.
Thereafter, fairy tales underwent shifted in the 19th century to children in all nations in Europe and North American. Yet, they were carefully monitored and censored till
1820‟s; however, the collections were based on the upper class children. In this time,
36 Brothers Grimm in Wihelm revised their collections of children‟s and household tales (Grimm, 1815) and made them more clearly for children.
Later, the writers, like:- Decameron (1991) in his book called “Boccaccio:
Decameron” and Chaucer (1981) in his book Canterbury Tales have been established the fairy tales to be an independent and a literary genre.“…stabilized genre, novella these short narratives are set in sequence by an organizing frame or cornice which transforms a mixed bag of tales into a unitary work of art.”
Bettelheim (1976) conducted a study about the most comprehensive guidance to interpreting fairy tales with his The Uses of Enchantment. This work provides in depth psycho-analytical discussion of what role disenchantment plays in various fairy tales. He discusses specific fairy tales, and his analysis relies heavily on psychosexual interpretations. Either, he devoted to the concept of animal-groom cycles in fairy tales. Bettelheim explains that:
“The prince and princess getting married and inheriting the kingdom, ruling it in peace and happiness, symbolizes to the child the highest possible form of existence because this is all that he desires for himself, to run his kingdom-his own life- successfully, peacefully, and to be happily united with the most desirable partner who will never leave him”. The Bettelheim‟s explanation accounts for the why numerous fairy tales revolve around the characters and then becoming disenchanted when someone tries to find a true love.
Another scholar Zipes (1975), who did extensive research on the subject of fairy tales, takes an entirely different approach in understanding fairy tales. He interprets fairy tales in terms of the socio-political context in which they were written.
37 He believes that:“Enchantment equals petrifaction. Breaking the spell equals emancipation,” (Spells of Enchantment xv)
This view is existing as one that is pervasive throughout his extensive writings. In such cases, Zipes maintains that fairy tales are a product of the culture in which they were written, so they reflect the socio-political values of that culture.
Extremely, Zipes alludes to the use of disenchantment by stating that:
“In transcending the limits and springing the confines of their own society with magic, fairy tales provide insight on how the rationalization process of exploitative socio-economic systems need to be and can be humanized” (Zipes, 1975). He views the use of disenchantment in fairy tales as a way of depicting on how the lower class seven (7) can be transformed in order to seize power as monarchs (Zipes,
1975). In addition, the researchers Siegel and Mc. Daniel (1994), have discussed the psychosocial interpretation of the popular fairy tales. They talked about the variations that existing in the fairy tales. Siegel and Mc Daniel account for these discrepancies with the argument that; Grimm Brothers edited and reinforce certain mores and cultural biases. Any explicitly sexual, erotic or physical intimate portrays were transformed so as to be acceptable to prevailing Victorian sensibilities (Siegel
& Mc Daniel, 1994).
Substantially, they emphasize on violence as a key of disenchanting a character.
Moreover, it confines in a matter of empirical issue and then, they suggested that through fairy tales the violence is the only solution in the violent method of disenchantment. The result noticed that, it is very necessary to rid character of the evil part of his nature, leaving him with good that is inside him (Siegel and Mc
Daniel).
38 2.2.4 Fairy Tales as an Object of Linguistic Study
As it has been demonstrated in the previous sections, fairy tales have been studied extensively by folklorists, anthropologists and literature scholars, but they are also of a great interest for linguists. Meanwhile in the present study the author relies heavily on the research done by Russian linguists in (Koval, 2005) on African fairy tales that were published in a three-volume work entitled “African Folktales” (Issue I – 1984, issue II – 1997, and Issue III – 2005). Generally, in these publications authors analyse the peculiarities of the language used for narrating fairy tales as well as provide original texts supplemented with annotations and translations. In sofar, the linguistic features of Bantu languages unveiled in “African Folktales” were explicitly summarised by Irina Toporova (2012) in her monograph “Studies on
Bantu Folktales Typology”. The author analyses data of the following languages:
Gusi (JE42), Dabida (G21), Kuria (JE43), Laadi (H16f), Luguru (G35), Ngindo
(P14), Nyakyusa (M31), Pogoro (G51), Zulu (S42) in the following domains: topics, style and vocabulary, composition, and syntax. These domains are being explained in more details below.
Topics reflect the stages of folklore development at which a given fairy tale can be placed based on the presence of archaic or elaborated elements. Archaic elements are mythical in their nature and can be tracked on the topical level. Either an archaic fairy tale may address such topics as etiology (a mythical explanation of the natural phenomena), cannibalism, totemic believes, ancestor worship, magical and ritual activities, marriage between people and animals, spirits, and the cultural hero (a character who changes the world through invention or discovery, sometimes a legendary figure) (Toporova, 2012). A study added on the elaborated, or developed,
39 stories show demythologization. In other words, they lack etiology, totemic believes and ancestor worship as well as fixed opening sentences. To be sure they are characterised by the use of direct speech, personal names, moral ending and facts of modern life. In fact, the style of developed fairy tales is elaborated. However, the texts are full of idioms, synonyms, reduplications and tautologies, but their syntax and grammar are noticeably simpler rather than grammar and syntax of archaic texts
(Toporova, 2012). Let us discuss the linguistic items found across the data while describing the next domain – style and vocabulary.
First of all, developed Bantu fairy tales are characterized by the use of a wide range of expressive means: idiomatic and vivid expressions, lexical tautology, reduplication, and idiophones.
Idiomatic and vivid expressions are used by narrators to increase expressiveness of the story and to achieve higher stylistic impression, for example:
(1a) it-a ri-so nse [Gusi]
HIT-FV CL7-EYE DOWN
„to look down‟
(Idiomatic expression increasing expressiveness)
(1b) tiy-a mo-tema [Lingala]
SEND-FV CL3-HEART
„to love‟
(vivid expression increasing stylistic impression if compared with the
verb -linga „to love‟) (Toporova, 2012).
40 Lexical tautology is the repetition of a word or its part. Tautology is used to emphasize a certain meaning and or to create rhythm of narration (Toporova, 2012).
The repeated element can be a noun following a verb (1a), a verb following a noun
(1b), a finite verb following an infinitive (1c), an infinitive following a finite verb
(1d), an adverb or an idiophone following a verb (1e), for example:
(1a) ko-solol-a ma-solo [Lingala]
INF-CONVERSE-FV CL4-CONVERSATIONS
„to have a conversation‟
(1b) o-ro-ha ro-roror-e [Kuria]
AUG-CL5-HEAT/NOUN CL5-HEAT/VERB-FV
„It is very hot‟
(1c) N-chieshi wun-a kwa ka-ku-wun-ini [Laadi]
CL9-HARE CHEAT-FV EVEN 3SG/PST-2SG/OM-CHEAT-PL
„Hare cheated you all‟
(1d) A-li-nkwend-a u-ku-ßuk-a [Nyakyusa]
3SG-PST-GO-FV AUG-INF-RUN-FV
„He ran fast‟
(1e) Agwo Okando a-ga-ki-ri kiri [Gusi]
HERE LION 3SG-PST-FALL_SILENT-PFV SILENTLY
„And the lion fall silent‟
Reduplication is ideophonic adverb as a word class which is characterized by other word class in either non-productive (nouns) or non-existence (verbs) (Voeltz &
41 Hatz, 2001). They may be partial or total which most of them exist in discourse.
Reduplication is used to signalize intensity, disintegration, dispersiveness, diminutiveness or augmentativeness. Almost all parts of speech can undergo reduplication being reduplicated by the same or other parts of speech containing the same root. Besides, reduplication can be either full (the whole segment is being repeated) or partial (a piece of segment is being repeated) as well as continuous
(repeated segments are not separated by any other segments) or discontinuous
(repeated segments are separated by other segments) (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) N-zoto enso m-pota m-pota [Lingala]
CL9-BODY WHOLE CL9-WOUND CL9-WOUND
„The whole body is damaged‟
(Continuous lexical full nominal reduplication)
(1b) A-biene ku-biene ba-keng-ire i-kina i-ga [Kuria]
3PL-SELF CL17-SELF 3PL-PST-DECISE-PVF CL9-DECISION
CL9-THIS
„They themselves took this decision‟
(Continuous lexical partial reduplication of a personal pronoun being
repeated by its locative form)
(1c) U-ka-i-lol-a i-i chia na i-i chia [Dabida]
3SG-PST- OM/CL9-SEARCH-FV 9CL-THAT 9CL/SIDE AND
9CL-THAT 9CL/SIDE
„He searched for it everywhere‟
(Discontinuous lexical full reduplication of a noun phrase)
42 (1d) Nyuma ya-ro vi-ka-zoy-a ku-id-a-id-a [Dabida]
BEHIND 9CL-HIS CL8-PST-BECOME-FV INF-GO-FV-GO-FV
„Behind his back they [butterflies] started to flutter hurriedly‟
(Continuously morphological reduplication of a verbal root).
Idiophones are words that can fall into syntactic class of language: they are nominal, adjectival, intensifier, verbal, adverbial, as well as interjection ideophonic words
(Voeltz & Hatz, 2001). In their functions, they stay close to adverbs as they describe a manner of action expressed by a verb. They are usually an idiophone consists of a repetitive syllable (Akwa: ba ba ba „rat-tat‟, ko ko ko „ha-ha‟, tse tse tse „very few‟).
Similar results depend on the presence or absence of morphology idiophones exhibit simple, (1a) or complex structure (1b) (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) i-sa-li tee tee tee [Lingala]
CL10- WORK-PFV TEE TEE TEE
„They worked for a long time‟
(1b) A-ka-nyor-a o-ro-oche ro-ichire churi [Gusii]
3SG-PST-SEE-FV AUG-CL5-RIVER CL5-BE_FULL FULL
„And then she saw a full-flowing river ‟
The discussed lexical means are organized not in arbitrary way but in a determined fashion that is being discussed below as composition.
Composition is the sequential organization of narration (Toporova, 2012). Further,
Toporova analyses the quite fixed parts of a fairy tale in its beginning and its ending.
Along with the organization of the story between beginning and ending is
43 multifarious, so it should be an object of a separate study. Let us describe these two components in more details.
A scholar Toporova distinguishes six (6) different types of beginnings across Bantu fairy tales: (1a) beginning with temporal semantics, (2a) beginning with spatial semantics, (3a) narrative beginnings, (4a) beginnings with nominal predicates, (5a) beginnings with impersonal constructions, (6a) beginnings with locative constructions (Toporova, 2012).
Beginning with temporal semantics are the most common beginnings in the analyzed data. Temporal semantics is being encoded with a noun phrases that refers to remote past in general “once upon a time” or “a point in remote past” one or that day or year, for example: ko kala „long time ago‟, ituku jimu „one day‟ (Dabida), awa ekomaki eleko „when time has come to…‟, mokolo mosusu „another day‟
(Lingala), o ka „long time ago‟, vuna ohogo „one day‟ (Akwa), nwaka gumu „year one‟ (Ngindo).
Beginning with spatial semantics are less common across Bantu fairy tales and indicate a place as the beginning point of the story, for example: o mboga ohogo „in one village‟ (Akwa), ɣa ɣata dimosi „in one village‟ (Laadi), muzi ghumu „in a town‟
(Dabida).
Narrative beginnings use the fact of someone‟s existence as the starting point of the story, for example:
(1a) ba-ibori ba-mwabo mba-renge ba-bere [Gusii]
3PL-PARENT 3PL-THEIR 3PL-BE 3PL-TWO
„There were two parents‟
44 (1b) e-la-ag-a mo-mi w-ana na bee b-e [Akwa]
CL9-BE-HAB-FV CL1-MAN CL1-THIS AND CL10-WOMAN
CL2-TWO
„There were a man and two his wives‟
(1c) A-ka-kib-a mu-ndu jumwe [Ngindo]
3SG-PST-LIVE-FV CL1-MAN ONE
„There was a man‟
Beginnings with nominal predicates are not common across Bantu fairy tales with exception of Kuria. There is of course in Kuria fairy tales they are found quite often
(Toporova, 2012). These beginnings consist of a subject, copula ni or existential verb and a noun predicate, for example:
(1a) Maisori Waitumbo n‟=u-mu-tururia wa a-ba-kuria [Kuria]
Maisori Waitumbo COP AUG-CL1-HELPER POSS AUG-CL2-
KURIA_PERSON
„Maisori Waitumbo is a Kuria people‟s helper‟
(1b) Ri-tuko ri-a enyangi na-ri-o ri-tuko a-ka-gend-a [Gusii]
CL7-DAY CL7-POSS WEDDING AND-CL7-THAT 3SG-PST-GO-
FV
„Wedding day is that day when [a girl] leaves her house‟
Beginnings with impersonal constructions are common in Northwestern Bantu, including Akwa and Lingala. This type of beginning consists of existential verbs in
45 impersonal form (class 9), followed by the semantic subject (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) e-la-ag-a mw-ana w-o a-k-ɛndi etog-a [Akwa]
CL9-BE-HAB-FV CL1-WOMAN CL1-THAT 3SG-PST-GO
CATCH_FISH-FV
„There was a woman who went for fishing‟
(1b) e-zalaki tata mo-ko [Akwa]
CL9-LIVE FATHER CL1-ONE
„There lived a father‟
Beginnings with locative constructions are those that open the story with a locative form of an existential verb (Toporova, 2012); for example:
(1a) pa-ki-b-a mu-ndu u-mwe [Ngindo]
CL16-PST-BE-FV CL1-MAN CL1-ONE
„There was a man‟
(1b) pa-li-kuw-a na m-tu m-moja [Swahili]
CL16-PST-BE-FV WITH CL1-MAN CL1-ONE
„There was a man‟
The other main compositional component is the ending form. In this aspect,
Toporova distinguishes four types of endings: (1a) natural ending, (2a) etiological ending, (3a) didactical ending, (4a) proverbial ending (Toporova, 2012).
46 Virtually the majority of Bantu fairy tales are ending without any moral or judgment, it means they possess natural ending (Toporova, 2012); for example, uko niko kutua kwa io mbisi „that was the end of that hyena‟ (Dabida).
Etiological endings are also quite common among Bantu fairy tales. It has noticed that they are indicators of archaic nature of a given story. Such endings can provide explanations behind natural phenomena, for example: tuku lumbu kio mbwa na mbumba bayika batantu „since that day dog and cat are enemies‟ (Laadi).
Didactical endings close a story with an explicit lesson that listeners should draw from it. Sure enough they are found in lesser extent than etiological and natural
(1/10). In addition, they are very common in those languages that experienced significant influence from non-Bantu languages and cultures (Toporova, 2012), for example: sika iso na nyoko „respect your parents‟ (Gusii).
A proverbial ending closes the story with a wise saying that is didactical in its nature; for example, zobo liboso, mayele nsima „first stupid, then clever and wise after the event‟ (Lingala).
Hence, many of mentioned phenomena can be tracked on the syntactical level of
Bantu fairy tales although syntax of Bantu fairy tales can be described through a wider range of its features. At the moment Toporova distinguishes the following syntactical features of Bantu fairy tales: (1a) high predicativeness, (2a) reduced predicativeness, (3a) impersonal constructions, (4a) contrastive focus (Toporova,
2012).
High predicativeness is an excessive or redundant use of predicates that can be tracked on the syntactical level. Certainly, it depicts the fact that Bantu fairy tales
47 tend to accommodate verbal tautology and reduplication in general to create artistic effects (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) lu-kwiri kalolla [ka-ka-loll-a] loll-a kamona [ka-ka-mon-a] ndiri [Pogoro]
CL7- CIVET 3SG-PST-LOOK-FV LOOK-FV 3SG-PST-SEE-FV NOT
„Civet was looking carefully but didn‟t notice anything‟
Reduced predicativeness is the absence of a verb that can be restored from the context. This usually existential verbs serving as copula are omitted because of stylistic reasons (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) n-ganga m-ɛni [ni] otsama [Kuria]
9-DOCTOR CL1-THAT [IS] THERMIT.
Impersonal constructions are used when a subject should be omitted because of stylistic or pragmatic reasons. Likewise, these constructions consist of a verb (more often existential one) in its impersonal (CL9), locative (CL16, CL17) or 3PL (less typical) form (Toporova, 2012); for example:
(1a) e-la-ag-a mw-ana w-o a-k-ɛnd-i etog-a [Akwa]
CL9-BE-HAB-FV CL1-WOMAN CL1-THAT 3SG-PST-GO-FV
CATCH_FISH-FV
„There was a woman who went for fishing‟
(Existential verb in its impersonal form CL9)
(1b) pa-li-kuw-a na m-tu m-moja [Swahili]
CL16-PST-BE-FV WITH CL1-MAN CL1-ONE
„There was a man‟
(Existential verb in its locative form CL16)
48 (1c) e-bonumu ngala amba Imongi [Akwa]
CL9-BE_VISIBLE SEE BASKET IMONGI
„Imonga‟s basket was visible‟
(Non-existential verb in its impersonal form CL9)
(1d) o m-boga m-ɛni ba-kid-a a-taba [Akwa]
CL18 CL3-VILLAGE CL3-THAT 3PL-SELL-FV 3PL-SHEEP
„In that village there were some sheep to buy‟
Contrastive focus is a syntactical phenomenon that involves the change of word order in a sentence to highlight a particular word or phrase due to its importance for the development of the story. As with almost all syntactical elements can be put focus on them. Either, subjects that are normally expressed by the subject marker are focused when expressed by personal or demonstrative pronouns (1a), objects are relocated to the beginning of the sentence with a correlate taking its place in the post predicate position (object markers or pronouns) (1b), locative and temporal groups are being relocated to the very beginning of the sentence (1c), predicates are supplemented by an emphatic particle (1d) (Toporova, 2012), for example:
(1a) beto, kumbu mosi kwa mu tu-tekaka ma-mba [Laadi]
WE TIME ONE WITH YEAR 1PL-FETCH CL6-WATER
„Once a year we fetch water [from the river]‟
(1b) n-tumbu mu lu-kaya ba-na-til-a y-o [Laadi]
CL9-NEEDLE CL18 CL7-LEAF 3PL-PRS-BEAR-FV CL9-THAT
„The needle is being carried in a leaf‟
(1c) n‟=aiga n-de [Gusii]
49 PTCP=HERE 1SG-BE
„I am here [and not elsewhere]‟
(1d) Gureta nomoroti [ni o-mo-roti] w-a ba-kuria [Kuria]
GURETA COP AUG-CL1-LITERATE CL1-POSS CL2-KURIA
„It was him, Gureta, who was the most literate among Kuria people‟
Generally, after from linguistic point of view, Bantu fairy tales can be described on four domains: topics, style and vocabulary, composition, and syntax. Taking in account based on the topics Bantu fairy tales can be classified into archaic (etiology, cannibalism, totemic believes, ancestor worship, magical and ritual activities, marriage between people and animals, spirits, and the cultural hero) and modern, or elaborated (lack of etiology, totemic believes and ancestor worship as well as lack of fixed beginnings).
Besides the stylistic effects, narrators of Bantu fairy tales use frequently idiomatic and vivid expressions, lexical tautology, reduplication, and idiophones. Noteworthy from the compositional perspective Bantu fairy tales exhibit several types of beginnings and endings. In doing so, the aspect of beginnings can possess temporal or spatial semantics, can be narrative in their essence, and can consist of nominal predicates, impersonal constructions or locative constructions. And in opposite side, endings can contain etiological explanation, didactical lesson, a proverb that plays role of didactical lesson. In such view, if an ending does not possess to any of the mentioned features, it is called a natural ending. Nonetheless, the syntax of Bantu fairy tales can be described in terms of high or reduced predicativeness, impersonality and contrastive inversions to mark the focus.
50 2.2.5 Concept Terms
Fairy tale refers to the traditional narrations that are narrated by the female elders for the purpose of giving messages and provide positive morals for their children or grandchildren (Balisidya, 1977). Extremely, these are stories which are oral traditional narrations that were received and transpass from generation to generation.
Certainly mostly they take place at night session.
Genre: Hymes (1972) viewed genre as an integral part of the communicative budget of a community. Hymes added more clarification that genre emerged from speech events, activities, that are directly governed by rules and norms for the use of speech. Indeed, it remained the best operationally identified for descriptive and teaching purposes as a major area of enquiry. Typically, it represents linguistic realizations that are more useful for social purposes. Moreover, the scholars
Orlikowski and Yates (2002) asserted that genres of organizational communication can be characterized by similarities in substance (general topics & specific themes), and forms, in features like: structure, language, medium or symbol. Hence, they conclude that genres by their socially recognized purpose and by their common characteristics of form.
Narrator refers to a man who narrates traditional narrations (fairy tales) and preserves them in a way of making attraction with positive morals and reveals them to the society through generation to generation (Balisidya, 1977). Using narrator‟s facial expressions, eyes, mouths, hands, body shaking, noise practices give a chance to a narrator to express feelings to audience. Even if other materials of the narrator to provide attraction to the listeners include the voice and tone which carry the real personality of a character. Additionally, is an accent and utterances that create the
51 actual emotional picture of the narrating. In addition, is the act of raising and lowering of tone and feelings, silence, light, simple, stubborn, scramble, politeness and the act of ignorant or cleverness with high authority in obedience also are being acted by a narrator. Further, the narrator uses the aspects of language skills so as to achieve the goal easily. As a result is to ensure that, the attention of emotions of the audience.
Narration refers to the fact of using stories and story-telling or writing activities as instruments for scientific investigation and the technique employed for any kind of analysis that deals with human experiences (Chincharauli, 2012). Again, they are the most important means of fixing the meaning of events and the social-cultural construction of reality. It is easy to form limited stories or accounts made of words, written on spoken that narratives are precisely the means of the social construction of reality. At the same time, narratives are a product and result of the social construction of people experience, since for them they are the only way through which society can express this experience and make them intelligible.
Communication is a social activity requiring the coodinated efferts of two or more individuals (Gumperz, 1982). Conversely, it deals with the talk produced sentences no matter how well formed or elegant the outcome does not by itself constitute communication.
Communicative genre can be defined as more or less obligatory solutions to specifically communicative problems (Thomas Luckmann, 1989). While in such solutions are available in social stock of knowledge in society.
52 Conversational analysis can be defined as any kind of organization concerned with the relative positioning of utterances or actions (E. A. Schegloff, 2007). Besides, an action can be accomplished itself by narrating and get done in turns at a story or fairy tale. It has noticed that the main features are interactions. From these may include the act of asking, answering, agreeing and dis-agreeing, and offering, contesting, requesting, teasing, finessing, complying, performing, noticing, promising and other activities alike.
Discourse refers to the interactive process of conveying ideas (including) the coordinative discourse among policy actors and the communicative discourse between political actors and the public (Schmidt, 2008).
2.2.6 Theoretical Framework
2.2.6.1 Introduction
In the previous sections, we have seen that there are several approaches to study
Bantu fairy tales (folklore, literature, linguistics), but neither of them covers the interactional aspect of fairy tales. In such view interaction is crucial for these kinds of narratives because they are being constructed as talk-in-interaction that happens between a narrator and listeners. Even the linguistic approach refuses to analyse the interactional domain of Bantu fairy tales while addressing them explicitly as text types and not speech type (Toporova, 2012). So far, in this work, the author tries to cover this research gap while addressing the interactional nature of Bantu fairy tales.
For doing, so the author needs first to introduce the theory of communicative genre that will enable the researcher to integrate the socio-linguistic knowledge about
Bantu fairy tales and to describe the interactional nature of this kind of narrations.
53 2.2.6.2 The Theory of Communicative Genres
Communicative genre can be defined as a term operates on a level between the socially constructed and transmitted codes of natural languages and the reciprocal adjustment of perspectives, which is a presupposition for human communicative interaction (Bergmann & Luckmann, 1995). Again, the co-participants regard the status of categorization of a speaker, hearer and audience which denotes the interactional categories. Either, the speaker is the one who produces (encodes) communicative contributions. At the same time, the hearer is similarly who interprets (decodes) in communicative contributions. While the audience on the other hand interpret decodes to the communicative contributions. From this therefore, it focuses on unmarked form. Namely, face to face interaction. In this matter, the specific function of communicative genres as socially constructed solutions. These may organize, routinize, and standardize the dealing with particular communicative problems; whichever it seems quite obvious that different cultures in society may construct different communicative solutions for specific communicative problems exist in society.
Moreover, in this context whereas in one culture there may be existed to the generic ways of handling particular communicative activities in another culture. Also the interactant may use spontaneous forms too instead. Thus, the repertoire of communicative genres actually varies from one culture to another culture as well as from one epoch to another epoch. Likely, communicative genre is sometimes used as more or less obligatory solutions to specifically communicative problems
(Thomas Luckmann, 1989). While in such solutions are only available in social stock of knowledge from the culture.
54 In turn, in this theory, a study was described using the intermediate structural level.
Indeed, the theory has directly linked to linguistic structures which are serving as the material base for the social transmission of knowledge from one generation to another. Whether, this level is organized to the principles which refer to communicative genres. Thoroughly, they are connected to linguistic aspects, code- related and social acts and structures that are related in determination of communicative processes. Further, it is characterized by social modelling and key features of communicative acts (Bergmann & Luckmann, 1995).
Hence, this theory on the other side was very suitable in this study because it gave out the analysis of communication in interactional way. Crucially, the elementary function of communicative genre in social life is to organize, routinize, and render the obligatory solutions to recurrent communicative problems (Bergmann &
Luckmann, 1995). Extremely, the analysis of communicative genres allow not only for the genre description and explanation of certain communicative activities in detail, but rather by initializing establishing an essential analytic link between speaking and narrating. The real activities are based ongoing interaction, the socio- cultural context and the communicative budget (including communicative norms, expectations and ideologies) of a particular culture.
Gradually, Bakhtin (1979), has a perspective on communicative genres claimed that; they do not appear as complex language structures devoid of the dynamics of interaction, but rather it exists as interactive patterns of speech. He added more that the communicative genres do not only guide the activities in verbal interaction but also it takes a part on the ideologies of social groups. Bakhtin concluded that:-
“There is no communication outside of genres”.
55 Gulich and- Quasthoff (1986) argued that communicative genres are becoming increasingly accepted in linguistic analysis of discourse. The like, this acceptance is paralleled by a new methodological orientation instead of taking oral genres as monological static texts. Because of fairy tales are two way communications between a narrator and a listener, so it is very important to use this theory.
Thereafter, fairy tales were analyzed in the process of their interactive production, that is, within their conversational and socio-cultural context. A part of communicative genres filled the important functions with respect to the coping with, the transmission and traditionalization of inter-subjective experiences of the life world (Gulich & Quasthoff, 1986). On the one hand, they facilitate the transmission of knowledge by guiding the interactant‟s expectations about what is to be said and to be done, As Luckmann (1992), points out:
“The use of genres is normally linked to clearly defined types of social situations. A given genre may never appear in one type of communicative situation, rather in another frequently in still another, and always in some. From the point of view of the actor's knowledge there may be situations in which he or she is forced to use a particular communicative genre.” In the most general idea is a communicative theory in social context conceived as a presupposed, given and also interactional organized which is perhaps reflected in the research paradigms of conversational analysis (E. Schegloff, 1991). Normally, the social action is, therefore, dependent on context, utterances in the field of conversation analysis and communicative acts in the field of socio-pragmatics which represent linguistic context. The moment of the produced language is formulated, created and interpreted (decoded) by the co-participants is assigned as a dual function.
56 After all, according to Heritage (2009), the production of talk is doubly contextual.
Normally, an utterance relies upon the existing context for its production and interpretation perhaps its own right to shape the event to a new context for the action that follows after. Language use is necessarily based on a speech situation, co- participants and language role. To bear in mind, the social action in linguistic context comprises a communicative contribution‟s adjacent utterances or turn‟s adjacent turns. Either it is conceived as delimited by the contextual constrains and requirements of a communicative genre (Bergmann & Luckmann, 1995).
Though, this theory is very important due to, within the internal structure is characterized by the fact that an actor is providing the fixed communicative
(Bergmann & Luckmann, 1995). Meanwhile, the theory provides the direct linked between with the linguistic structures serving as material base for social transmission of knowledge and the other is determination of social modelling and key features of communicative acts.
The analysis of communicative genres allows the description and explanation of certain societal communicative activities in detail. Either, this applies in establishing an essential analytic link between speaking activities in on going interaction. It, therefore, also entered the sociocultural context and the communicative budget, i.e communicative norms and traditions expectations and ideologies of a particular culture. The analysis in communicative genres can take place in different communicative forms, ranging from fixed patterns which are characterized by specific structural elements like: model particles, extreme case formulations, and extreme fluctuations in pitch contour, falling intonation at the end of the utterance and so forth.
57 Further, communicative genres are not considered to be static products, described in structural features only rather they constructed within communicative actions. They include actors‟s voices, relationship among the participants, the sequential organization, the cultural context as well as its dramatogic structure (Abrahams,
1976). The level of analysis in communicative genres is based on internal structure, framing and external structure.
Within internal structure contains a verbal and prosodic, kinetic features which characterized by single and individual utterances or shorter and lower sequences of utterances. In prosodic features are loudness, tempo, pausing, intonation, rhythm, accent placement. It adds more on expressing signs, mimic, and gesticulatory elements. Lexicosemantic elements are like: vocabularies and new terms, archaic terms, euphemisms or derogatory words, modality markers and specific particles. A part from that there is also a morphosyntactic device which is contained things such as: question formats, specific word order phenomenon, imperatives, passive constructions, specific conjunctions and coordinators or discourse markers as well as phonological devices that may function as an element of a particular genre.
In other side is a linguistic variety or code on the features like: citations, dialogism and an indirect speech. This may be divided more categories into jargon, dialect, sociolect, and the other side that based on situational in register (frozen style formal, consultative, informal or intimate register.
The other patterning forms include stylistic and rhetoric figures. Virtually this concerns with the way of how words are combined and worked: i.e asyndeton, deleted (ellipsis and aposiopese) it also added the other parts such as: (accumulation,
58 amplification, gradation), positioned (parallelism, chiasm) and eventually is the use of metaphors, metonymies, hyperboles and other stylistic (litotes, emphasis and symbol), sound figures (anaphora, epiphora, onomatopoeia forms) (Miiller, 1989).
Communicative genres are also revealing more folk aesthetic principles. These include things such as: the wide range of stylistic devices, i.e rhyme patterns, melodic contours, the use of rhetoric figures, a particular vocabularies and terms and archaic syntactic modes.
Framing refers to the specific interactive modality (E. Goffman, 1983). In communicative genres, it contains fictional, ironic, playful, irreals (realistic) as further structural features on internal structure. In additional, its interactive modality is together with the production of format, i.e speaker‟s relation to their utterances as animators‟ reproducers of utterances. Keppler (1985) mshowed how the media genres work i.e news is characterized by a specific combination of verbal, visual and sound elements.
Further, the other is a situative level of communicative genres. This extremely is concerning with the internactive context of the speaker or narrator based on dialogues of utterances between multiple participants. It comprises the ritual phenomenon like: (opening and determination of interactive contacts, greeting and farewells, rituals of inviting, accepting and so forth (Erving Goffmann, 1981). These rituals its features are concerning with the interactive organization of conversation.
Either, they can be described as patterns of turn- taking, pair sequences (adjacency pairs, as questions and answers, summons and responses). (E. Goffman, 1983) added
59 more that the situative structure is including with the participation framework, longer streches of talk and non-linguistic environment of the social situation.
Participation framework constitutes a production format and participation status with several turns. Turn is the fundamental unit of description in conversation analysis.
So long as it is the length of time a speaker holds the floor (Jupp, 2006).
Another is a longer stretch of communicative sequences which is providing the situational co-text of the single and individual utterances and their sequencing.
Later, it refers to the relation of the speaker to the proposition communicated or to the figure portrayed. In contrast, the participation status is the process of portraying and showing the relation between the communicating participants and their utterances provided: example; a speaker and a listener, a narrator and audience and so forth.
Meanwhile, non-linguistic and social arrangements are also a part of it. The socio- spatial and temporal arrangements of interactants are with the action patterns accompanying speaking. Hence, the social occasion can be defined as formal structured and or even institutionalized actions that are bounded in a perculiar space and time. Example: public challenges and direct criticism meetings. Besides, the non-verbal way refers to the actual use of actions in silent mode that indicates minds and desires. Like: sitting and standing, forced smiles, frequently words of heads and the existence of no responding.
The last one is external structure, it contains with communicative milieus, communicative situations, selection of types of actors and the institutional distribution of genres (T. Luckmann, 1992). It includes features such as: the
60 families, womens‟ cliques that can be characterized by the fact that a group of communicative actors (audience) participate in recurring social occasions, repertoire of speaking practices and communicative genres. Henceforth, the legal procedures are relying on communicative competence for the aim of producing stories and make them plausible through identifying central story lines or portraying their relationship to symbolic relations in a consistent way and the rest is allowing a test of descriptive adequacy (Bennett, 1979).
2.2.6.3 The Theory of Conversational Analysis
The external structure of a communicative genre can be described in terms of literature and folklore studies. That is why we used these approaches as outlined in the corresponding sections in this chapter. Nonetheless, but the description of situative level requires the author to introduce an appropriate approach that allows her to analyse the interactional features of fairy tales. This approach is called conversational analysis.
The study was guided by two theories that is; conversational analysis and communicative genre theories. Conversational analysis refers to any kind of organization which concerns with the relative positioning of utterances or actions (E.
A. Schegloff, 2007). The theory can be analyzed through the case of interactional structure. Interactional defined by Goffmann (1957), as a normatively organized structure of attention. He added more that when people interact is attending to one another‟s attention. Of course, it is to show how the language is used to describe the structure of the certain genre, and how people interact in communicating each other to narrate the stories. Even more is to look on the interactional logical of Gogo
61 people and how are they happened to both two a narrator (speaker) and listener
(audience).
Obviously, other aspects include of, turn taking, different types of utterances and turn constructional units (TCU‟S). in the remarkable of this the Sequences are vehicle for getting some activities done and accomplished. Yet, the analysis of conversational sequences can lead and cause to the question of, how 'long' for interaction sequence modes are intertwined. The important thing in talking is monitoring of actions and other language features that investigated. The conversational analysis is a set of methods for working with audio and video recordings of talk and social interaction (Chipalo, 2012). Besides, a conversational analysis theory refers to an approach way and system to the study of social interaction which based on embracing both verbal and non-verbal conducting ways in different situations of everyday life in society.
Basically, the intention of using interaction in conversational analysis is to maintain the social relationship of the speakers, narrators or other communicators. A hearer can have an ability to feel that he or she has an acquiring the participation of closely partner in talking. Good examples are: greetings, fairy tales narrating, and agreements between members.
Examples: (agreement of members),
A: I will make a dinner for you
B: Ooh, Thank you!
This conversation is allocating the interaction and the social relationship between the speakers on the matter of speaking and particular responses‟ patterns between them.
62 This is an example from a narration:
Narrator: “…I couldn‟t believe it; I was so tortured, discriminated, wrapped up in my thoughts about the current matter. However, in a very shook, hurry and bad unpredictable memories in my head……..
Listener: yeah, sure ok! Oooh! Very sorry! then smiled with jokes sympathy” (Fairy tale narrating act).
The interaction maintains a mutual attention among the parties that are involved in conversation. Either the transition from one turn to another exists in a very soft way governed by pauses and synchronization uses between speakers and members in talk.
Thus, in the light of this remarkable, the researcher chose this theory because it provides the imaginary looking which views understanding of the problem. It also was provided the guidelines for explaining the attribution of problems and the direct linking mechanisms that connect to the variables. In fact, the basic of this investigation is aligned to linguistic study on an interactional structure and how people interact with communication each other in narrating fairy tales.
The assumption is that, in order to investigate interactional logical of Gogo people on how happened to both two of a listener and a narrator in fairy tales. Therefore, the theory has provided advantageous use to the study.
In this remarkable generally, fairy tales have been analyzed as folklore and literature genres, however, there are some linguistic analysis of the language used in fairy tales rather there are not existing of any works that were analyzed them from the
63 interactional perspective. For being so, that is why they are interactive in their essence. Slightly, this is a research gap that can be filled using this related study.
Indeed, in order to close this gap a researcher had analyzed Gogo fairy tales as a communicative genre under the aspects of linguistically and structural features.
2.2.7 Concluding Remarks
The recent chapter has been completed by introduction and literature review issues that are considered in the study. These include:- the concept, meaning and the importance of the fairy tales, followed by fairy tales as folklore genre. Additionally, it is fairy tales as literary genre, similarly fairy tales as an object of linguistic studies, ending with the concept terms. It is obvious that the fairy tales play a crucial role in our societies and daily life, as a communicative genre in any society. As the studies showed above that the genre is a vital tool used to solve problems in societies.
In other case, it is about the theoretical frame work, its introduction, and the two theories of communicative genres and conversational one. Again, all these theories have been discussed in detail. Nonetheless, the chapter has covered all aspects of identification of conversational analysis in spoken genres. In addition, the chapter is completed with the concluding remarks of the study.
64 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This section outlines the methodology used to collect and analyze data for this study on fairy tales of Gogo language. The chapter also explains the area where the study was conducted along with the research approach used. The chapter also explains the data collection and techniques and the sample used to get the actual information, and, finally, it explains the data analysis process.
3.2 Research Design
To study the Gogo fairy tales the researcher adopted an exploratory mixed method design. According to Creswell (2009), an exploratory mixed method design requires the researcher to gather qualitative data at the first stage so as to explore the phenomenon under the study, throughout, the collection of qualitative data.
Therefore, in the first stage, the researcher collected qualitative data from Gogo community. The informants used were the Gogo people who lived at Hombolo
Village. In doing this, the researcher recorded the Gogo fairy tales as spoken data.
The data were then disseminated, coded and prepared well for the analysis process.
Adequate support was provided to ensure that data were clear and well preserved.
The support from the other people who are Gogo natives determined the actual and truth of the data.
In the second stage, the qualitative data on Gogo fairy tales were translated (from
Gogo language to Swahili). This was done with the help of a Gogo native speaker since the researcher is a non-native speaker of the language.
65 3.3 Area of the Study
The study was conducted in rural area of Gogo speaking community in Dodoma
Region. The study was carried out in a village called Hombolo, which is located in
Dodoma Municipality. The village was chosen because it is inhabited by many Gogo native speakers said to be speaking pure Gogo language contrary to many other areas of Dodoma Region. They are ordinary speakers who understand in depth the real history and past events of societies. Therefore, this was a suitable area for conducting this actual field work.
66
Figure 3. 1: Administrative Division of Tanzania
Source: (The Political map of Tanzania (2012), http://www.maps of
world.com/Tanzania/Tanzania-political-map.html).
67
Figure 3. 2: Dodoma Region (Source: www.maphill.com Tanzania 2011).
3.4 Sample Size and Sample Procedures
Kothari, (2004) defines sample as a small group of respondents drawn from a population about which a researcher is interested in getting the information so as to arrive at a conclusion. Sure enough, the sample size refers to the selected number of respondents chosen from the entire population. While a sampling procedure can be explained as the process involved in getting the sample respondents from the population.
This study used a purposive sampling to generate the required data. It involved mostly elders since these were hoped to be speaking Gogo language accurately. Ten
(10) informants were used in this study that is two (02) males and eight (08) females.
There is imbalanced gender representation following the fact that, women are able to narrate much rather than men. Also, most women could be found at home than it was for men and also because women predominantly take care of families.
68 Table 3. 1: The sample of Dodoma Area Name of area Number of Informants Males Females Hombolo 2 8 Total 10
3.4.1 Purposive Sampling
In this study, purposive sampling technique was employed to get the informants.
Purposive sampling represents a non-probability sampling techniques (Rai, 2004).
Sometimes, it is known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling, as it relies on the judgement of the researcher when it comes to selecting the units, such as:- people, cases or organisations, events, or pieces of data that are to be studied.
Generally, the sample being investigated is quite small, especially when compared to probability sampling techniques. The researcher selected a small mass in a huge group of informants (population), each individual was chosen entirely by chance.
The identification of the respondents was based on ages, ability to speak the language, , competences and local users of Gogo language.
3.4.2 Research Instruments
The process of collecting the primary and secondary data was done under the following instruments. A digital camera, tape recorder, note-books, mp3, tablet, and a cell phone. These were used to record conversational session of fairy tales. Again, question papers, pens, pencils, and the like were also used for taking notes.
Sometimes, candle and battery lights were used when the interviews were done during the night hours.
69 3.5 Techniques and Methods of Data Collection
The study used the primary and secondary sources of collecting data. To a higher degree, the researcher used methods like conversational analysis, questions and answers method, direct elicitation (recording), taking movies, observation and the use of intermediary language to target language.
3.5.1 Primary Data
The primary data were obtained directly from the field. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character (Kothari, 2004). Regarding the act of collecting these data, the researcher used elicitation techniques; i.e. interviews, Focus Group Discussion and observation.
Quite often, these were simplified to gather knowledge, skills and information from the people.
3.5.1.1 Interviews
The researcher, in this study, used semi-structured interviews to generate data.
Kombo and Tromp (2006) have clarified the semi-structured interview as an interview which is a list of questions or topics to be covered by the interview. This study used in-depth interview (semi structured interview). The researcher used this convenient method because of availability of sufficient information about the study.
Using it, the study could reach areas of reality that accessible are, like:- people‟s subjective experiences and attitude of narrating.
Also, it is a way which it provides the reliable data and accessibility to primary data from the respondents (Silverman, 2001). The prepared questions were based on the objectives of the study. They were presented by the same wording and the same
70 order for the purpose of administering a relative analysis and understand meaning clearly. The researcher guided the discussion, then; she took notes and gave the assistant the recording device to record. The questions asked sought to get informantion about the fairy tales of Gogo society, and informants were asked to narrate at least two (2) Gogo fairy tales. Also, informants were asked to say the importance of fairy tales for Gogo young generations and why fairy tales are not working nowadays in Gogo community. Answers to all these questions were useful data for this study.
3.5.1.2 Focused Group Discussion (FGDs)
Focused Group Discussion refers to a group interview that relies not only on a question and answer format of interview but also on the interaction within the group
(Morgan, 1995 cited in Mertens, 1998). The (F-G-D) session offered the freedom of expression to the participants toward the objectives of the study. The researcher held had five groups of informants in the FGDs. Each group consisted of five (5) peoples.
The F-G-D sessions held with elders aged sixty and above (2 males and 3 females).
Kombo and Tromp (2006) assert that in Focus Group Discussion, the researcher has a specific topic to be discussed. Thus, the researcher had prepared five (5) guided questions for informants‟ to discuss in the groups. These discussions provided a wide coverage of themes that informed the study. In particular, the discussions sought to know the fairy tales helped to ensure the morals of the Gogo community and hwo they support them. The discussions also sought to know the informants opinions toward improving the current situation.
71 3.5.1.3 Observations
Observation is a method of collecting data directly from the client of the research. It is a way of gathering information or data by watching behaviours, events or noting physical the characteristics in their natural setting (Martins, Affonso, Tamayo,
Lamouri, & Ngayo, 2015). In this study covert observations were made to give people the chance of behaving natural. From this, the data obtained in observation method were more accurate, consistent and high quality due to they were collected from the physical environment. The researcher determined the focus; considered evaluation questions and selection in sight with planning of critical schedule of sequences of events.
3.5.1.4 Audio Visual Recording
The present study used Audio Visual Recording (AVR) as primary method of data collection. This is the most and appropriate method because the study aimed at doing the analysis of spoken data. The method served several purposes due to the process of transcription of spoken data. This was done to compare the fairy tales collected in different areas from different people. Through this, the researcher made clarifications and corrections in some areas. This includes the translation from a researcher interpreter for Gogo and Swahili languages. In doing so, it helped to give out more valid data of the study.
3.5.2 Secondary Data
The secondary data were collected from numerous literatures and sources of knowledge. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process (Kothari, 2004). In doing this, the researcher consulted books,
72 dissertations, journals, articles, and websites. However, the availability of materials seems to be a very difficult thing due to the problem of relevant studies done for this language.
3.5.3 Data Analysis Procedures
In this study, data analysis was carried out after completing the data collection process. The study used the qualitative technique of analyzing data. The data gathered in the study through interviews and open and closed ended items were interpreted qualitatively. Again, the researcher put together all data (assembling data), refined them and later she categorized them in more logical groups (coding data). The number of respondents, frequency of their responses and percentages computed to have the significant value for discussion.
After the researcher assigned the meanings and interpreted the data, in fact, she discussed and wrote a report about the outcome (building of the meaning assigned), the results presented as a description on this study. The analysis entailed three basic steps. Step one was to work with transcriptions, recording and voice mode that contained the fairy tales‟ information. Substantially, a step two was about the process of making analysis of the data gathered from the selected methods. These specifically involved the process of identifying and classifying data with their relationship with the objectives of the study. The last step was to formulate the general observation and summarization of the findings. Moreover, conversational analysis refers to any kind of organization which is concerneds with the relative positioning of utterances or actions (E. A. Schegloff, 2007). This theory can be used due to it explains much about the case of interactional structure. The term
73 interactional can be defined by Goffmann (E. Goffmann, 1957) as a normatively organized structure of attention.
The data collected through in-depth interview and Focused Group Discussion (FGD) re presented through pie charts, tables and simple bar graphs. In addition, the information that discovered and revealed from the collection discussed and presented through descriptions, simple statistics, summary and conclusions.
3.5.4 Concluding Remarks
The chapter has informed about the methodological issues considered in the study.
The more likely it has explained about the area of the study; the research design as well as sampling procedures that were employed in conducting the study. Also, the chapter informs about the data collection instruments and data analysis procedures.
Generally, the data collection methods contained the interviews, F-G-D, observation and Audio Visual Recording approaches from the study.
74 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
The chapter presents the data collected in the field through the digital Audio Visual
Recording. This work constituted the natural occurring interaction. Meaning of the narratives are written and transcribed as spoken data. Focusing on the objectives of the study, the researcher did a collection of the fairy tales in Gogo language, and then created a data base of Gogo fairy tales, Through drawing extensively from the theory of communicative genres and lastly, she analyzed the linguistic and structural communicative features of Gogo fairy tales. The study involved ten elders who were sampled from the people who lived at Hombolo village in Dodoma Region.
The chapter is organized in four sections. The first section gives the introduction and the second part is about the collection and creation of data base recognized from the respondents. The third section provides the presentation of findings with the linguistic and structural analysis. The last section is about the summary of the whole chapter.
The findings and the presentation are organized in three (3) main themes
(categories). Of course, they are based on the analysis of data (transcriptive format), the analysis of the objectives and questions of the study. To point them again, these are centred on the collection of Gogo fairy tales, creation of the data base of Gogo fairy tales, an overview of the theory of communicative genres and the analysis of the linguistic and structural communicative features of Gogo fairy tales. All these objectives are synthesized from the main objective and questions set to guide the study.
75 The chapter includes the segments and characteristic criteria and techniques in which Gogo community uses language in narrating fairy tales to their generations.
To provide more insight, they are based on narrative words, fillers, initiations and closing remarks and other parentheses of linguistic analysis. The study implies several parameters of the qualitative productive analysis. These either they may be applied through segmenting and its characteristics of fairy tales. Because of fairy tales are like any other aspect of communicative genres, so far there are two way communications between a narrator and a listener, thus, it is very important to use this theory. Due to it bases on organization of the levels of communicative genres, namely:- external structure, internal structure and situative level. Eventually, the chapter was ended with the concluding remarks.
4.2 Data Presentation
The data in this study are in the form of narrations. Indeed they comprise a total number about eleven (11) fairy tales. Which are in the form of Gogo language with transcriptions based on structural and linguistic features analysis. In doing so, the data were analyzed in terms of linguistic and structural features using Bergman and
Luckmann (1995) analytical framework which is focused directly to the linked of intermediate level which is directly linked to the linguistic structures. They are viewed in terms of the linguistic and structural form of a language used. It is also based on how the Bantu people, especially the Gogo society used language in the context of narrations (fairy tales) and how its language is structured for.
Additionally, the analysis of fairy tales in this study is based on the structural elements. Nonetheless, structurally, the communicative genre theory can be explained as a complex communicative ruled pattern of elements which can be
76 analysed on the location of three different structural levels. The levels are: - the internal structure, the situative structure and the external structure. The notion of structure refers to the scientific reconstruction of first order constructs (Schutz,
1962).
Notwithstanding, in this study of Gogo fairy tales as an aspect of communicative genres can be operated on those mentioned levels. Additionally, they are between the social constructed and transmitted codes of natural languages and the reciprocal adjustment of perspectives, which is a pre-supposition for human communicative interaction. So the co-participants (audience) regard the status of categorization of a narrator, hearers (audience) which denote the interactional categories. Either, a Gogo narrator is the one who produces (encodes) communicative contributions, at the same time, the hearers (the audience) interprete (decode) communicative contributions. In doing so, this format focuses on unmarked form of a face to face interaction.
4.3 Characteristics of Gogo Fairy Tales as Folklore Genre
Gogo fairy tales have similar characteristics as other societies‟s tales around the world. Either, the main characteristic features of these fairy tales are: firstly, they are frequently, characterized by having stretches of talk with the sequences in practices.
Analysis in talking is just a way of showing the speakers‟ understanding and is being relevant in narrations and creating prior turn in possible questions. Then, they actually contain a certain contour of beginning, (There was once on a time!), middle and ending, (They cried aloud “the wolf is dead! The wolf is dead! And they danced for a joy round about the well with their mother). Merely, these are things like:- greeting-greeting between a narrator and audience (children). A specific
77 crystallization for Gogo fairy tales that interplays is multiple structures which are based on fundamental sequences. In addition, the Gogo fairy tales are accompanied by attractive songs which have tones, rhythm, good morals, prohibitions and norms for Gogo society.
Further, normally they are very short with the messages which are frightening to hear. Most Gogo fairy tales contain the feature of happines and the lessons that are crucial in the culture and society at large. Also, Gogo fairy tales are set to focus on the past events, defined good and bad characters. They define the important things, relevant people‟s events, critical problems, climax and resolutions.
Besides, another characteristic of Gogo fairy tales is containing with the feature of unhappiness initiation and happy ending ever. They are shaped by the interaction of orality and altered throughout the world by the words from the mouth. Sometimes, a narrator asks questions that invite more and much hearing with attention. Another, characteristic of Gogo fairy tales is that they are based on children‟s interests, sense of life, binding in a Gogo culture, ending surprised, sense of impression, wonders, mystery, magic, the spirit of wonders, adventures, success, abstract actions, imaginative, animal characters, based on betrayal of human relations and unity of effects.
Regarding this, fairy tales have endless amount of possibility. They are full of wonders and magic hope that they make people to believe that the best can actually happen. Therefore, extremely, all of these features are observed in communicative genres of Gogo fairy tales.
78 4.4 Data Presentation and Analysis
The way people communicate depends a lot on the culture of which society they come from. Gogo community interacts by using minimal assumptions about one another. Language in interaction comes in a sequence and turns. Each turn has an implication for the next one. Besides, a concept of the communication in Gogo fairy tales occurs when a speaker or narrator narrates the story with actions for the intention of influencing the mind of the audience (listeners).
This study started with the collection of fairy tales then data processing and sorted them. The analysis of raw data helped in obtaining the information from its nature.
Along with, the presentation of these data using descriptive modal helped in adding accuracy, set of facts and quicker understanding. In this matter the process of breaking down of raw data into different components can be analyzed and obtained the useful information. From this information the users can be done through the theories. After processing and organized the data a researcher had generated linguistic analysis of ongoing flow of communication in Gogo fairy tales in order to understand and provide the accurate results of the findings.
Working over the different fairy tales a researcher has chosen to concentrate on communicative genre and conversational analysis in doing the analysis features of spoken data based on transcription. It is concerning with the longer strech of utterances. Obviously the transcription is allocating clearly using some features that are involved in the way of how words are said, are they either pronounced with low tone, high tone, softly, loudly, high pitch patterns which start with the high and ends with low or vice versa. The more likely it concentrates in voice quality which is either has creaky or specific breathy.
79 4.4.1 The Internal Structure of Gogo Fairy Tales
4.4.1.1 Verbal, Prosodic and Kinetic Features
This study used the internal structure which consists of verbal, prosodic and kinetic features. These included loudness, tempo, pausing, and intonation unit, duration of long words, rhythm, accent placement, and features of voice quality. Since, the prosodic and kinetic features play a very fundamental role in conveying feelings, emotions and speaker‟s attitudes in human communication. Noteworthy good and the most affects are shown in tone of voice which entails features of voice quality which include perceived loudness of the voice of up and down pitch and temporal factors for speaking rate.
Often, the most noticeable feature is loudness; this refers to the changes of loudness within one syllable or the relative loudness of a number of successive syllables
(Cruttenden & Kuhlen, 1986). This actually depends on amplitude of the sound wave involved. It is perceived by listener and related through breath-force which a speaker uses in vowels and consonants. The Gogo fairy tales applied loudness in its narrations along with it creates a very vital cue in listening for high activations affects. Such as in N2, N3 and N1;
N2, mmm hono=wakikala=hagwe↑(0.2)
N3, zindege=sasa↑zoseee↑
N1, mii=yangu↑(.) A;a;↑(.)nhuku;yakabita(.) =mii=yangu↑(.)msin‟ganiwajililaa↑(.)
Besides, tempo tracking is an essential tool roles for task for many user‟s applications, such as: musical analysis, automatic rhythm alignment of multiple musical instruments, cut and paste operations in audio editing, beat driven special
80 effects. Tempo can be defined as an underlying regular sequence of pulses that coincides with the flow of music (Tzanetakis, 2002). These are sequences of human foot tapping when one listens to music.
It is similarly a component of prosody. Whenever a narrator uses the tempo, he/she allows his her listener to track the intended message easily. The tempo varies according to the person. In this matter, it might happen rapidly or slowly. Pausing is a tool which is used strategically to build intellectual and emotional connection to the audience. The listeners get a chance to process and manipulate the message. The following Gogo fairy tales suffice to illustrate this:
In N1, yalondola=sin‟gani=sikijeela(0.2)(pause)iMwewe;=akabita(.)mii=yangu ↑(.)
/A;a;↑(.), N2 and N4;
(Audience asked)[( )]bibii↗mango=yolo=yayidinda?↗aaa:wapi,~
Intonation: this is a stretch of speech patterns uttered under a single coherent intonation contour. Actually, it is used to indicate and emphasis that the story is reaching in a certain position. It may be at the end or short pause. The effect of intonation is to capture the attention of auditory alarms of spoken utterances and the repetition of tone. The following are examples of Gogo fairy tales that justify the effect of intonation:
In N4, bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[( )]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-kutamaSWani(0.5)// mmm//(())iiiii↗
81 N5,:=inyi=nasiya(.) mmm yakamleta=ilye=akamsola=ng‟ombe=yakamTo:a =kuly e=we↗=weyi::↗=yawo=likaliya=AO(.)
N7, nicalisina=alafu=munanii::=nayo(.)cilikuluta=dulye=kulimba=bacua=lilye(.)aaaaa↗
= eeeee↗
Besides, rhythm is the instrument that is used to measure the flow of words, phrases and sentences in a story or prose. Of course, this can be determined by the relation of long and short stressed and unstressed syllables. Again, rhythm is the product of interaction between a numbers of low-level prosodic features contained in mode.
These including: loudness of particular phonemes as well as syllables; duration of phonemes, syllables and silence; and the temporal offset between the high or low of a pitch target accent and the onset of the syllable‟s vowel (Michelle, 1998). It is a powerful medium to stimulate communication and social interactions. The effect of rhythm in in Gogo fairy tales can result in clapping, dancing, singing and so forth. It is a catalyst to positive affect, in social bonding, cooperation and mediation in communication. On the other side, accent placement refers to the part of the phrase which is perceived as stressed as a result in pitch change which usually co-occurs with a change in volume (John & Norine, 1993). Perhaps, it applies on quality of voice, pronunciation of words, distinction in vowels use, consonants, stress and prosody. Narrators in Gogo community seem to have their own accent which enables to understand each other as native speakers. The information allocates their ethnicity. Evidenced from extract N3,- N4,
82 hukeaji muaje?//eeeeh//=laanate=wiobote// //eeeeh//sungura=mutamwa=niko= yayahehe[ ], hukeaji muaje?//eeeeh//=laanate=wiobote// //eeeeh//sungura=mutamwa= niko= yayahehe[ ]
Features of voice quality: Trask (1996) defined as the characteristic auditory coloring of an individual‟s voice, derived from a variety of laryngeal and supralaryngeal features and running continuously through the individual‟s speech.
The process of providing distinction in tone speech sounds during narrating yields a particular message. From Gogo narrations can be seen in N3,
={(hh)}=ukate=mwana=wenu=yafa:(0.5)eee=yafwa:://mmm//(())hodu=ayiii↑(.) .
4.4.1.1.1 Patterns of Raising and Falling Utterances
In fairy tales, the vital information in general overview of the theory of communicative genre is worthily carried out in narrator‟s intonation contours, pitch and tone. This normally provides a full picture of useful representation of linguistic features of the Bantu fairy tales, specifically those of the Gogo.
Narrating the fairy tales is an attitude of a narrator towards a subjective to audience.
This implies to a central theme and subject matter that manifests in attitudes. The manner of a narrator to achieve this is the composition of tones, short phrases with falling and raising at the end of utterances. Tone generally is conveyed to the choice of words, they may be formal, informal, serious, sarcastic, sad, cheerful, and so many attitudes. Either, the narrator keeps a pause, raise or lower the sound system once he arrives at the end of a turn, sentence or phrase and if he is still wants to continue to the other part. From that view and pause of the narrator argued that a
83 story has reached the end or continue by giving out the clear indication of the related discourse.
In fact, intonation is the frequently use of extra stress to mark the focus of a word, phrase and sentence pattern. There are two basics of them, namely; falling and raising intonations. In addition, falling works to ask and giving information in normal, quiet, unemphatic style. In contrary, the raising intonation can express a number of numerous emotions, non-finality, surprise, doubt, politeness, interests, lack of confidence. In Gogo fairy tales, narrators use all these features in the following extracts:
N11, yikuchanya(.)//mmm//letehiii::=pandeee↑(.)//mmm//kakarakakara=kabwaaa↑(.)//m mm kayii↑= bibi↗eee↗(.)kwanu=yuno=isungura=ihonoyacema=bamia=kanaunzaje?answered wakakuta=watoene =mmbisi(.)ano=mbisi=yuawanena↗(.)// (raising tone) le=//mmm//kate=sichoo↗fwaa↑=kate=sicoo↗,yakagululuka(.) mmm ↓, yatawamila=yafWa=yaMmalika↓(.) -(falling tone).
The results of the findings show that most of the Bantu languages remarkably use more intonation contour; however, these seem to be in variation between one language and another in a realization of phonetic.
4.4.1.1.2 Melodies of Speech
Human speaking is not always running fluently. In communication, features such as; hesitations, actor‟s voices and structures, structural features, lengthening and
84 loudening are necessary in existing. Hesitation is the act of short or long stopping and pausing before continuing saying or doing something. The existance of hesitations in any language is conveying as a feature of natural speech. Meanwhile, hesitations phenomena is occurring during the act of speaking when the participant does not know what to say or interfered by something in order to express a particular idea in his or her mind. They are of various types. Surely, hesitation markers are used to communicate that the turn of speech has not yet been completed (Howard &
Osgood, 1959). According to, Harley (2001), the processes of phonological encoding involve turning words into sounds. While lengthening exists whenever a speaker takes articulation of words longer than what it should be. It is caused by the interrupted for a speaker during speaking. In Gogo fairy tales, there are a lot of these features exist, the following examples elucidate: N5,
…ndege=ii=:::ra=baba=napata=ii:::ndege(.) (lengthening), ndege=wa=kumpera? mmm (0.4)aa:: kweli=mwanangu↓(.)si=wandege=wa=kump era?(.)//(louding),
4.4.1.1.3 Repetition Markers
This aspect contains narrative words, fillers, repetitions and uncertain hearings.
Repetitions include the action of repeating a word, phrase and sentence more than one time in a turn. This happens with prepositions, like “to to to”, articles, like, “the the the”, pronouns “I I I” as well as conjunction, like “and and”. They provide the participants with enough time needed to process and think of what to say next. They tend to occur in the initial-position, central or when the speaker continues talking about a certain topic after digression.The repetition and restatement of an idea at
85 intervals can promote the clarity and encourage the acceptance of an idea. That is to say, when a Gogo narrator repeats the phase or words, he/she has an intention of emphasizing the competing ideas and subordinated out of the audience‟s mind. It also brings about the enjoyement and participation between the audience and the narrator. The repetition of things in several times is to put emphasis, convey actions clearly, and create the impression to the mind.
Fillers are words and phrases that are used to fill silence and provide an opportunity to serch the related terms used in filling the communication. Crystal (2008) defined linguistic filler as a part of speech. The term used in communicative linguistics situation as a non-silent pause. To put this in other side linguistic fillers are words and vocalizations, such as, but not limited to: um, erm, er, like and you know (Rose,
1998). To bear in mind, these words do not add any real value to the sentence rather than its main role of giving out a break without an awkward silence pause during narrating or speaking. In addition, it is to make a statement less harsh, to use a strong or weak ones, to stall time and lastly to include the listeners in the communication and emphasizes that a speaker is still continue to speak or narrate. The evidences from Gogo fairy tales: iHula=iiii↗ihula N3, eeeeeh↑ N3, (.) aaaaa N3, (fillers),
Katali N1, kwaliko=yali=munhu (0.3) N2, (narrative words),
(Extract 1) kwimba(.)//. nyelele=mandoya=
86 =nyelele=mandoya=
=nyelele=mandoya=
=nyelele=mandoya=N10.
(Extract 2)cacidete=yumbayumba=zoni//=
=cacidete=yumbayumba=zoni //=
=cacidete=yumbayumba=zoni //=(.)
N9,
=mbela=ee:::=mwanangu=we:::=lamba=
=mbela=ee:::=mwanangu=we:::=lamba=
=mbela=ee:::=mwanangu=we:::=lamba=
=mbela=ee:::=mwanangu=we:::=lamba=
=mbela=ee:::=mwanangu=we:::=lamba(.)//. N8. (Repetitions).
N5, mpaka=akaiya=( )(.)(Un-clear hearing).
4.4.1.1.4 The Expressive Signs and Gestilatory Elements
The main role of expressing signs, mimic and gesture elements in human communication is social interaction. The verbal communication is often accompanied by hand and other bodily organs‟ gestures, from the narrator‟s movements. Gestilatory elements; is the act of making the use of gestures (hands and arms) as in adding nuances or force to something. It shows a strong feeling on the matter. The audience concentrates on understanding and comprehending the
87 narration in spoken medium by perceiving the temporal organization of phonemes, syllables, words, and phrases streams. These extracts from gogo fairy tales postulated: Expressing signs:
(Extract 1), yono=yakatyanali=hono=kuja=kunena(.)hanonenu=kuswanuu↑ waleche=nowasana(.)hanena=nahitaa↑//mmm//hanena=nahita(.)nawakulonga=yuwo no=sihitite=sihitite><=ningawa=ndo=nahi=yuanahita(.)hunena=uleche=mkulaga=hu nena=uleche=vulaga=hunena=walecHe=wa=polisi=wala=wa=kukaya=nalemaa↑ m mm//wala=chavukeni=nalemaa↑ mmm /hodu=yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimb ee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing)).
Mimic in extract of songs: huyuu↑mumonga= wacekulu mmmm homegwee↑=
=homegwee= homeseji=seji=homegwe=
=homegwee↑=homeseji=seji=homegwE=
=ihomegwee↑=homeseji=seji=homegwe↓ wa=polisi=wala=wa=kukaya=nalemaa↑ mmm wala=chavukeni=nalemaa↑ mmm
/hodu=yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing)).
(extract 2) mulece=mulanga =sande =sana iiiiii↑sande=sana=iiii↑= mulece=mulanga=sande=sana=iiiiii↑ sande=sana=iiii ↑= mulece =mulanga= sande= sana iiiiii↑ sande=sana=iiii ↑(0.5=).
88 (.)//mmmh//hodu=kani=kulye=yamoto=holohululuuu↑(act of arms)wacosaji= wose(.)//(gestural element).
4.4.1.1.5 Lexico Semantic Elements
Basically, lexical semantic elements refer to the choice of words on how a writer or narrator decides to use words in a certain language for distinct aim and effect. They are words that are used to express thoughts, ideas, and messages intended to convey for literal meanings. They may be the frequently used words (nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs), the use of archaic words, euphemisms, derogatory words, modality markers and specific particles. While on the side of lexico semantic elements are based on special vocabulary, archaic terms, euphemisms, or derogatory words are concerned, certain modality markers and specific particles. As far as
Euphemisms, or derogatory words a mild or indirect word or expression is substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.
Besides modality markers and specific particles, this is a linguistic elements aim to qualify the narrators commitment.
The following quotes: Special vocabulary and archaic terms,
These extracts: N3, hongohi::)(.)//
N5, tugamanyeta? N5
N7, elafika=baholilibwe N7.
N5, //(( ))iiiii↗
89 N3, [( )]bibi↗=unanka=Mmoto=yakuwa=uwi?Imeee↗○…○[]eeeee::(audience emphasized)yaweitula=yagwa=yakukuu:za?eee○…○hono=yabita=mmoto=yakulugu luka(.)//aaaaa// (Specific particles).
4.4.1.1.6 The Morpho-syntactic Devices
The morpho-syntactic devices focus on question formats, specific word order phenomena, imperatives, passives, constructions, specific conjunctions and discourse markers. These are concepts that manipulate the structure of a sentence.
They are also a discourse marker: indeed they mark the beginning of a new part in narrating. These are words or phrases whose function is to organize the story. They bind together the pieces of story and making them to be completed through their relationship and ideas. In addition, the flow and managing the narration bind by a certain structure of communicative features. Imperatives, applied to something that demands attention or action, an unavoidable obligation or requirement and necessary. Gogo fairy tales are to be longer to incorporate these devices.
Question formats, (audience asked)[( )]bibi↗=unanka=Mmoto=yakuwa= uwi?Imeee↗○…○
(extract 2) =cilango=diguka=halanjema=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=diguka=halanjema=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=ciwadinda?(0.2).N7.
Specific word order phenomena, N9,
//yakabita=yagululila(.)//mmm//wataka=ga=ga=ga><=wenye=mupelegwe=cikazeba wye=gwaya=gwegwe=aca=camarika=cikunocecikaze=ciutamani=mwalinee:ma(0.2)
90 //mmm//we=citaze=citaze{(hh)}=nyaupele=akalondoa=hhonze(.)//mmm//yakatalu= mwinjila=muhonze(.)//mmm//wanhu=wose=wakanyunjila=muhonze(.)//mmm//wak unyunjila=muhonze(.)
Like: N1, N2 and N4; ne=honaa↑(.) na=mbwili=zakoo↑(.)kwamba muhitii↑yete=henwewanhuu↑ hodu=yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing)) ya=mwenye=ya=kulonga(.)=Hodi=akakwimbaa↑((laughing)). (Discourse markers and conjunctions).
4.4.1.1.7 Melodic Contours
Melodic contour is the quality of movement of consercutive pitches of a melody its measurement or and how it moves in between. Thus, this is differing from the harmony. It may be nearest or far of successive in pitches or notes in a melody. It can be described as melodic motion in move up or move down of tone. In this aspect, there is existence of melodic contours in songs, stylistic and rhetoric figures.
They are used simultaneously with stylistic and rhetoric figures: the narrator can use the variety of language according to situations and setting. All these are linguistic signs of communicative actions that are comprised in the internal structure show that how the Gogo fairy tales are characterized by a combination of verbal, visual and sound elements. Spontaneously, they have been used in Gogo fairy tales as a technique which a narrator uses to convey to the listerner‟s the meaning and goal of
91 persuading audience‟s feelings. Melodic contours in songs from Gogo fairy tales can be justified by these illustrations: N4 as: hodu=wakabita{( hh)}=wakabita=webata=alu=wa:Kwimba↓.
Una=habari=gani=mtemi=wapolisi=wakuluza:::=
=mwalimwi=mwilomwilamwidong’a::nikamanyee::maSea=mo:nya=monagwe:(.)
(( ))/(xxx)(audience asked)wejelaule=kunachelaule?=kenechilonge(.)=
=sililongagwe::=hae::↗=
N7, =cilimono=ng‟oze::=nomlilowa=
=we kumbala=gwegwe=nomliloa=alukubita=haii↗
(Pitch fluctuation contours) existed in N5 and N4, as: hucecagwaa=gali=mo↗=monga(.)//(raised pitch) kuzima=ngoo=zenu:::↓funmi
(lower pitch)
4.4.1.2 Situative Level of Gogo Fairy Tales
4.4.1.2.1 The Interactive Features
In the light of the remarkable of communicative genres, another aspect of it is situative level. It bases on the interactive context and dialogicity of utterances between multiple participants. It comprises of ritual phenomena, such as; the opening and termination of interactive contact, greeting, readiness, and farewell rituals, inviting and accepting (Erving Goffmann, 1981). Essentially, the interaction utterances, when people interact, attend to one another‟s attention. The main is to show how the fairy tales‟ language and message are used to describe the structure of
92 the certain genre. Therefore, the interactional logical of Gogo people and how they happened among the two a narrators (speaker) and listener (audience) are analysed.
In Gogo fairy tales, the interactions exist in all stories per se: good examples are occurred on narrations like: N7, N4 and N8. bwehe (.)Yakwanza=kwimba(.)//. cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=huo=ciwadinda=
(Extract 2) :(.)(( ))/(xxx)(audience asked)wejelaule=kunachelaule?=kenechilonge(.)=
=sililongagwe::=hae::↗=
(.)//mmm//(audience asked)[()]lihule=likageuka=likawa=munhu?eeeee↑((laughing))Ase=mwana=wetu=a yuu:(.)//mmm//ukumtola=bwete::://mmm//ayu=mwana=wetu=ayu=sikucisaka=mwit ula :(.)(dialogicity).
Either, the interaction can be existed in different bodily organs, such as:- from facial expressions, eyes, mouths, hands, body shaking and noise practices. The moment, they give a chance to a narrator to express his or her inner feelings to audience.
(Extract 1):
93 (.) Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-
(Extract 2) mmm//(audience asked)[( )]bibii↗mango=yolo=yayidinda?
↗aaa:wapi,~hono=wadinda=nacisi{(h)}nacisanzu(.0.2)yamunhu=tena(.)//(( ))
(Extract 3), wakabita=webata=alu=wa:Kwimba↓.
Una=habari=gani=mtemi=wapolisi=wakuluza:::=
=mwalimwi=mwilomwilamwidong‟a::nikamanyee::maSea=mo:nya=monagwe:(.)((
))/(xxx)(audience asked)wejelaule=kunachelaule?=kenechilonge(.)=
=sililongagwe::=hae::↗
Generally, it is a narrator‟s responsibility to ensure that the form and messages must happen in a fairy tales. Similarly, they give out the nearly relationship between a narrator and audience.
4.4.1.2.2 Interactive Modality Phones
Framing refers to the specific interactive modality (Ervin Goffman, 1986).
Whenever, the interactive modality is the type of in put or out put that is associated to a specific interaction with a system. In communicative genres, it contains fictional, ironic, playful, irreals (realistic) as further structural features on internal structure. In addition, its interactive modality is together with the production of format, i.e speaker‟s relation to their utterances as animator‟s reproducers of utterances. Keppler (1985) showed how the media genres work, i.e. news is characterized by a specific combination of verbal, visual and sound elements.
Quotes from N3,
94 Audience talked ((talking)) a narrator, itakulongaa::=nitakulonga(.)==heyo::=njiwa=kang‟alima(.)=nija=kuloonga:::=heyo:
:=njiwa=kang‟alima::=audience, ioooo↗njiwa=kangaruma:: audience, =iooo.=njiwa=kangarima:: audience, ↓=iooooo.=njiwa kangarima::=
N7, ikabahobi=bwehe(.)yakwanza=kwimba(.)//. cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=diguka=alanje=ma=jejele=kudika=halanje=
=cilango=huo=ciwadinda=
=cilango=diguka=halanje.
4.4.1.2.3 Interactional Sequential Markers
In additional, other aspects of communicative theory are interactional features that are marked as turn taking, dialogical principles, repairs, pauses, stress, and overlapping. Stress, Gogo fairy tales to the side of a narrator uses the stress for the purpose of showing the degree of emphasis and more on understandable of a certain message. Overlapping looks on the acts of a narrator and listener to cover a part of interest at the same time. This particular coincidation appears unintended to both of them. An interactive performance in fairy tales is obviously based on linguistic and structural part of what narrators accomplish to. In Gogo, fairy tales are existing in
N4,
95 …..audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.( )uca:(.)
Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[( )]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-(dialogical principle).
…..kumanga=yompera(.) mmm (audience asked)[(
)]bibii↗mango=yolo=yayidinda?↗aaa:wapi,~hono=wadinda=nacisi{(h)}nacisanzu(.
0.2)yamunhu=tena(.)//(( ))(ovellaping). wakaturuka=koko(.)
4.4.1.2.4 The Conversational Elements and Integral Part Patterns
The users in conversations interact using numerous features. These are text input, voice recognition and gestures. In addition, it contains the conversational elements and the integral part of this analytical level on features like: patterns of turn-taking, pair sequences, adjacency pairs, questions and answers, summons, and responses, laughing, clapping hands, provides signs, of astonishment (Knoblauch, 1987).
Patterns of turn-taking, in the case of narrations turns are composed of one or more than one turns. It implies between the user and the system that it is made of. They are normally being explained as the linguistic realization of actions. Also turn-taking in Gogo fairy tales is being explained by the actions being applied in relationship with the narrator and the listeners (audience). It associates the actions to things done with hands as justified and portrayed in extract N4:
…..audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.(
)uca:(.)Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑(
)kori::-iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-
96 More quotes are: N7, and N8; cikulona=cikuluta=nicalisina= alafu=munanii::= nayo(.)cilikuluta=dulye=kulimba=bacua=lilye(.)aaaaa↗= eeeee↗ Yakanza kwimba(.)//
Audience asked again ((conversation)) hodu=yakikabita=yakakuza(.)//eeeh// yakuza(.)wakamtika(.)//eee//walamtika(.).
Pair sequences and adjacency pairs: these forms create a unit of conversation and contain exchanges of turns. In one turn to another for each by two different speakers.
Often, turns are functionally are related to each other in their roles. Adjacent pairs tend to occur in responsive pairs, and they are splitting in sequence of turns. The utterances can be divided into first pair and second one. They might be greeting- greeting, question and answer offer-acceptance or rejection and agreement. The main intention of adjacency pairs is to coordinate turns and help to open and close the narrating act. The following examples are justified:
(Extract 1), a narrator asks a question and audience answer it. (The answer is a second part whereby it completes the adjacency pair). Extract from a N11. yakalaangalia=huyu=msicana=hoya=keleyenu(.)?anu=ndagwa(.)nanii=mcifu (pair one )
(audience repeate)((mcifu))huyu=nanii:=fisi=katiaci(.)mshipala::ngu(.)cagueni=fisi(.)kwisha= kazi(act of ((clapping))yafwaa::(.)//mmm//na=yule=mciiya=alikendaje((clapping))
(act of running)(.)//.(pair two).
97 The moment after, there is the existence of questions and answers, a similar topic with different participants; in Gogo fairy tales, one member can ask a question to the narrator according to situation. The semantic information carried out by questions is very important as it creates interaction between the narrator and the listener. The fully interactive question and answer context obtained through answering or replying on clarification by characterized by different features.
N4, (Extract 1)=ikawa=jumapili=nyekiyo:{(hhh)}//mmm//wele=jumatatu(.)
//mmm//audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.(
)uca:(.)Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑(
)kori::-iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-kutamaSWani(0.5)//.
It also summons, responses, laughing, clapping hands, provides signs, of astonishment. Summon means to call upon for specific action. A narrator is doing this to keep the audience‟s attention. Besides, the responses are kind of information that are provided by listeners on fairy tales. N10: hono =kuncici =hodudu =yaliyafwaaa↑(clapping narrator )((clapping)), hamba=katali=hecebita=kila=kitembe=mwana=ulondole=matanga=uite=mitebele=w ana=hambakatali(.)//. kwisha=kazi (act of ((clapping)) yafwaa::(.)//mmm//na=yule=mciiya=alikendaje
((clapping)) (act of running) (.)//, N11.
4.4.1.2.5 Non-verbal Communication Flows
Non-verbal communication is expressed through non-linguistic features as a means of the actions or attributes of humans in silence mode. Thereafter, it is including
98 their appearance and existence of the use of real objects, sounds, time zone use, smell, and space, that have socially shared significance and stimulate meaning in others (Nonverbal, 2018). It includes visual or kinesic cues, such as:- facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, and a body orientation, vocal and paralinguistic cues such as volume, pitch, rate, and an inflection. The next is proxemic cues such as space and distance; also it is olfactory or smells cues; these cues are provided through artifactual communication and appearance. All those cues have an effect in daily life to share information about the body language.
Furthermore, in communicative genre the non-verbal communication features in flows in transcripts, may be like: silence, pauses, coughing, sneef, the methods of particular situation and so forth. Perhaps, the silence occurrs through out the fairy tale narrating and happens by depending on what silence means. The relevance in silence is to provide the situation that shows how the audience itself gets the tasty and effect of the narration. Sometimes, in order to reduce the situation, one can either ask questions or more clarification on the area which is getting hard to understand or understood but it is very attractive. Here the answer may be direct for answering or waiting the forward in more narrating and followed by the next turn for more understanding. Concentrate on these evidences from: N8, pauses, coughing, sneef, yagana=mdala{(hh)}yana=yapotya:: /(.)//mmm//iyapotya:::
((sneef))=wamisalimiya=mihanye:↗ni(.) monga(.)//mmm//halikubite ((sniff))azunguka=mikindagu. (Narration 5).
Generally, nonverbal cues are used to emphasize spoken words and make the message clearly to be achieved.
99 Pausing, coughing, sniif, and the methods of particular situation are the linguistic signs used for unclear utterances. There are so many linguistic signs in Gogo fairy tales (narrations). Like a pause, it is used purposely as a tool to build intellectual and emotional connection to listeners. A pause causes, sometimes, an audience to process the message and wait for the next. Such areas that imply pauses in fairy tales are: N5, sizigi=je:la↓(.) mmm wakabita=mumbago(0.2)wakupita=muMbago(.)muo=kotea= sogea=muno=na=mwanawe(.).
N5, hononyelaga=hononje:la=jenyama(.)lakini=mafupa=hucecagwaa=gali=mo↗=monga
(.)//mmm//halikubite((sniff)).
Audience
((laughing))akaca=indege=ngilijeje::(.)//mmm//alumakubita=pale=nidondolee=gha! waka=kubica(.)//. N10.
Therefore, for the fairy tales to be attractive and understood one must engage in focusing on the behaviours in narrating.
4.4.1.2.6 The Opened and Closed Markers
The initiation in narrating a fairy tale on communicative genre is characterized by a pre-sequence in which a narrator checks if the situation and condition allows and can be fulfilled. If all participants are willing to cooperate in session and so far the narrating act can start. Of course, the researcher regards that the preference structure as a part of communicative genre due to regard conventions which heavily are
100 depending on the socio-cultural context of the society. The cultural specific of talking, conversation and narrating differ from one culture to another culture.
The initiation parenthesis, this is earlier remarks on the structure of fairy tales naturally based on showing remnants of rules real interaction. Initiation rituals open and closing remarks, obviously, these include with the welcoming and terminal features which are used in Gogo fairy tales. Nearly, all these functions as mutually in opening and closing the narration. In the end the numerous features can be recognized in sequences as can be done by turns. The opening markers contain the grab attention of the audience and make them to be ready and enthusiasm to hear what a narrator wants to narrate. Further exploration is taking in Concentrating on these examples:
N7, yali=munhu(.)//mmm// (initial form), ndo=ci=simo=cangu=totolii↓(.) .(finalize form).
N8, hono=yali=munhu(.)//,yali=munhu(.)// yaliko=kwali=munhu//(initiation ritual)N4.
Another feature is a farewell ritual; the Gogo fairy tales also have the rituals of departure. This is a sign which allocates the ending of the story like:
From the N1, the last phrase,
“Si mo na mhuji, totoliii!!!”
Also from the N6, the last two lines,
“wabite chilango wa awali ayiii wabite chilango wa awali ayiii Yule mdala
101 akawacha ne awo waliya zikaja zile mbisi zikafika zikamulya mdala uliya”
Termination of interactive contact in Gogo fairy tales a narrator has a specific mood and tone which represent that the story is reaching the end. They may be sometimes, a song, proverbs, lowering tone, pleasure, dancing and even motivational actions.
These extracts can be elucidated;
(extract 1), yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked(( ))mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)// mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//.
(Extract 2), mmm//huno=kusinanituma=naunituma=na=mutuma=lakini= noumusijile=kuno=kwenye=cokaya(.)// na=hadithi=yangu=ekainjile=huo=yainjile=ekala=baho↓ (.).
(Extract 3), tamani ↓(.). ci=simo=cangu= totoli↓ .
4.4.1.2.7 Participation Framework and Isomorphic Features
Goffmann (Erving Goffmann, 1981) demonstrated more situative features that are participation framework, longer stretches of talk and non-linguistic environment of social situation. The participation framework is constituted by the production format and the participation status, since the production format refers to the relation of the speaker to the proposition communicated or the figure portrayed. This looks on the participation status and the relation between the communicating participants and their utterances (a narrator and listener). It also may last with several turns. Longer
102 stretch of talk, is positioning in narrator in narrating a story. Sometimes, one may utter nearly three or four lines at a time. The situation can be seen in these extracts: participation framework, N11, kwisha=kazi (act of ((clapping)) yafwaa::(.)//mmm//na=yule=mciiya=alikendaje
((clapping)) (act of running)(.)//.
:(.)Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-kutamaSWani(0.5)//N4.
4.4.1.2.8 Non-linguistic and social arrangements
Nonetheless, non-linguistic and social arrangements are also a part of situative structure of communicative patterns. Thus, the communicative genre is not considered as a static product to be described by structural features only rather, it is a construction within the communicative actions. Obviously, they are relevant due to they bring about face to face interaction. Non-linguistic and social arrangements can be seen in Gogo fairy tales as: N3, justifies: yaliko=kwali=munhu//(initiation ritual),ioooo=heyo:njiwa=kang‟arima= kang‟arima::: iooo=hey:o=njiwa=kang‟arima:::
=iooooo=njiwa=kang‟arima(.)( )(audience loudly)EEEEE=iyendelezee::
((Laughing))(Audience loudly speak) tuendele:: endeleezaaa↗(song). ci=simo=cangu=totoliiii↓(closing remark).
103 4.4.1.3 External Structure of Gogo Fairy Tales
4.4.1.3.1 Communicative Milieus and Situation
Additionally, the third sub-category of communicative genre, which is explained as a complex communicative pattern of elements is external structure. Perhaps, communication is the fundamental activity through which social interaction is accomplished (Orlikowski & Yates, 1994). It is taken as inherently embedded and actively involved in numerous agents of every day social communicaty practices. In communicative genre, the external structure consists of communicative milieus and communicative situation as well as the selection of types of actors. Communicative milieus, (acts) can be described as either prosodic or orthographic units. While in communicative situation, words always do things. In fact, utterances do not merely explain the message but perform actions. Things like; playing, dancing, and other non-verbal joint actions. In Gogo narrations, the structures of communicative genre actually shape individual‟s communicative actions and community activities that are familiar with or live among. It is based on the communicative milieu‟s structure of a society.
In such view, it contains of those important elements which are a part of the ongoing current interactional order. The interaction exchange of utterances between different actors and the situative sociopartial relation established by the means of this interaction (Thomas Luckmann, 1987). Moreover, the selection depends on gender, age, status, groups of women status, street gangs, student cliques and other similarly groups. Again, they are characterized by the group of communicative participates in a social occasions. Similarly, it is characterized by the repertoire and vocalizations
104 of speaking practices and communicative patterns. The following extracts are shown:
(Extract 1), mmm//hodu=yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing))
Hodi=akakwimbaa↑ ((laughing))
[ ] Sungura=mutamwa=niko=yayahehe//=sungura=mutamwa=niko=yayahehe// audience asked) hukeaji muaje?//eeeeh//=laanate=wiobote//
//eeeeh//sungura=mutamwa=niko=yayahehe[ ]
Answered (.). =sungura=mutamwa=niko=yayahehe//=sungura=mutamwa= niko=yayahehe//
From a N3, =wegwe=nani=kataneni=
=njiwaa↑(.)kimolocee↑:=ukutye=ulyee:(.)//mmm//njiwa=ita=iMombuulaagaa↗
Clapping(( ))// hodu=wanyabahoka=wanyakayaja=waja=sitokulaga::(.) from a N4, yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked(( ))mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)// mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//.
4.4.1.3.2 Communicative Actions and Participants’ Relationship
Further, communicative genres are not considered to be static products, are described in structural features only rather they constructed within communicative
105 actions. They include actor‟s voices, relationship among the participants, the sequential organization forms, the cultural context as well as its dramatogic structure
(Abrahams, 1976). There are some narrations which describe the organization of bodily actions that affect the actions of participants at all. Along with, the sequential organization is all about the courses of action implemented through talk. A member in audience can ask a question or request an action then receive response in order to satisfy. After all, it is the cultural context and dramatogic structure. In Gogo fairy tales, the individual‟s choices occupy central importance for material desires. It contends that the choice in cultural context and structures are used to examine social behaviours of the community and turning to the world of fairy tales. From this, the audience appreciate the narrations and is enjoyed. Actor‟s voices, seemed in N2,
Asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing))
Hodi=akakwimbaa↑ ((laughing)) yikuchanya(.)//mmm//letehiii::=pandeee↑(.)//mmm//kakarakakara=kabwaaa↑(.)//m mm kayii↑ N11.
After all, a large domain of Gogo fairy tale that shows an action is an extract N3, N7 and N10. This appears where a new sequence starts with a song. The main function of this an action is to attract the audience (listeners), and works to preserve the stability and commitment at the session.
(Extract 3), =iooooo=njiwa=kang‟arima(.)( )(audience loudly)EEEEE=iyendelezee::
((laughing))(Audience loudly speak) tuendele:: endeleezaaa↗
Hodu=yakakuta=wegwe=nani=kataneni=
=njiwaa↑(.)kimolocee↑:=ukutye=ulyee:(.)//mmm//njiwa=ita=iMombuulaagaa↗
106 At the end of the scale, sometimes, the action is done by a narrator however not necessary to be responded by the listeners. Occasionally, the relationship among the participants, might guide by either initial utterances being done in fairy tales or and its responsive actions being physically received, all these actions one can take them as the point of interaction and the matter of participation between members. Types of fairy tales according to Gogo perspective. In Gogo community fairy tales are divided according to characters act and their positions that play part within. This study investigated that the characters in fairy tales, mostly are animals except of very few. There are four categorization of characters in Gogo fairy tales (Balisidya,
1977).
The first category of fairy tale is that, the ones which their characters are taking place in the attributes of totally animals. The difference is looked on the remarkable of carrying the human attributes. They may be like, a character lion represents a person who is very stubborn in Gogo society (king rule, hero and exploit the poor).
Besides, is a snake its representation is similarly to a person who likes to eat alone, not satisfying, secrecy person and general a bad man. In case of elephant can represent a man who has an enough body but in turn he has low, lazy and poor ability to do decision in mind. In this group also brings non-living materials such as, devils, dragons, gods and ghosts. Gogo people believe that these characters have more power and direct effects with ability to reveal the bad and harmful results compare to humans.
Either, another type of fairy tale is that which has the role to warn, prohibit and give out the permission to those who, intentionally will go against. In this category, weak characters end to be winners. Even birds are participating in these stories.
107 The next, is the fairy tales that conversely create a picture of human beings and their realities. They concentrate to human attributes. Thoroughly, the story may explain events from grandparents to grandchildren. They anticipate things, such as, starvation, marriages, infertility women, confrontations, norms, attitudes and customs of the tribe. This can be purposely explained to create the obedience for youths. Throughout these narrations, common peoples stand and represent their attributes and betterness of their deeds.
After all, the remaining group is the fairy tales which comprise both two characters.
A mixture of humans and animals and rarely contains birds.
In the light of this remarkable, fairy tales are used as a source of knowledge that are concerning with the natural history of Gogo community. They work orally and literary to continue to exist side by side till today. They are too interacting and influencing one another. On the other side, the process of narrating can emerge and develop the Gogo culture. Thus, it is worth to note that they are using this simple way for educating and give positive morals their young generations likely used them as a method of communicative genre for Gogo society.
In conclusion, the communicative genre in Gogo fairy tales is very important because they provides the light of growing the communicative processes for the functioning society (Gogo people). Groups of people (society) interact each other and share their cultural conventions through communication (fairy tales). Through fairy tales Gogo community provides the morality on psychological purposes, situation of difficulties and horrifying situations whenever these things must deal
108 with sacrifice which ought to be done and other physical obstacles that must be overcame.
Indeed, the Gogo language takes fairy tales as a primary tool for communicative interaction in Gogo society, which is produced. Although men are mostly excluded in Gogo fairy tales. They exist because they are regarded as rudely indirect and respectful ones for children. In contrast, women play a great role on fairy tale‟s speech activities. This is caused by the culture of Gogo community (women) is mostly based on dancing, children caring and speech behaviours of fairy tales that are based on the prevailing of the ideologies of gender (for women). Whereas the situation reveals that women are considered to be direct and mostly care givers of the family.
Hence, in turn, it consists of some kind of crystallization and complexity without to represent prototypical genres. Therefore, the prototypical is characterized by the contours of beginning, middle and the end. The opening consists of a frame of welcoming and readiness frame then, the second part is a continuity of a story while the closing part is a happy ending and the solutions to certain problems. It compiles positive morals and happily ever.
Nonetheless, the communicative genre provides a useful theoretical framework of analysis of verbal activities with the cultural speaking practices and communicative conventions (Bakhtin, 1979). It can be analysed as a process of their interactive production.
Fairy tales occur in speech genres as other communicative genres guided by the interaction. In such view it is determined by social structures. Gogo narrators as well
109 as the audience (listeners) are familiar with the speech features of Gogo fairy tales, they may be regarded as the orientation the interactants in producing, interpreting, analysing and communicating action. For instance a narrator can start to utter the phrase “wali munhu” and then, the audience arises on the narrator initiation, along with the communicative actions guided by the situation, taking place. Thereby they guide the interpretations of intended meaning too. These two communicative patterns guide the interaction and expectations about the course of communicative actions.
Consequently, in this theory a study was described using the intermediate structural level. The theory has directly linked the linguistic features and structures that serving as the material base for the social transmission of knowledge. Whether, this level is organized to the principles which refer to communicative genres.
Thoroughly, they are connected to linguistic features, code-related and social structures related in determination of communicative processes. Further, it is characterized by social modelling and key features of communicative acts
(Bergmann & Luckmann, 1995).
The importance of fairy tales in Gogo society is; that they are the most important genres in reflecting the children sensitivity, feeds children‟s souls, enriches the imagination and prepares the hope future. Gogo societies use them as an instrument of training youths about the past events and that they still have the same role and working today. Quite often, gogo fairy tales are used to boost children‟s imaginations and their cultural literacy. Either, the children‟s imagination can be used as a powerful and specific tool for creating positive thoughts. This inclusion
110 brings of different cultures and various ways of how to do things. The fairy tales is important for children because they reflect the sensitivity in best way.
Yet, fairy tales have a special position in learning session. They bring the great contribution in teaching reading, writing, speaking and listening skills to Gogo children. In this way, they can exploit teaching in various talents, fluency, diversity and politeness of the mother tongue (Boratav, 1973).
On the other hand, Gogo fairy tales can contribute much to the understanding of children‟s inner self life. Gogo people emphasis that Gogo fairy tales are important to teach children the Gogo morals and good behaviours. This is because they teach them the way of challenging things and events in life and overcoming the faced problems, acting in living independently and living in harmony with comfortable in nature. Surely, they also contribute to children‟s minds and personality development in their daily life. In doing so, they can express themselves, comfortably; search for love they desire and make them softened the conflicts with appropriate resolutions.
In addition, another informant ordered that the Gogo fairy tales actually offer the possibility to view the imaginations as defensive mechanisms for their generations in reality of life. Again, they can similarly offer more positive perspectives through the expression of creativity and healthy. Gogo children through working with their adults using hypo therapy of fairy tale with unconscious emotional can be accessed to facilitate the personality integration.
Besides, fairy tales have an endless amount of possibility and huge contribution on important matters. They are full of wonders and magic hopes, that they make current generations to believe that the best can actually happen.
111 It is therefore, concluded that the Gogo fairy tales are used as a model for communicative action and socially relevant communication. They constitute the mediation between narrating practices, social structure and the Gogo culture.
Though, through the other work of communicative genres (fairy tales) in Gogo society work as socially constructed searched solutions, which use them to unite, organize, routinize and standardize the dealing with the Gogo societal particular communicative problems. However, this seems to be varied from one culture to another of other Bantu societies. In different cultures, they construct their own specific different solutions to solve certain communicative problems. The exemplary of tale which justifies is a tale of number four (N4) which is concerning with “the father, child and a bird” the interactive between a narrator and listeners can set a task of resolving problems and searching more knowledge.
Hence, the activity is very useful for the specific function of communication between children and adults. For example, a listener can ask a question during the act of narrating or ask the need of more clarification on the matter. These strategies can be used purposely as a way of impressing someone or searching more knowledge or sometimes even to entertain. Give rises communicatives are not just determined by social context but also contribute to the very constitution of these contexts, by using a context for the interpretation of this particular activity
(Gumperz, 1982).
Generally, the elementary and specific function of Gogo fairy tales are used as socially constructed solutions for their youths which organizing use them for the aim of routining and standarding the dealing with their Gogo particular societal
112 communicative problems. From this thus, it seems quite obvious that different cultures vary in constructing their different solutions for specific communicative related problems in all over the world.
There are various reasons of why the Gogo fairy tales are not working to Gogo generations nowadays. On somewhat fairy tales as story- tellings and a part of communicative genre are assumed to be closely tied up with all aspects of language.
Since a language always is known and used as a window to the mind of humans. The mode of using in the written or spoken utterances convey very much important in providing messages in any information. After all, the flow of continuously changes in time need to be stopped and packed into bounded units, protected events and event sequencial materials. Occasionally, these events together are the key and skeleton of any story.
In the essence, the main reason as to why the currently Gogo fairy tales are not working is that; the most children nowadays acquire the fairy tales as pleasure but sooner they forget and unlearn to them. Because, they seem to be are not important for them. Perhaps, they are functioning in more literary view. Meaning that, they matter only on children feelings and thoughts that specific support the adventures of the moment.
Another reason is the ways and methods which are used in narrating are so traditionally and local ones. Obviously, this leads them to be ignored and instead of is allocating in contemporary matters. Obviously, the matter facts of them remaining only on the stories and never can be. Widely it is the matter of empirical that fairy tales are suitable for little children rather than huge ones. In the circulation of this
113 idea therefore, Gogo elders are not narrating the fairy tales to their children and grandchildren. Though, they are the reason of their generations to be in immorals and irrespectfull. Extract N1,
Katali=nhUku=naimwEwe(.)wanuwaliwali=ndUgu(.)WaliweyEndilemunomUno((si lence))Aale;=nhUku↑(.)yalima=gamgUnda(.)mwEwe↑(.)yahOna=nacherehAni.↓Baa dAe(.)nhUku=yakatyAUle(.)mii=yangu↑(.)na=nenaanjizaje=ne=honaa↑(.)Yakatya= sawa=nokulanjidza=yakamlanjidzaa↑=yakamanya.↓Hono;yAmanyA(.)↑yakatya;Alu u(.)mwEwe(.)nhulombaunyaazime=cici=msin‟gani=wAko↑(.)kwa=kweli=yakAmw azima=msin‟gani=yakAwiya=nayo=kukaya(.)yakabita=kitumaamile=niinga=baho= yakamlOnjela=yakatya=maagidzo=yakatya(.)waikosin‟gani=yangu=hono;taaje(.)siy owezekana;langa↑(.)undEtelejee=bIte=ketumaamile=undEtelejee=Yakatya=aa:ka=a nemsin‟gani=wAko=nokuletela=salAma.↓Hono;yabita; kUko; yakataaga=lusiin‟ganii↑(.)honoyataaga;lusin‟gani=yalondola=yalondola=sin‟gani=si kijeela (pause)Mwewe;.
Extract N2,
WaaTte(.)wasewasepatee↑kwa=hesamene=ya=ndugu=yee↑tu(pause)yasuku=yetu// mmm (0.4) basi=sungura=aka(xxx)nkunena(.)nkunena=saa↑na
//mmm//ulonge=viswanu(.)//mmm// walece=nkuhulaga// //mmm//yono= yakatyanali=hono=kuja=kunena(.)hanonenu=kuswanuu↑ waleche=nowasana(.)hanena=nahitaa↑//mmm//hanena=nahita(.)nawakulonga=yuwo no=sihitite=sihitite=ningawa=ndo=nahi=yuanahita(.)hunena=uleche=mkulaga=hune na=uleche=vulaga=hunena=walecHe=wa=polisi=wala=wa=kukaya=nalemaa↑ mm m//wala=chavukeni=nalemaa↑ mmm hodu=yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee
?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing))
Hodi=akakwimbaa↑ ((laughing))
114 4.4.2 The Gogo fairy tales analysis with the conversational theory
This analysis bases on the theory which is concerning with the organization. It sets basic features for working with the audio and video recordings of Gogo fairy tales and its social interactions in verbal and non verbal situations. It is because appears direct with the relative ordering of speakers, of turn-constructional units and sequential organization. The ways conversationalists link turns each other as a coherent series of interrelated communicative actions is called sequential organization (Mazeland, 2006). Then, in addition, is structural organization which focuses on turns (TCU‟s). Turns Constructional Units‟ actions work to analyze on how it is accomplished by features in environment for talking or acting in interaction. Quiet often, another is organization resource shaping in TCU‟s that is grounded in the phonetic realization of the talk. For this remarkable this is based on intonational packaging while, the remaining feature is recognizable action in context. A very broad range of sequences in fairy tales in interaction appear to serve the sequence construction comparable in which they are as turn construction.
The detailed examination of elements and structures of conversational theory is based on bringing immediate focus on communicative features. It is an approach of the study implies in social interaction of everyday life. Often simply, the analysis is based on basic structures that occur in patterns. These include: turn taking, silence, actions and so forth.
4.4.2.1 Turn Taking, Silence and Actions
Turn-taking in fairy tales is examined by the actions being implemented and the relationship between the narrator and the listerners (audience). For the purpose of this study, action refers to things done with hands whereas silence is to say nothing
115 in any period exceeding even for one second (1sec.). The duration of this may be a major or minor break. Hence, the characteristic of narrative discourse is to contain action descriptions. Gogo fairy tales are provided in (Extract 1) to illustrate this, ioooo=heyo: njiwa=kang‟arima=kang‟arima:::iooo=hey:o=njiwa=kang‟arima:::
=iooooo=njiwa=kang‟arima(.)( )(turn)
(Audience loudly)EEEEE=iyendelezee::((Laughing)) (Audience loudly speak) tuendele:: endeleezaaa↗(turn)
Hodu=yakakuta=wegwe=nani=kataneni==njiwaa↑(.)kimolocee↑:=ukutye=ulyee::(.)/
/mmm//njiwa=ita=iMombuulaagaa↗Clapping (( ))//.(turn).
Another large domain shows an action. It focuses on the explanation of practices using different turns during narrating.
(Extract 1), from N2, N7 and N10.
These appear where a new sequence starts with a song. The main role of this action is to attract the audience (listerners), and works to keep the stability and commitement at the session. Either, the creation of organized structure in physical activity might be complemented. Sometimes, action is done in tales not because it needs the audience‟s response, rather it emphasis certain omni-relevant matter of narrating.
Good examples come from (extracts) of narrations N4, N10, and N2. The action was done by a narrator but not necessary to be responded by the listeners. Of course, there are substantial narrations, which describe the organization of bodily actions
116 that tend to affect the actions of participants. An initial utterance being done in fairy tales and its responsive action being physically received, all these actions can be taken as a point of interaction and the matter of participation.
The relevance in silence is that, it provides a situation that shows how the audience itself gets the tasty of the narration. Silence, sometimes, removes and corrects a situation of misunderstanding because of asking questions and need of more clarification to the area which is getting hard to understand. The answer may exist direct for answering or waiting the forward in more narrating and followed by the next turn.
4.4.2.2 Interaction of Openings and Closing Features
Interaction can be defined as a normatively organized structure of attention (E.
Goffmann, 1957). When people interact is attending to one another attention. They are attending to one another‟s attention so as to provide the fully participation.
Along with, is to show how the fairy tales‟ language is used to describe the structure of the certain genre. They should, therefore, work on how people interact in communicating each other to narrate the stories. Even more is to look on the interactional logical of Gogo people and how are they happened to both two a narrator (speaker) and listener (audience). In Gogo fairy tales, the interactions exist in various areas, good examples are narrations like: N5, N6 and N9.
The interaction of question from the audience to the narrator invites on how the hearing and the tension is being carefully noted and need for interpretation. Rarely, sometimes, is the answer obtained by doing something which is analysed or recognizable for the aim of showing understanding of the turn. In relevant of
117 initiation of fairy tales of Gogo society, the rule is to conduct and implement the next moment of narrating. This is a thing that creates the interaction between the members in tales. Generally, the first speaker casts of web of meaning and get ready to inform the surrounding that they are in a certain occasion. However, it doesn‟t serve as greeting but it works as a response to be ready to listen.
The terminal features: In the end the various components can be recognized in sequences as can be done by turns. These include with the terminal features which are used in Gogo fairy tales. Nearly, all these function as mutually in closing. In extract of narration ten:
“ci=simo=cangu=totolii↑(.) .(closing marker)
It also appears in N3, N4 and N11. yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked(())mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)// mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//.(singing and dancing as closing marker).
The narrator is completing by a brief phrase which drops it to an ongoing interaction with the audience.
4.4.2.3 The Analysis of Linguistic and Structural Communicative Features in
Gogo Fairy Tales
The general language of the narrative genre is obviously one of the spoken discourses which are substantially subjected to linguistic and structural features.
Gogo fairy tales have got various linguistic and structural features which vary from
118 one genre to another. Likewise, using Gogo fairy tales represent the fundamental features of spoken discourse in communication, which is highly valued. These are more properly used in narration as communicative genre. Yet, from the linguistic point of view, some features that are used in the Gogo fairy tales are numerous and very important to this genre.
4.4.2.3.1 Suprasegmental Features
Duration of long words and how are they used, speakers view and turn, the intonation of the narrator, speech overlapping, intonation and specifically those based on transitional continuity, truncation of words and intonation units, pauses which focus on either medium or long, non-verbal activities and uncertain hearings.
Concentrate on these examples: N5, //mmm//kaiwa=yakuruka(.)//
(.)yakuira=ndege=ii=:::ra=baba=napata=ii:::ndege(.)//(duration of long words), wamwona=nyoka=caupele=K[hi]aa↗(hi)anyigalo=atyatya?(.)iii↗(0.2)(intonation), wamwona=nyoka=caupele=K[hi]aa↗(hi)anyigalo=atyatya?(.)iii↗(0.2)(uncertain hearing).
4.4.2.3.2 Accent, Terminal Pitch and Lengthening Contours
The research also realized the existence of an accent, lengthening, short pauses, the duration of long pauses, terminal pitch direction, accent contours, and the act of time of breathing. Breathing time is a pause for relaxation that a narrator accomplishes when he/she takes time for short rests. Lengthening include making a word longer by repeating a certain letter whether it is a conjunction, for example, (aaand) or articles like (thee). They are used as a strategy to have enough time to plan their ideas (Fadhil, Tariq, & Tahir, 2018). Another strategy is the uses of vocalizations,
119 extended marked quality, latching, ambient noises and phonetic details. Length is concerned with the relative duration of a number of successive syllables or the duration of a given syllable in one environment relative to the duration of the same syllable in another environment (Cruttenden & Kuhlen, 1986).
The study has processed that the linguistic features for Gogo fairy tales revealed the truth that fairy tales are very important and the powerful tool and the best choice in spoken discourse. This research has shown different tales that were analysed. For example, the story of a version number four (4) which concerns with the infertility woman. The fairy tales have been illustrated and displayed the feature of conversation. In generally, all linguistic diacritics of Gogo fairy tales display primary medium in communicating.
[()]hebu=bibi=lironje(.)//mmm//hodu=yakasoo↑la=audience=ihula(.)//mmm//yakabit a=vigagatii↑ mmm ihula=lika:lika::galuka=mwaa↑na[(.)]audience,likagunduka(.)li kahunduka=lawa=mwana=yawa=mwana(.)//mmm//yakula=kumgunda=kagana=yav
Uga=yalayausikazogali(.)aka!=nani=kabuu↑go=ugalya=huu?mzee=waa↑ngu=nani= kabuga=ugalya=uu?//mmm//=kata=magu=lete=tii↑le= mmm kate=sichoo↗fwaa↑= kate=sicoo↗fwaa↑=lete=tyilee↗(.)//mmm//hodu=waiko(.)wakapata=kulya(.)//mmm/
/no=ndo=wakabita=mucikukaya=muwaganga↗//
The most frequently uses set of linguistic and structural features in Gogo fairy tales are using the basic symbols, and conventions in doing transcriptions of spoken data,
Like: duration of long words had been seen in a narration version numbers:- (N2,
N3, N4, N4 and N5) totolii, likalikaa, yafwa, kulonga and the word wakuluza.
120 4.4.2.3.3 Stress Symbols
Bold is used as a tool for emphasis and remark or even comment. It works for short stretches in a fairy tale. Potentially, the capitalized exists due to put emphasis on something. Double symbols or underlined (Stress) all these parentheses can be represent the stress pattern. In Gogo, fairy tales can be seen in N4, N6, na=hadithi=yangu=ekainjile=huo=yainjile=ekala=baho↓/(.)(bold),
Capitalized can be shown in narrations like: hodu=wa=nyanDugu=wakaMmanya, mpungucie=tutace:MW(hi)a(.)// (Capital letter),
N3, mmalenga in N3, yakusola=Mmenee(.)// N3, mumwaganaa in N4, dume in N4
(double symbol).
(Extract 4),
Matandika(0.2)Matandika=yasola=ganaiyya=bene=nyumba=za=wanhu(.)//mmm// yakusola=Mmenee(.)//mmm//mene=za=wanhu(.)//mmm//na=ndo=yakamala=mwezi
=//mmm//yakusola=mbene(.)//mmm//ndo=siku=hiyo=ikawa=jumapili=nyekiyo:{(hh h)}//mmm//wele=jumatatu(.)//mmm//audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.( )uca:(.)Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-(underlined stress).
4.4.2.3.4 Carriage Returns (Intonation Units)
Carriage return (intonation unit), this is a stretch of speech in which uttered under a single and individual coherent intonation contour unit. This is used to indicate the
121 end of an intonation unit (Cruttenden & Kuhlen, 1986). It is a speech melody in a situation whereby the voice of utterances goes up and down during speaking. In the light of this, it works to show a speaker‟s emotional and feelings (happy, anger, gratitude). Pitch concerns the varying height of the pitch raised or lowerd of the voice over one syllable or over the number of successive syllable. This parenthesis
((↓) a down ward arrow: it is a linguistic sign that indicates the lowering of pitch. (↑)
An upward arrow represents the raised in pitch. Pitch track, Gogo fairy tales are rich in using pitch tracks. This (//) parenthes can be used as allocated in these extracts.
They work in indicating the final fall, i.e a concluding fall either to show the end of a turn or sometimes shows emphasis. These signs are located from Gogo fairy tales in different areas. Good examples are these extracts:
Audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.(
)uca:(.)Audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑(
)kori::-iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-(carriage return). uye=ne=mwana:ngu↓yani, yakawabita=vavivyoo↓(.),muperaa↑//eee yekumubitiche↓(lower pitch).
An example from the extract of narration Number (2), zikamalika(.) yakamuoopaa↑=mpaka=zikamalika(.)//mmm// yanotehayi=kati=ya=agwe=mbisi=ye=wamuhiti=yawa=kulomba=hukuteleta=ya=m ubiti//mmm//muhiti=na=mbwili=zakoo↑(.)kwamba muhitii↑yete=henwewanhuu↑(up ward pitch). iitenkuno=li:gwee[( )]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-
122 pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑(pitch track). zikafika=zikamu::wa=mdala=uliya(.)//,=cilango=ciwadinda(.)// yule=mciiya=alikendaje((clapping)) (act of running)(.)// (final fall).
4.4.2.3.5 Emphasis Segments
(-) Underlying is used to allocate the emphasis. Underline (-) is a parenthesis which work as a stress or emphasis, it increases loudness or high pitch. // phrase boundary marker: it is a double slash which indicates a final fall; i.e, a concluding fall which is either used to show the end of a turn or emphasis. Words like: N8, wangu=huyu=mwana=naye=yabita(.)//mmm//naye=yakabita=yakamleta=mwana(.)// mmm//yuno=yuakabita(.)//.Yakakwimba(.)//(phrase boundary marker).
Words in these extracts: bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::-iitenkuno= li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-(underlying parenthesis). nicapya=nicapya=nicolonga=cicetu=nicolonga=cicetu(.)akuja=mulume=muhini=cin g‟ombe(.)yale= wote=ra=yachunuka- uya=aaaa↑( )kori::-iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-
(underline).
It is a narrator‟s responsiblility to ensure that the form and messages happen in a fairy tales. Either, the interaction exists from facial expressions, eyes, mouths, hands, body shaking; noise practices give a chance for the narrator to express
123 feelings to audience. They similarly give out the nearly relationship between a narrator and audience. The following extracts elucidate, yakakwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee?hoduci=waci=wecelaule//((laughing)) hodi=akakwimbaa↑
((laughing)) hodu=yakikabita=yakakuza(.)//eeeh//yakuza(.)wakamtika(.)//eee//walamtika(.)walec a=liwaya(xxx)ase(.)cikuda=yafwe=cikumalengaa↑(.)//eeeh//hodu=yakawabita=vavi vyoo↓(.)mwaneyayo(.)yakabita=wa::yale=masogeza=munhu(.)//eeeh//wakavita=vile
=kalete=malenga=wakakwanza=yakakwimba=we we we=
4.4.2.3.6 Overlapping Codes
// // overlapping parenthesis, shows that speakers talk simultaneously (at a time). [ ] indicates the overlapped speech. Similarly, this linguistic sign is used for overllaping. It can be marked by left and right brackets. It shows the parts of speakers which occur simultaneously. It has been shown in utterances like:
It applies in words such as: „mmm‟ „eeeh‟ in N5, eee in N3, N7 and eeeh N10. The sign represents an interaction between speakers. kukutima(.)//mmm//yakatima=(overlapping parenthesis) hagwe↑(0.2) mmm wakachena=„mmm‟ „eeeh‟ in N5, eee in N3, N7 and eeeh N10. yayahehe in N2, (overlapped speech).
N3, anze=njiwa(.)//mmm//(())(audience asked)[()]izo=mbisi, (.)[( )]yakabita N3
(overlapping utterance).
124 4.4.2.3.7 Pauses
Pauses are considered as a way of expressing hesitancy (Stepanova, 2007). The silent pauses are used to have enough time to process what a speaker or narrator wants to say. These signs allocate different types of pauses. One is a (..) pause of less than five (5) seconds / pauses (.), and gaps (number) between utterances, it timed in terms of tenths of a second and inserted within parenthesis, either and within an utterance. Pause, (.), a dot in parenthesis indicates a micropause hearable by someone but not readily measurable, ordinarily less than (0.2sec). This parenthesis (…) or (number) is a pause used of more than five seconds (long pause), words like: this exists in (extracts), mara=akamtunduliza=kwa=nguvu(.)//mmm//henzilagati=aa↗(0.2)yuinjila, ci=simo=cangu=totoliii↓(.)(pause),
=na=upinde=wa=namliwowa==asa=cikubita=kwetu=namliwowa(.)//. yakakuza(0.2)wakakibata(0.2)(gap with number),
[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-kutamaSWani(..)//(pause less than 5seconds.). namuhondola=mwana:ngu:(.)// iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.) kutamaswani in N4, mumbago in N.2 and N9.(pause/dot). words like: ntakulonga in N4, wose in N3 and N8, =cacilete=yumbayumba=zoni//=(0.6)/(…)
Audience asked continue ((conversation))
125 wakonja(.)wakusaga=audience=repeate(…)wakonja (long pause more than 5 minutes).
4.4.2.3.8 Extra Utterances
A comma, (,) represents a pause in the stream of speech. It is used to indicate the dropping of a gaze. The end of a gaze it is a starting point of a new one. The other parenthesis is (( )) interaction utterances, when people interact are attending one another‟s attention. Along with, it is used to show how the fairy tales‟ language is used to describe the structure of the certain genre. It should, therefore, work on how people interact in communicating each other to narrate the stories. Even more is to look on the interactional logical of Gogo people and how are they happened to both two a narrator (speaker) and listener (audience). In Gogo fairy tales the interactions exist in various areas. N5, wawamtimu=yakunusa=zile=mambo=mwana=mchanga(.)yakunusa=mambo{(hh)}y akunusa=mambo=yakunusa=mambo(.)baba=adonusa=mambo=anonutima=na=sisi,
(comma).
Good examples are these streches: webata=alu=wa:Kwimba↓.
Una=habari=gani=mtemi=wapolisi=wakuluza:::=
=mwalimwi=mwilomwilamwidong‟a::nikamanyee::maSea=mo:nya=monagwe:(.)((
))/(xxx)(audience asked)wejelaule=kunachelaule?=kenechilonge(.)=
=sililongagwe::=hae::↗=(interaction between a narrator and audience).
Simultaneous utterances, i.e. consecutively speaking, it indicates the continuity speech. (Extract 1),
126 wakakunja↓=wahomanga mmm waahuma=wakahomanga=wakonja=wakampata= muhilu=uyu↑Mmonga,(simultaneously utterance).
4.4.2.3.9 Raising and Lengthening Segements
The raising tone or intonation: This indicates the raising tone of the speaker or narrator; nomally, it functions as emphasis on the utterance. Capital letters (A, B, C,) represent the use of a specifi part of an utterance, to be louder and high pitch rather than the surrounding talk. Words that are used are like: From Gogo fairy tales can be seen in the following words such as: iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=- pumbago?wakampakulya=akauliza=mwanangu=ayo?ndio↗=mwanangu=ayo?ndio
↗= wala=wa=kukaya=nalemaa↑ mmm wala=chavukeni=nalemaa↑ mmm hodu=yaka kwii↑mba(.)niimbee?(0.2)niimbee?(audience asked)niimbee?niimbee? uliyodumaa in N2, niimbe in N3 and ihula in N3.
=njiwa=kang‟arima(.)( )(audience loudly)EEEEE=iyendelezee:(capital letters)
::: lengthening segment is used more in Gogo fairy tales. These tales actually have used the various lengthening segments in narrating. Such examples are:
[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-
(.) mmm kata::lu=namuhondola=nzi::la↓=namuhondola=mwana:ngu:(.) mmm m dala=ayo=nokusaka=mna=nna=majimapete=hapanu=namje=nzi::la(.)//mmm//maka mpa=mapetya::(.) (Lengthening segment).
127 4.4.2.4 Phonetic Symbols and Prosodic Features in Gogo Fairy Tales
4.4.2.4.1 Streches Sequences
:: prolonging stretch or sound (more colons indicate prolonging. This applies in words such as: mone in N5, huudole in N4 and zohonekako in N4. yakatuga=mbii::si(.)//mmm//yakatuga=sungu::ra(.)//
//eeeh/citika=citika(.)//eeeh//=muwasino=mwahena=mutika(.)//eeeh//hodu=mune=y akawe=yazae=mile::=mile=yakwima(.)//
Mone:: in N5, huudole:: in N4 and zohonekako:: in N4.(prolonging stretch).
((Pause)) un-timed gaps that exist between the utterances of the speaker or narrator.
They are described with double parenthesis and inserted when they occur. This sometimes can be used in the following parenthesis. (-) Short un-timed pause within an utterance is representing using a dash.
=cacidete=yumbayumba=zoni //=(.), yakakuza(0.2)wakakibata(0.2)wonu= walicokibata=wakamgong‟ola=kukaya /(.)(Pause of untimed gap)
4.4.2.4.2 Degree Signs
(.),(..),(…) degree signs for quiet or soft talk. When you use more signs, they allocate more soften. Also, the sign of (◦…◦) (degree sign), is used as a part of produced utterance which is characterized to be softer than the surrounding talk.
((bu::t) = (goo:d)=) the degree marks show that the utterance is very soft. A transcript code remains indeterminate between “but” and “good” separarted by a slash.
Phrase words like:
128 mkono=mweluu↑iyomwe=seji=seji=homegwe//(.).mwana(.)//mmm//yuno=yuakabi ta(.)//.homegwee in N6, N10,wakonja=wakutulaga=mahemba= wakonja(.)wakusaga= audience=repeate(…)wakonja=walimberambera (degree sign).
This is evidenced in the narrative words, like ciinji in N7, imee in N3 and N4.
=cilango=diguka=hala:njema=jejele=kudika=halanje:○…○
=cilango=diguka=hala:njema=jejele=kudika=halanje:○…○(degree sign for soften talk).
4.4.2.4.3 Interruption Codes
(-) is a sign which functions as a self interruption. It is a hyphen after a word or a part. (( )) it is used for special characteristics of talk, like: (false talk), (whispered).
>< less than brackets, it is used in speeding up the pace of delivering, the part of the utterance which is speeded up. ~ the fluctuation over one word. The parenthesis is very rare existing in Gogo fairy tales. However, there are some few. These are examples: kalulitendeka(.)noteza=je~//mmm// wakagana=mU~=musina N4, (fluctuation).
Words that applied are: wacate=ha=ho=he>
<=wenye
129 we we> < we in N4, ka ka> < ka in N2 and mbu mbu> =cacilete=yumbayumba=zoni//=(0.6) Audience asked continue ((conversation)) yana=yapotya::/(.)//mmm//iyapotya:::((sneef))=wamisalimiya =kazi (act of ((clapping))yafwaa::(.)//mmm//na=yule=mciiya=alikendaje((clapping)) (act of running)((running))(.)//(special talk) Words like: mlume=kawasoa=yatuluse=inkula=yakatani- kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::-iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.) hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=-(self interruption), 4.4.2.4.4 Aspiration Signs (h),(hh),(hhh)-aspiration, (.hh) aspiration, {(hhh)}/{ } curl brackets, { } breath (the effect of a pause) or a gap of a silence. (h),(hh),(hhh)-aspiration signs. These represent the breathing and the act of laughing. Additionally, they are the linguistic signs that represent a short pause in narrating. Either, the sign (.hh) aspiration is used in aspirating with the inhalation (raised dot) (hh). In turn {(hhh)}/ { } curly brackets are used in glosses to differentiate elided material from overlap. Taking into account, an aspiration also is used for breathing. Another sign is { } breath (the effect of a pause) or a gap of a silence. Both breath and other sounds are separated by a slash (/) it is written as 130 {(hhh)}; however, it can sometimes be written as {(0.2)}. Clear examples are words like: yagwila=misi:ma{(hh)}mnozaule(.)// (.)//mmm//mihanyeni=mka::misa:{(hh)}=kalibu:ni (gap of a silence), Used in extracts like: Hodu=mdala=yule=nacecea=nhonze= akuta=mbisi=zafiKa(0.2)zazimile=sukumnitila=nhembo:=sui=nji:li({(hh)}zafika (.)//mmm//mihanyeni=mka::misa:{(hh)}=kalibu:ni, N4, kahulile:{(hh)}ye=yoyahita (aspiration), yalidodomyA={(hhh)}yagulile=yagakwe{(hhh )}kilea (aspiration with curl brackets) N4. 4.4.2.4.5 Unclear Phrases and Doubts Signs This sign of ( ) unclear phrases and doubts about actual words, happens in a something that is said but not heared (an empty parenthesis). (xxx) marks pausing and unclear utterances. This is a linguistic sign which is used for unclear utterances. [ ] Sometimes, can be used; this parenthesis [word].i.e [clear throat].non- lexical phenomenon, vocal and non-vocal interrupts with the lexical stretch. Such words that are applied in fairy tales are like: N4, munhu in N2 and zangu in N2. In extract number three (3). ………kwaliko=yali=munhu(0.3)(xxx), 131 kwaliko=yali=munhu mmm hono=yawa=munhu↑yakatuga=mbiisi(.)//mmm//yaka tuga=sungu::ra(.)//mmm//alu=hekikalaga=hakwe? mmm hono=wakikala=hagwe↑( 0.2)//mmm//wakachena=twende=mkalime=mbene=zangu:::(xxx), sungura=kawambia↓nkatenae walamtika(.)waleca=liwaya(xxx)(pausing and unclear words), kanze=njiwa(.)//mmm//(( ))(audience asked)[( )]izo(unclear words). / A single slash, is a slight and soft utterance which fall and may work to show the end the turn or suggest sometimes, if there is more to come. The sign shows a direct direction of the pitch movement, if it is rising, lowering or moderate. It is depending on the specific pitch level of the movement. In Gogo fairy tales, the sign can be seen in these extracts: ayu=kuno=yafika=kaya=kuno=alicile/(.)//. ‟ombe:=inyi=nasiya(.) mmm yakamleta=ilye=akamsola=ng‟ombe=yakamTo:a =(si ngle slash). 4.4.2.4.6 Other Parentheses (a)/(uh) hearings of the same strip of talk are displayed by putting an alternative hearings in parenthesis, separated by a single oblique or slash. (( )) It also represents the noises which are a part of the context. Things such as: telephone rings, baby crying and louding. = Latching sign is representing one speaker immediately follows the speaker before without any pause between two speakers. It is marked by equal signs. This happens after, the first speaker‟s and before second speaker‟s utterances. Situation like from an extract N2: 132 yanotehayi kataagwe mbisi ye muhiti. zikamalika(.)yanotehayi=kataagwe=(latching sign) ((Word)) /double brackets or parentheses stands for vocalisations which are not easy to spell out as a word, i.e coughing, clearing a throat, snort, sniff, footsteps, and long silence. Such narrations are: N2 in ulete nkulagaa, halikubite in N6. Hoduci=waci =wecelaule//((laughing)) hodi=akakwimbaa↑((laughing)). yana=yapotya::/(.)//mmm//iyapotya:::((sneef))=wamisalimiya bora=wenetu(.)hodu=liya=wakaca=hoduru=kusina=kance=hono =kuncici =hodudu =yaliyafwaaa↑(clapping narrator )((clapping)), 4.4.2.4.7 Pitch Signs = = double equal signs at the beginning of the latched word(s), are used to indicate latching and as with overlapping can also be used with non-lexical material. [lo] sign, it indicates low pitch register. (H) Throat, (H) in halation, indicates the audible inhalation with a capital letter “H” In linguistic field, the sign indicates audible inhalation or throat coughing. This extract exists: =coteaci=ghee!(H)↑hodu wacate=ha=ho=he> Words such as: N3, nitakulonga heyo nitakulonga(.)==heyo::=njiwa, Una=habari=gani=mtemi=wapolisi=wakuluza:::= =mwalimwi (doublé equal sign). 133 N2, ci =simo=cangu=totoli::.↓(low pitch regiser), This parenthesis also can be used within a speaker turn to show that a speaker is latching his word(s) to what has just gone before. Gradually, double square signs are entered in the left hand margin. [hi] sign, it indicates high pitch register. These extracts give some evidences from the Gogo fairy tales. kuwakongo=la=wanhu(.)//mmm//yakutema=nkE[hi]me::(.)// haliyaha=na=nY[hi]↗ungu=yakwe(.) = it is used also for a single turn and if it happens the turn is to be interrupted and interviened by another speaker, however, the first speaker continues their flow of speech. =cilango=diguka=hala:njema=jejele=kudika=halanje:○…○(turn) =cilango=diguka=hala:njema=jejele=kudika=halanje:○… ○(turn). (TEXT) parenthesis indicates the non-verbal sounds produced in vocal cords or tracts of speech event in participants. It may be coughing, throat, clearing, tongue clicking (snort, burp, gulp, swallow), breathing, sniff and yawn. Normally it is written by capital letters. (,) a comma, is used in slight rise to indicate the continuation, i.e for a list or to show that more is to come. yakagana=wafuga(.)walimbaho(,)=wasaganusage(comma). Generally, is to bear in mind that, Gogo fairy tales are very rich and highly valued in a matter of linguistic and structural features of Gogo language. In the remark of this, 134 there are a lot of parentheses that are recognized in Gogo fairy tales. Such as: (TSK) click of the tongue, (.) Distinctive pronounciation. (Uh) hesitation (filled pause), (Unh-unh) negative response (initial syllable stressed) and so forth. Henceforth, to end up, the structure of narrating the stories is determined using a step by step as they coordinated each other for different activities. On the other hand, different techniques lead in linguistic and structural features of Gogo fairy tales. 4.4.2.4.8 Non Linguistic (Structural) Features that Existed in Gogo Fairy Tales Communication is an essential coordination in organizing one‟s thoughts, actions and the uses of language. The area discusses the communicative behaviours in fairy tales as a group or team that applies actions. In general, it emphasizes the structural features that are used in Gogo fairy tales. These are some indicators that are uttered by the narrator for the intention of understanding the story. They are acknowledged with features, like:- okay, verbal gestures, i.e (mmmm), (eeeeeh), non verbal gestures, i.e (nodding). In many cases, the structural features and actions are integrated while the understanding is only analyzed together properly. 4.4.2.4.9 Initiation and Pre-telling Fragments Actually Gogo fairy tales have contained different features that can vary between these genres to the other genres. Fairy tales as an activity including what the introductory parts of what has been going on before the narrator enters the floor of narrating and what happens thereafter. Opening conversation takes a special coordination as two or more people move in interaction of being in one conversation. Besides, in narrations, (fairy tales) a narrator must first have to start 135 with the preparation (pre-narrative) and its response of collecting children (audience) who act as listeners. In fact, they produce the interaction and participation in the whole act. Some of the initiation rituals are like; “kwali munhu” means once upon a time! And then, audience responses by saying “Dii” or “mmm” or”eeeh” or sometimes they nod their heads with sound “mmmhhuuuu”A narrator: kwali munhuu! Audience: mmmhhhhuuu. So far, all these can help in coordinating on what is going to happen on the next. Therefore, the phrases above are used for initiator and the listener (audience). The phrase starting of “kwali munhu” (I) and the phrase response of mmm or dii or eeeh (L)” the initiative sequence and response sequence are provided the relationship between the initiator and the response, the thing that has very powerful relationship. From that, it invests in contiguity between the narrator and the listener by attaching in its position. 4.4.2.4.10 Song A song is a rhythmic piece of music that is created or composed to be sung and danced. It is used to motivate and entertain the listener. It is functioning as a tool for capturing the listener‟s intention. It is a song that gives the audience a deep understanding about words, lyrics and clarification of the message contained in it. It provides a form of interaction between the narrator and the listeners. They function to motivate and make them think about the fairy tales‟ message. In so far, the related fairy tales in this study use songs as tools to emphasize the message contained within. Their songs are forms of interaction that are embedded in the cultural context of Gogo people. Concentrate on examples: (Extract 1), =cohari=kulonDola==cohari=kulonDola= 136 =cilimono=ng‟oze::=nomlilowa= =cohari=kulondola==cohari=kulondola= =cilimono=ng‟oze::=nomlilowa =we kumbala=gwegwe=nomliloa=alukubita=haii↗== (song). (Extract 2), Mtulie:::mlungugwe=wa=Mazengo:::=ye=katare= yukonga=wana= masea=walimwingira=nanene=china=cidewa: yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked(( ))mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)// mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//.(song). 4.4.2.4.11 The Audience’s Feed-back Channelling Unit (Bakhtin, (1986) states that; a listener can also create an understanding by uttering appropriate responses to the speakers‟ speech. If it happens one to tell a story, the other conversational partner frequently provides a variety comments on the story. Spontaneously, the situation exists because this is calling as a feedback. Feedback refers to the process by which contextual information on performance on something is conveyed back to those involved in actions or interaction (Mitchell et al., 2017). It is an important element to achieve full potential of communication. It is a part of the receivers response communicated back to the sender. They are the results of effectiveness to the related message. Generally, feedback is the essence of two way communication. In two parties of (fairy tales session) a narrator and audience (listeners) are expected to use terms, such as uh uh uh or mmmh or yeah or eeeeh or any other similar phrases. In this study, parenthesis can be obtained in these extracts: 137 (Extract 1), audience asked ((asking a question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.( )uca:(.) Audience. (Extract 2), …..asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- // audience asked) hukeaji muaje? Eeeeh=laanate=wiobote// (feedback unit). Hence, all the above verbal responses, visual displays (facial expressions, nods, and gestures) represent the examples of back channels that are provided by Gogo people in listening the fairy tales. They imply that either the narrator should continue in narrating the fairy tales or provide more clarification about the certain session. 4.4.2.4.12 The Existence of Variation in Performance Basically, human communication is necessarily interconnected with thr personal communication on physical, social and psychological markings of speech. In this essence, the act of narrating between narrators varies with each other. Of course, the difference exists due to demands and needs of communicative situation. Therefore, this causes temporal changes in segmental properties. Such things are manifested in: slowering narrating rate, phrase length, more frequently pausing and louding, mood, communication style, discourse complexity, and others. Some narrators use a speed of articulatory movements, and prosodic features. On the other hand, the issue of age, gender, area, are also taken to be the reasons for differences. Thus, presumably, there is no one way which is used in performing the fairy tales for different narrators because of fluently uses of language and the rate case. 138 4.4.2.4.13 Interacting Closing Remarks Closing of fairy tales do not hang up without agreeing to hang up. A narrator proposes to close the story, either using lowering the tone and intonation together with the phrases. They may be normally, either the introducing of names, conversation, songs, clapping and dancing or foods that are eaten before the story narrated and even Gogo traditional proverbs. As illustrated in these extracts: (Extract 1), ci =simo=cangu=totoli::.↓(lowering tone). (Extract 2), hadithi=yangu=ekainjile=huo=yainjile=ekala=baho↓ (.). (Finishing phrase). (Extract 3), Nlienda kusaga mtama nilipofika njiani nkajikwaa na viunga vyangu vikamwagika, Na hadithi yangu ikaishia hapo!!! (Gogo traditional‟s proverb). yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked (( ))mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)/ /mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//. (singing and dancing). 4.5 Concluding Remarks The fairy tales are essential tool for Gogo people as they mark a starting point of daily life conversations, personal consent and body autonomy used for children. Normally, they are circulated in the tradition of new generations that inspire the power of childhood to adults. Throughout, their history, the Gogo fairy tales have caused the most institutions for progressive and conservative which go on the mind‟s growing children. 139 So far, the fairy tales primarily work as they are concerned with morals and spiritual progress; they are contained with the spiritual doctrine, beliefs, positive morals and manners. Therefore, from these matters, they put children into the achievement of salvation and lead in the controlled role. This is actually based on how children should behave alongside their own distinctive needs. Whereas, the situation leads them to show how their future roles will be. Therefore, it is very important to equip the Gogo children and Bantu in general with the stories in order to keep them linked to the past and ready for future. 140 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter gives the whole summary of the findings and discussions of the findings as described in the previous chapter. The chapter also, provides the conclusion and recommendations for further research with regard to the topic under the study. 5.2 Summary of the Findings This research aimed at exploring the various linguistic features about the Gogo fairy tales. Again it shows how fairy tales are used as communicative genres in Gogo daily life. Following this, the collection of Gogo fairy tales facilitated in creating a data base that was explored. Certainly, the related study was guided by four major objectives which were set to collect fairy tales in Gogo language, to create the data base of Gogo fairy tales, and provide an overview of the theory of communicative genres. These were followed by the analysis of the linguistic and structural communicative features of Gogo fairy tales. This critical study has revealed that the Gogo fairy tales have huge and diverse linguistic and structural features in narrating fairy tales. Also, from the data generated and analysed in this study, it is concluded that Gogo fairy tales are rich in communicative practices, that are used to shape the Gogo people in response to their norms, attitudes and customs. Language used in Gogo fairy tales reflect the culture of a Gogo society it enhances the aethetics and beauty of how their society is. For fairy tales to be effective, these features must be applied o accomplish them. From 141 these elementary features, it vividly shows that each community disposes a large amount of repertoire of communicative genres in different patterns. This study had revealed two techniques that were used in Gogo fairy tales. Ultimately, both they are relying on the aspects of the linguistic and non linguistic features. Further more, these are used as techniques in Gogo and Bantu communicative genres. Obviously, they are deploying in using a Gogo language with the purpose of providing their audience with clues about how adults want to influence them. In fact, some scholars argue that all discourses depend on the context. This is because of different discourse situations which exist in the languages. They require different patterns of communicative practice that must speak of discourses rather than of discourse (Gee, 1992). Indeed, because all discourses take place in certain limited context, the producer of a piece of discourse (speaker or narrator or writer) purposefully deploys and conveys in some time and place provide the clear clues about his or her intention to be listened and interpreted by their intended recipient(s) (audience). These produced clues have, generally, been selected with that audience, in that time context of and place, and with those purposes in mind. 5.3 Conclusion and Recommendations As stated earlier in the proceeding chapters, the study has analyzed the Gogo traditional narrations as communicative genres in Gogo society. It focused on the area of fairy tales and the uses of Gogo language in narrating. The main purpose in using the fairy tales for their generations is to control morals and values of their community. Then, they are used to preserve their own culture for new coming youths. In fact, the study has discussed the views expressed by respondents. Thus, 142 the findings obtained in this study give out a real picture of what is being done in Gogo community. In fact, there are very few works documented about Gogo language and the problem critically exists in linguistic perspective. 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New York: Duke University Press. 151 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Guiding Questions for Interviews Dear respondent, I, Salama Rashid Suleiman, would like to inform you that the purpose of this interview is to gather information in order to accomplish the study of “THE GOGO FAIRY TALES AS COMMUNICATIVE GENRES”. The study is conducted as partial requirement for Masters Degree at the University of Dodoma. Please respond to the provided questions freely, and rest assured that all information will be treated confidential and will be used for academic purpose only. Answer the following questions by putting a tick (√) in front of the answer you have chosen and give out explanations where required: Leading Explanations 1. Date: 2. Narrator‟s name: 3. Sex: 4. Age of respondent: 5. Marital status: 6. Occupation: 7. Level of Education: 8. The tales‟ name: 9. The composition of the audience: 1) What do you understand by the term Gogo fairy tales? 2) Can you narrate at least three Gogo fairy tales? 152 3) If the answer in (2) is (Yes) please! Narrate them using Gogo language. 4) What is the importance‟s of Gogo fairy tales in new generations of Gogo? 5) What are the messages obtained in these fairy tales? 6) Do the Gogo fairy tales work properly in your society? If the answer is (No), what are the reasons? If (Yes) Explain briefly how do they work? 7) What are the two methods that lead the degradation of Gogo morals? 8) Do you think that, the purpose of fairy tales is achieved? If the answer is (No) or (Yes) then why? Give reasons. 9) Why the current generation‟s donot use these tales? 10) What techniques and tactics to be taken so as to ensure the Gogo fairy tales work properly in the society? 12) What are the things to do to ensure that Gogo morals remain in our society using fairy tales? 13) What are the techniques that are used to generate positive morals nowadays? 14) Are they applicable? 153 Appendix 2: Leading Questions 1. What is the origin of fairy tales of Gogo society? 2. Who is the responsible and controller of Gogo fairy tales? 3. Who is the initiator of these narrations? 4. Who is the responsible to hold the people responsible when they misbehave? 5. What society ought to do to control the Gogo morals? 154 Appendix 3: Steps in doing Transcription 1. Step 1: Turning in the work 2. Step two: Doing a first draft of roughly transcription 3. Step three: Read and understanding very well in careful the symbols and diacritics signs of spoken data 4. Step four: Doing an interactional sociolinguistic transcription 5. Step five: Concentrate on conversational analysis notation 6. Step six: Work through 155 Appendix 4: Diacritics and Structural Features that are Used in Gogo Fairy Tales Transcriptive Analysis: Adapted From: (Du Bois, Schuetze-Coburn, Cumming, & Paolino, 1993), (John & Norine, 1993), (Atkinson & Heritage, 1999), (Cruttenden & Kuhlen, 1986) and (Langford, 1994). THE LAY OUT: Bold, capitalized, double symbols, or underlined (Stress) all these parentheses can represent the stress pattern. Carriage return (intonation unit), this is a stretch of speech uttered under a single coherent intonation contour. Nomally is used to indicate the end of an intonation unit (Cruttenden & Kuhlen, 1986). = simultaneous utterances, consecutively speaking, it indicates the continuity speech. [Simultaneously utterances: When two speakers start talking at the same time their utterances are linked together by left hand brackets (John & Norine, 1993). ↑an upward arrow, it represents the raised in pitch. ↓ a down ward arrow, it indicates the lowering of pitch. (-) Underlying, it allocates the emphasis. It applies in these extracts: // this parenthes can be used as allocated in these extracts. They are working in indicating the final fall, i.e a concluding fall either to show the end of a turn or sometimes shows emphasis. Characteristics of speech delivery: In Gogo transcripts; punctuation is used to mark not conventional grammatical units but, rather, attempts to capture 156 characteristics of speech delivery. For example, a colon indicates an extension of the sound or syllable (Atkinson & Heritage, 1999). // // overlapping parenthesis, shows that speakers are talking simultaneously (at a time). [ ] indicates the overlapped speech. Similarly, this linguistic sign is used for overllaping. .. a pause of less than five (5) seconds / Pauses (.), and gaps (number) between utterances, it timed in tenths of a second and inserted within parenthesis, either within an utterance. Pitch track, Gogo fairy tales are rich in using pitch track. (,) A comma, it represents a pause in the stream of speech. (,) comma, it is used to indicate the dropping of a gaze. The end of a gaze it is a starting point of a new one. (.) a dot in parenthesis indicates a micropause hearable but not readily measurable, ordinarily less than (0.2sec). ? Raising tone or intonation. It indicates the raising tone of the speaker or narrator; nomally it functions as emphasis on the utterance. :: prolonging stretch or sound (when you use more colons is applying more prolonging. Underline (-) is a parenthesis which is working as a stress or emphasis, it increases loudness or high pitch. Words of (.),(..),(…) degree sign for quiet or soft talk. When you are using more signs allocate more soften. 157 - is a sign functions as a self interruption. It is a hyphen after a word or a part. Audible aspirations: (h),(hh),(hhh) -aspiration. It represents the breathing, laughter, (.hh) aspiration. It is used in aspiration with inhalation (raised dot) (hh). {(hhh)}/ { } curly brackets are used in glosses to differentiate elided material from overlap. Aspiration also is used for breathing. { } breath (the effect of a pause) or a gap of a silence. Both breath and other sound are separated by a slash (/) it is written as {(hhh)} however sometimes can be written as {(0.2)}. ( ) unclear phrases and doubts about actual words, it happens in a something that is said but not hearing (empty parenthesis) this extract evidenced. (a)/(uh) hearings of the same strip of talk are displayed by putting the alternative hearings in parenthesis, separated by a single oblique or slash. (bu::t) = (goo:d)= the degree marks show that the utterance is very soft. A transcript remains indeterminate between “but” and “good” separarted by a slash. (xxx) Pausing and unclear utterances. This is a linguistic sign which is used for unclear utterances. (( )) interaction utterances: It also represents the noises and vocalizations which are a part of the context. i.e telephone rings. It is similarly used in the vocalisattions that are not easy to spell out like: (snort, sniff and cough). 158 For special characteristics of talk: (falsetto, whispered and so forth) [( )] overlapping utterances, it can be marked by left and right brackets. It aims to show which parts of speakers occur simultaneously. Capital letters (A, B, C) or CAPS: the parenthesis represents the use of apart of utterance which is louder than the surrounding talk. ◦…◦ the degree sign, it is used to as a part of utterance which is softer than the surrounding talk. This is evidenced in the narrations‟ =Latching: it represents one speaker immediately follows the speaker before without any pause between two speakers. It marked by equal signs. It happens after, the first speaker‟s utterances and before second speaker‟s utterances. = = double equal signs at the beginning of the latched word(s), are used to indicate latching and as with overlapping can also be used with non-lexical material. = = This parenthesis also can be used within a speaker turn to show that a speaker is latching his word(s) to what has just gone before. Gradually the double square signs are entered in the left hand margin. [hi] it indicates high pitch register. These extracts are some evidences from the Gogo fairy tales. [lo] it indicates low pitch register. …/ (number) a pause of more than five seconds (long pause). = it is used also for a single turn if the turn is interrupted by another speaker but the first speaker continues their flow of speech. 159 ((word)) double brackets or parentheses. It stands for vocalisations which are not easy to spell out as a word.i.e coughing, clearing a throat, snort, sniff, footsteps, and long silence. Such narrations are: (TEXT) it indicates the non-verbal sounds produced in vocal cords or tracts of speech event in participants.it may be coughing, throat, clearing, tongue clicking (snort, burp, gulp, swallow), breathing, sniff and yawn. Nomally it is written by capital letters. Such examples: refers to above. [ ] Sometimes, it can be used this parenthesis [word].i.e [clear throat].non- lexical phenomenon, vocal and non-vocal which interrupts the lexical stretch. (( )) it is used for special characteristics of talk, like: (falsetalk),(whispered) > < less than brackets, it is speeding up the pace of delivering, the part of the utterance which is speeded up. ((Pause)) untimed gaps between utterances are described with double parenthesis and inserted when they occur. Sometimes it can be used the following parenhesis. (-) Ashort untimed pause within an utterance is representning using a dash. // phrase boundary markers, it is adouble slash which indicates a final fall, i.e a concluding fall either to show the end of a turn or emphasis. . Distinctive pronounciation / A single slash, is a slight fall which may end the turn or suggest there is more to come. The sign shows the direct direction of the pitch movement if it is rising, lowering or moderate. It is depending on the specific pitch level of the movement. 160 (,) a comma, used in slight rise to indicate the continuation i.e for a list or to show that more is to come. ::: lengthening segment, it is used more in Gogo fairy tales. These tales are actually have used the various lengthening segments in narrating. ~ Fluctuation over one word. The parenthesis is very rare existing in Gogo fairy tales. These are examples: (H) Throat, (H) In halation, it indicates the audible inhalation with a capital letter “H” In linguistic field the sign is indicating audible inhalation or throat coughing. Capital letters indicate the loudness ( ) an empty bracket represents: a long pause Pausing Unclear utterances [Left hand bracket used in simultaneously utterances for speakers who speak at a time. [ ] left and right brackets used for showing which parts of speakers occur simultaneously. Can be used overlapping utterances Latching (=) used for one speaker immediately follows the speaker before without any pause between two speakers. It stands after first speaker utterances and before second speaker‟s utterance. Used also for a single turn if the turn is interrupted by another speaker. However, the first speaker continues his flow of speech. 161 Used if whether there are more than one speakers latches on to the previous utterances. Double brackets (( )) used if whether there are more than one speakers latches on to the previous utterances. The left and right hand brackets [( )] 162 Appendix 5: Linguistic Variations from Gogo Language and Standard Swahili Pronounciation Ci: is an utterance which indicates the word „CHI‟ example: cigogo = chigogo Lya: this utterance stands for the word that means la. 163 Appendix 6: The Harmonization of Orthography from the Bantu Languages Specific in “Gogo Language” Of Tanzania Rules in writing The writing system for the Gogo language of (Dodoma) Tanzania uses the Roman alphabet consisting of five vowels and twenty four consonants. The short vowels will be represented by a single vowel: a, e, i, o, u. in contrast the long vowels will be represented by doubling the vowel sounds. The Vowel length is predictable; a short vowel will be used normal. Combinations of two sounds consecutively used to represent some of the sounds; like: ch, ng‟, nh, ny and others. At this context sound like ch is used for [c], example: chigogo-cigogo The sound “h” is used to indicate voicelessness in the nasal consonants, such as: mh, ngh, nh, nyh, ng‟h: nyhende, nhembo, nhtamigwe and nghambi Tone is an important grammatical feature in Gogo language however it does not marked by. The Gogo language is being written conjunctively format; example: yakugogomoka. Demonstratives should be written as a separate word; e.g. mtu huyu (Swahili), munhu gwegwe (Cigogo). Question phrases should be independently used, except for exceptional case, when they are reduced to clitics at the end of another word. 164 Appendix 7: The Sample of Data (Gogo Fairy Tale) The following narration shows the sample of our collection of Gogo fairy tales that were collected by a researcher, Salama Rashid Suleiman. Additionally, the story shows how the Gogo language is used in fairy tales. This encorporates with the linguistic and structural features contained with. Narration four Gogo Language: Isimo Lya Matandika Swahili Language: Hadithi Ya Matandika English Language: The Story of A Man Whose Name Is Called Matandika The story was collected and written by a researcher whose name is Salama Rashid Suleimann. She took it from the narrator who is called Rebbecca Nongana Samamba at Kizota Hombolo village at Dodoma region, in the year 2017. She is a female who is living at (Kizota) Hombolo village at Dodoma Region. She has 102 years old. She is married with children and grandchildren. Her occupation is a farmer. She has never gone to school. Additionally, this work was being conducted by Twenty five (25) people of both sexes (males and females). This story is a version number four; the date of collection is December, 2017 at Hombolo village. In Gogo transcription Matandika(0.2)Matandika=yasola=ganaiyya=bene=nyumba=za=wanhu(.)//mmm//y akusola=Mmenee(.)//mmm//mene=za=wanhu(.)//mmm//na=ndo=yakamala=mwezi= //mmm//yakusola=mbene(.)//mmm//ndo=siku=hiyo=ikawa=jumapili=nyekiyo:{(hhh )}//mmm//wele=jumatatu(.)//mmm//audience asked((asking a 165 question))bibi↗=muele=gaga=hu?aahh.( )uca:(.)audience asked [( )] bibi=mbene=kalagahai=pumbago?eeee↗uya=aaaa↑( )kori::- iitenkuno=li:gwee[()]iiii↑(.)hodu=kohi::gwei=akulee↗=- kutamaSWani(0.5)//mmm//(())iiiii↗hodu=holiliGwei=kono=ligwe(.)//mmm//senjeke =nailya=mulungu=//mmm//alu{(hhh)}=kweli=mulango(.)//mmm//usagea=yakuhita(. )//mmm//mutendikuno=nani=wakusola=asokuwona=mhenga(.)//mmm//na=ndo=sik u=hiyo=waka- waka{(hh)}uchenga=uwanja(.)//mmm//nyakuchenga=kahulule(0.3)//mmm//nanilya =kutiya=mchenga(.)//mmm//hodu=yakamanha=wanhu(.)//mmm//yakabita=mulula(.) //mmm//yaliyabita=muhula=na=ule=mchenga(.)//mmm//wakaja=mchenga=yamuhiy a=muhita(.)//mmm//yahitare=mukene=ntiyatya(0.2)//mmm//wakatyatya:::mpaka=ku ko=kibwenuni(0.3)//mmm//waliwafika=hacihebwee↗//mmm//wakaKusanyika=yaku lunuka(.)//mmm//yawamanha=yatii:te.//mmm//yakate- vumilia=//mmm//yakatii:ta=wakutayalalamika=nayo(.)//mmm//wakasonga=wakama nha=wakamanha=wakaTOlya(.)wakamuu:laga//mmm//(.)hono=mahulagahaya=wak utya=arubahai=hayi(.)//mmm//wakalyiyondolo=mulango=wa=muperaa↑//eee//yeku mubitiche↓=munhu=hayi=wakalondola=mulango=wa=mupera:wakamuzika(.) mm m alu=yule=kala=myiaka=yiii↑miha:::yo↓(.) mmm hodu=wa=nyanDugu=wakaM manya=tono=kahulile:{(hh)}ye=yoyahita=munhu=yuye=yakatoya=yakabita=kutajil a=muhanga=yompela(0.2)//mmm//kila=wabaHo=hodu=waKawa=kwanza=Kwimba (0.4)waKa=kwanza=kwimba(0.2)//mmm//wapolisi=wahon=na( )=wapolisi=wakaku:za=wakalondola:::(0.4)wakagana=mU~=musina=cocose=kuma nga=yompera(.)//mmm//(audience 166 asked)[()]bibii↗mango=yolo=yayidinda?↗aaa:wapi,~hono=wadinda=nacisi{(h)}nac isanzu(.0.2)yamunhu=tena(.)//(( )) wakaturuka=koko(.)waliwalabita(.)//mmm//wakaM{(hh)}wakaweBata(.)//mmm//ka Hulule=wakamleta=kuno(.)// //mmm//kwa=mtemi=Te:tero↓(0.2)//mmm//wakishamuleta=kwa=mtemi=Te:tero=// mmm//wakwishamleta=kwa=mtemi=Te:tero(.)kahulule=Te:tero=kutakaka:ene=sim anyire↗(.)//mmm//nalimpakani://eeeh//anenise=simanyile(.)//eeeeh//zemilemwido= mung‟aRirya(0.2) mmm zemilemida=zimanyira(.) mmm wapolisi=wahaza=hedo ma=haja(.)//mmm//( )(.)wachaKa=kachaka=yuno=hulaga=maSea(.) mmm kenhee↑ mmm hopekelewa kacha=lemkenea=ane=simanyire(.)//mmm//wachaka=Hulule,=Mulula=,Chilewa= Mazengo(.)//mmm//wanhu=hhawa{( )}audience =wane[ (.)//mmm//howanya=kuchenga=kwani=tokelebabayahowaulago munhu uyo(.)hodu=wakabita{( hh)}=wakabita=webata=alu=wa:Kwimba↓. Una=habari=gani=mtemi=wapolisi=wakuluza:::= =mwalimwi=mwilomwilamwidong‟a::nikamanyee::maSea=mo:nya=monagwe:(.)(( ))/(xxx)(audience asked)wejelaule=kunachelaule?=kenechilonge(.)= =sililongagwe::=hae::↗= =nalimpakani:[(xxx)]=sinajine=risase=yegulu=yegulu(xxx)= =muwauzaje=walonge:=konowanue=holaJe=muwauzaje=walonje:::= =balua=ikulongagwe=hae:::=balua=ikulonga=we:::=we:::= 167 =balua=ya=mulungu=ikulonGa(0.2)Matandika=kwe::kaulule=wamulula=jirani=pa ko=polini(.)= =ao:::mpoli:://= =yatuma=tumi=weskari=yamgomba=wawasekulanGa(.)= =yatuma=tumi=weskari=yamgomba=wawasekulanGa(.)= =muhula=yale=baho::=yamjenda=yakulonga=simaafungwe=kamuu↑le muno=yachongolwa =yusima=kunele= =babu=na=mganga=walimuu↑Wa=munhu↓(.)wenda=wa=kenda=wa=mazok=muper a =nalundike=wala=wona=kon=waliko=munhu(0.2)Mazenga=yakuzila=gwe:::=yamu mazingira=yalidodomyA={(hhh)}yagulile=yagakwe{(hhh )}kilea=mwana=chungua=yangu=mkuya= =mwana=chungua=yangu=mkuya,= =mukala=mse=wanangu=walece=kuyila,(.)ilimwangoye=ilimwangoye=welimangoy e=mulungu==mwenye=choyo=yamanyile=mlangi ya=mwenye=ya=kulonga(.)= =kayila=mnomnogwee=katema=mnunguye=wasogwe= =wafundi=wa=miselo=nyamkeke=yale=baba=nilimjela=eee:::↗idodomya=wenjelee :::=nyumba=eee:::=wazungu=konde(.)//mmm//hane=baba=eee:::fundi=munamucele ==mukagone=kuzima=ngoo=zenu:::↓funmi=dodo=inya=magome=zo:::honekako=b aBa(.) 168 Mtulie:::mlungugwe=wa=Mazengo:::=ye=katare=yukonga=wana=masea=walimwi ngira=nanene=china=cidewa: yakwira=yunakwe=hono=mnamtaka=mie=hae:::(( ))iyo::(..)// audience asked(( ))mwenginega=huudo:::le?answered, yuavinaga=ni:ndo(0.3)// mmm//sikanyagala=ndala=kule(.)//((conversation))//. In English version MATANDIKA: once upon a time! There was a man whose name is called Matandika. He was a very thief. Always he was lived and depending on other people energy. People were very exhausted with his characteristic of taking other people things and harassment. He had done this during the time where villagers were in the farms. Most of time has stolen things like: goats, cows, rabbits, maizes millets, and other benefited materials for foods. Generally his full life was to take other people materials. Matandika soon after taking the products he sent them to his settlement in forest‟s cave. Surely people were exhausted with him. One day it was Sunday, villagers were not going to their farms. They were there for worshipping in church. Matandika went to an elder‟s house and had stolen maize‟s flour and goats. Then the moment after went away very fast, the elder shouted loudly a thief! Thief! Thief! She didn‟t stop shouted more and more for so many times. Suddenly people met in the village, he run away very fast to his settlement in cave. People confused! They didn‟t know what to do. They met together and searched solutions. Fortunately one man decided to fire the cave, all were agreed and happy. Hence they fired the cave and danced outside. Half an hour past! Matandika 169 came out and villagers catched him. They had beaten him till he died. Thereafter they buried him under the cave where he had lived. The moment after people had gone back to the village. Four days past! Villagers went to see him in cave, unfortunately they didn‟t meet him. He ran away in the same village. People shocked! While they were on the way they met him alive. Minds had beeen shaked. They set down and done village meeting. The conclusion was to catch and send him to the chief. The villager‟s leader his name was called PETE. They took him to the chief Pete for punishment. The chief argued that he must be send him to the segregated neighbour village so as to to be killed. The village was called Masea. Chilewa, Mulule, Mazengo and Chile went with him to Masea. They were very happy. There Matandika judged and suicided. Finally the police came to the village and catched those people who participated in murdered Matandika. They sent them to the court and stayed there for years. This is the end of my fairy tale! 170