Sacred Landscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister. Unity, Paradise, and the Cosmic Mountain Author(s): Mary W. Helms Source: Anthropos, Bd. 97, H. 2. (2002), pp. 435-453 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40466044 . Accessed: 29/07/2013 13:52

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97.2002:435-453 r'jT! _

Sacred Landscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister Unity,Paradise, and theCosmic Mountain

Mary W. Helms

Abstract. - The architecturalformat of the early medieval Impressiveevidence of the lattermay be found monastery,a widespread feature of the Western European both in the structuralforms and iconograph- landscape,is examinedfrom a cosmologicalperspective which ical details of individual or argues thatthe garden,known as the garth,at the centerof buildings comp- the cloister reconstructedthe firstthree days of creational lexes dedicatedto spiritualpurposes and in dis- paradiseas describedin Genesis and, therefore,constituted the tributionsof a numberof such constructions symboliccenter of the cloistercomplex. The monasteryis then throughouta geographical region where they may on furtherinterpreted as representativeof thecosmic mountain transformmere topography into sacralized land- whose summitparadise was believed to be situated.Outside its in which or cos- walls monasteriesas symbolicmountains anchored and defined scapes significantsupernatural the focal points of the medieval European sacred landscape. mologicalqualities and meaningsare tangiblyev- [Europe, symbolismof medievalmonasteries, garden as sacred idencedeither by particulargeographical features space, cosmicmountain, sacred landscape] or by the sitingof architecturalcomplexes with - relatedfeatures or connotationsor W. is a cultural anthro- landscape by Mary Helms, (Ph.D. 1967, Prof.) a combinationof both. pologistinterested in cosmology,cosmography, and political- ideological legitimationwho teaches in the Departmentof An- Impressiveevidence of thedeeply felt need to thropology,University of NorthCarolina at Greensboro,USA. relatethe vulnerabilities ofhuman society to wider Major publicationsinclude: Ulysses' Sail. An Ethnographic temporal/spatialdimensions through the creation Odyssey of Power, Knowledge, and Geographical Distance of someform of sacred can be found (Princeton 1988), Craft and the Kingly Ideal. Art, Trade, landscapes and Power (Austin 1993), and Access to Origins. Affines, in manyregions of theworld; to noteonly a few, Ancestors,and Aristocrats(Austin 1998). thenetworks of earthenmounds characteristic of pre-Columbianeastern North America, the numer- ous templecomplexes of thelowland Maya, the It is a basic tenetof traditionalcosmologies that interrelatedoracle sanctuaries of theIbo of Nige- a givensociety, whatever its size and however ria,the sacred places where the mythic ancestors of it is politicallyor sociologicallydefined, cannot AustralianAboriginal tribes first emerged from the survivesolely on itsown terms but must constantly earth during the Dreaming,and thedistributions reachout beyondthe borders of its communitiesof Neolithicchambered monuments in southern and politiesto linkits own orderto an orderbe- Wales are all good examplesof this practice.1 yonditself, that is to say,to the cosmos (Balandier 1970:101). Considered cross-culturally, themeans of thistask are and diverse. 1 Numerous sources describe the creation of sacred land- accomplishing many marked earthenmounds in easternNorth America Some are in ritualbehavior; scapes by expressedprimarily and by templepyramid complexes among the lowland Ma- manyare assistedand manifestedat leastin part ya; Cameron Wesson provides introductorydiscussion of by special naturaland/or architectural settings. both(1998). Ibo oracles are describedby Ottenberg(1958).

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I would like to suggestthat late antiquityand scape as virtuallyblanketed with numerous para- especiallyearly medieval Western Europe offers disiacalabodes standing atop spiritualmountains anothercase in point.During this era2 the cultural- that,in theform of monasteries,dotted the land- ly createdlandscape increasingly came to include scapein all directions.To appreciatesuch imagery, theabodes of dedicatedChristian holy men (and however,we mustdevelop an understandingofthe women),growing numbers of whose habitations monasteryin such terms.It is the intentof this dottedboth towns and countryside.Most notable essayto do so by discussingsome of thegeneral of these were monasteries3in whichcenobitic symbolismcontained in the monasticcomplex monks,who renounced kith and kin, worldly prob- withparticular consideration of thecloister walks lemsand worldlypleasures and rewards, opted to and thecentral garden or garthat theheart of the live in communalhabitations well removedfrom monastery. theroutines of ordinarysecular life. To ordinarylaypersons living outside the mon- asterywalls, the boundedand hiddenenclosure The Monasteryand Its Environs verylikely was a mysteriousand hallowedplace filledwith spiritually rarefied souls; a spaceforbid- The groundsincorporated within an established dento all butthe initiated and the very privileged monasterycan be interpretedas constitutinga (see Fischer1990: 320; James1981: 41). To those carefullycrafted landscape in theirown rightin livingwithin, the particular organization of their whichsome locations were set aside and developed habitationpermitted a more refined identification to meetthe materialneeds of a communityof of space and place. Two of theseidentifications, religious men while other settings were dedicated both carrying"landscape" implications, are the to maintenanceof theirspiritual lives (see, for majorsubject of this essay: the ratherfamiliar example,Horn and Born 1979). It is the latter themeof thecloister garden or garthas paradise thatare of particular interest here, for these places and the relatedtheme, less considered,of the andbuildings were accorded the qualitative values cloistercomplex as sacred,even cosmic moun- and sometimeshoused the ritualsnecessary to tain.Ultimately, however, when expanded into a definethe monasteryas a wholeas a definitive perspectiveof the earlymedieval countryside at ideologicalcenter and a focalpoint in thebroader large,the cloister as paradiseand sacred mountain territorybeyond its walls. Inherentin thiswider encouragesus to thinkof the early medieval land- identificationwas recognitionof themonastery as a consecratedcenter where contact could be ef- fectedwith supernatural worlds beyond; a placeof Introductionto the sacred landscape of theAustralian Ab- connectionsand mediations between cosmological originescan be foundin Biernoff(1978) andalso in Tilley realmswhere sacred spaces were linked to the cos- (1994:37-48, see also chap.2 in general).Discussion of theNeolithic chambered monuments in southernWales is mos and whereliminal monks, while individually foundin Tilley(1994: parttwo). An introductionto the pursuingthe promise of an eternalspiritual life, entiresubject of sacredlandscapes can also be readily as a communityof holymen formally dedicated foundin Tilley(1994, esp. chap.1) and Wesson(1998: to theongoing liturgical praise of God (theopus 93-98). a of between 2 The overalltime period referenced in researchfor this Dei), composed point conjunction essay extendsapproximately from the 4th century up to heavenand earth,between God and humanityin the emergenceof the mendicantorders in the 13th,the general. periodwhen European monasticism developed and under- The importanceof such conjunctionsin ear- wentearly processes of standardization and reform. Within medieval and cannotbe thisextensive I ly cosmology theology period,however, focusparticularly on the for constituted of the monasticismofthe 8th to 12thcenturies. Broadly speaking, overemphasized, they part I am interestedin thetheology, cosmology, and monastic mysteryand joy of cosmologicalunity which life of WesternEurope prior to the theologicalchanges medievaltheology avidly sought to understand thatbegin to appearby the12th century and the monastic and celebrate."The universeis manifold,God is adjustmentsoccasioned by the emergence of the mendicant orders.See note4. simple;all thatis innumerable,infinitely varied, 3 The humbledwellings of solitaryhermits (e. g., Constable andmutable in theworld dissolves into the unity, 1988:239-264; Leyser 1984) and the gravesof saints simplicity,and tranquilityof God . . . Unityin (Brown1981), not to mentionthe wide distributionof multiplicityconstitutes one of the aspects of beauty shrinesand oratories where their holy relics were venerated inGod" 1969: see also Ladner werealso of thissacred (De Bruyne 139,77; (Geary1994), part landscapeof 1983: Not andthe abodesbut are not includedin thisessay. In discussing 242). surprisingly,unity beauty monasteriesI am focusingonly on communitiesof monks. it revealedwere fundamentalto earlymedieval Housesfor women are not included. monasticlife and (as discussionof thegarden -

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Fig. 1: Reconstructionof principalclaustral structures and cloisterbased on the Plan of St. Gall (Horn and Born 1979: 244).

garthwill illustrate)also informedthe metaphor- of Eden (especially Genesis 2.4-20) when Adam ical and theologicalinterpretations accorded to or in innocence lived alone with his God serving, implied in sacred spaces constructedwithin the as it were, as archetypefor generationsof me- monastery.With respect to theindividual monastic dieval celibate monks who, Adam-like, sought experience,suffice it to say herethat (as numerous to regain some measure of the perfectionof authorshave explained at length;see notes 4 and that firstparadise even as they also prepared 8) monks soughtunification with a betterworld. themselvesspiritually for the finalparadise of the Strivingto reverse original sin and to recreate parousia. sacred time, they pursued nothingless than the In pursuingthese goals, early medieval monks pure,idyllic, Edenic stateof humanexistence that expressedthe ideal of thecosmology and theology had pertainedat the original creation. Through characteristicof theirage which,in essence, em- personal austerities,readings and studies,and li- phasized an engrossingpreoccupation with abso- turgicalofferings, the brothers strove to attainboth lute firstprinciples as expressedin recognitionof closer personalunion withtheir God and a sense an eternal,God-created, hierarchically-structured, of connectednessand of oneness with what we ordered,and unchanginguniverse in which the may call the "firstprinciples" that defined and significanceof all realitywas directlyreferred to motivatedtheir faith. Foremost among these were sacred beginningsmore than to human history references(to be discussed furtherbelow) to the ("in its very nature Christianityfocused on the conditionscharacteristic of theoriginal ("mythic") creator,the created,and that which bound them state of being and becoming believed to have together";Glacken 1967: 172, 253). It also em- existedduring the first days of thecreated universe phasized a distantGod made accessible to humans as describedin thehexaemeron (Genesis 1 and 2.1- by a glorious Christtheologically interpreted as 3) and the firstpart of the storyof the Garden also full divinity,a cosmic suprahumanremote

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 438 MaryW. Helms frompeople and a powerfulpantocrator who was centralgarden, the garth, that lay at theheart of the absoluteCelestial King and sternDivine Judge of cloisterand fromwhich the covered walks were theApocalypse.4 separatedby fenestratedwalls and low parapets Firstprinciples were also expresseddirectly brokenby fourdoorways, one each in thecenter or indirectlyin at least some of the architectur-of each walk, that provided access to the garth (see al arrangementsof earlymedieval monasteries, Fig. 2). The dailymonastic routine was conducted as discussionof the garthwill clearlyevidence. amongthe various claustral buildings and in the Concerningarchitectural form in general,the his- cloisterwalks, where the monksgenerally lived toricalorigins and earlydevelopment of West- duringthe day betweenthe stipulatedhours of ernEuropean monasteries followed a numberof prayerin thechurch and communalmeals in the differentroutes in late antiquityand duringthe refectory.8No formalrites or activitiesoccurred Merovingiancenturies and are stillvery unclear in thecentral garth, which was apparentlyutilized in manyparticulars.5 However, there is no doubt insteadas a place forindividual meditative walks thatby the mid-eighth- early-ninthcenturies and such quietconversation as time,duties, and theformal arrangement of thebasic elementsof theformal dictates of the rule that officially guided whatwas to becomethe standardformat for the monasticlife allowed (see Meisel and del Mastro typical(Benedictine) medieval monastic precinct 1975). was extant.For example,the earlyCarolingian However,the importance of thevarious loca- monasteryat Lorsch,built in mid-eighthcentu- tionswithin the monastic compound does notlie ry,6and especiallythe schematicdepiction of a onlyin theirfunctional utility but also includesthe monasterycomplex known as the "Plan of St. symbolismthat pertained to themonastery overall Gall" (Fig. 1), datingfrom the early 9th century,7 and especially imbued the more important claustral evidencethe square cloister complex tucked into places and underwrotethe activitiesconducted the anglecreated by the (frequently)south wall there.9Some of these more specificsymbolic andadjacent transept of the(typically) east-facing assignmentsare of particular interest in thisessay, church(as on the plan, thoughat Lorsch the butit shouldalso be noted,if only in passing,that cloisterwas on thenorth side of thechurch) and themedieval monastery as a whole,and especially furtherenclosed by close regulararrangement of thechurch, constituted sacred space in generalby claustralbuildings necessary for communal living. virtueof severalsacralizing circumstances. The These included,most significantly, the dormitory formal ritual of consecration(sometimes simply (typicallysituated on theeast side of thecloister, the sayingof the firstmass; Markus1990: 141, nextto the churchtransept), the refectory(on 149), whichfurther enjoined protection by God the southside), and cellars and larders(often and therelics of patronsaints, formally dedicated on the west side). The centralcloister complex thesepremises (Remensnyder 1995:22, 31-34). itselfwas composedof walkwayssurrounding a The equallyformal induction ceremony for ad- centralgarden; specifically, four covered galleries missioninto the monastic order (Klawitter 1981) boundedand enclosedon theirouter side by the and the officiallyregularized monastic lifestyle claustralbuildings just mentionedand, on their in pursuitof an ideal existence(Meisel and del innerside, defining the four sides of theformal Mastro1975) helpedto createthis atmosphere, too. In addition,a monasteryoften rested on a sitethat was alreadysanctified. Not infrequently 4 Referencesfor early medieval cosmology and theology thegeographical setting chosen for an earlymedi- are many,but the following were among those providing theabove summary: Gellrich 1985:41; Cassirer1955:88; Gurevich1985:293; Chenu 1968:81η., 121, 128; Ladner 1995:12, 44, 54-58, 65-66, 84, 257; Case 1946:93, 94; Pelikan 1985:chap. 5; Jungmann1962:44; Bynum 8 Thereis a considerableliterature concerning various aspects 1982:16. This theologicalperspective began to change ofthe culture of the medieval world in whichmonasticism markedlyduring the 1 lth and 12thcenturies when emphasis flourishedand thedaily routine of monasticlife. Useful shiftedto greaterconsideration of thehumanity and "his- overviewsand manydetails may be foundin (among toricity"of Christand the church. others)Lawrence 1989; Leclercq1961; Braunfels1972; 5 See, forexample, Desprez 1990; Luff1952; Clarkeand Cook 1961;Horn and Born 1979; Evans 1931;Bitel 1990; Brennan1981; McKitterick 1989: 109-111, 121; O' Sulli- Meyvaert1973. van 1965. 9 As Fischerhas phrasedit, "a monasteryis a uniqueand 6 See James1981:46f.; Horn 1973: 42f.; Sowers1951:216 idealizedplace, requiringa constantrenewal of energy note51, 234. to be maintained.It uses symboland praxisto do so. 7 Hornand Born 1979; Sanderson 1985; Sowers 1951: 284 f., Bothsymbols and customfall into three main categories 428. - community,liturgy, and monastic space" (1990: 320).

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Fig.2: Planof thecloister walks and garth, plan of St. Gall (Hornand Born 1979: 257).

eval monasterywas one thathad been previously ends also mentiondivine designation(revelation) identifiedas a hierophanicplace where sacred of a site throughvisions sentto individuals,often powers had alreadymanifested themselves. Thus, holymen already close to God, or throughsymbol- forexample, chosen monasticlocations mightin- ically significantanimals that defined, revealed, or clude sites of ancientpagan tombs or abandoned demarcatedthe location of a hidden sacred place churchesor old altars(Bitel 1990: 48, 82; Remen- suitable for a future monastery(Remensnyder snyder 1995:45-46), or sacred groves of trees 1995:44, 54-66). In all such cases the setting (Glacken 1967:310; see also Leeuw 1967:393- was regardedas perpetuallyand irreversiblyded- 395), or sacredsprings.10 Monastic foundation leg- icated to God; a hallowed place that was not only intrinsicallyand essentiallysacred but also, by definition,a place of cosmological firstprin- ciples, for "no mere human being can designate as of sacred as a of 10 Muncey 1930:77 f.; Remensnyder1995: 44 f.; Cooper- space part topography, 'gate Marsdin1913:41. heaven' . . . Theophany,an irruptionof the divine

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 440 MaryW. Helms is necessary"(Remensnyder 1995: 43 f., 46-47, walksmay be broadlyinterpreted as constituting chap.I).11 thethreshold to a sacredcenter (see below) and, Turningto the monasteryproper, the conse- therefore,as imbuedwith the broadlyprotec- cratedmonastic complex dedicated to its other- tiveand delimitingsymbolism that accrues to all worldlypurpose has been broadly characterized by thresholds.13In addition,although diverse daily modernscholars in stronglyfirst principle terms as activitieswere routinely performed in thewalks, presagingthe heavenlyJerusalem, reflecting the the conductof elaborate,carefully orchestrated, changelessnessand timelessnesscharacteristic of and accouteredformal processions typically held eternity,and standingas microcosmof cosmic thereon Sundaysand majorfeast days identifies harmony.12More specificassociations have been the walksas a ritualpath, a sacredway or am- recognizedin individualrooms and buildings. For bulatorysurrounding the garden-garth, for Sunday example,the Biblical "upper room" as described processionsbegan in thechurch, then entered the in "The Acts of the Apostles"(20.8) servedas cloisterand moved along the east, south,and prototypefor the monks' refectory where a broth- west walks (but did not enterthe garth)before erhoodof truebelievers continued to regular- reenteringthe church for concluding rites.14 This ly come togetherto breakbread in a place lit formalcircumambulation (see note 14) can also withmany lamps (Ferguson 1986: 174), while the be understoodin partas a riteof purificationthat churchproper, heavily symbolic in itsparticulars, drove the unruly and ubiquitous demons from the has been describedin generalas a transcendentmonks' living areas bothby intrudinginto the interiorworld basically representing the eternal walks the principleand powerof cosmological CivitasDei (Norberg-Schultz1975: 120, 123; see orderencoded in the formalorganization of the also below).However, perhaps the most profound procession(note 14)15 and by theritual asperging symbolism,certainly the most profound first prin- of thebuildings along the outer side of thewalls ciplecreational symbolism, as well as symbolism thatwas also partof theceremony. In so doing, thatagain evokes at least in partthe themeof Sundaycloister processions protectively cleansed a sacredlandscape, seems to have been centered and defendedspace and place and thuswere of on the cloisterproper; the garden-garthwith its a piece withsimilar processions around church and adjacentcovered walks that composed the spiritual walls and altarsduring church consecrations as well as locationalheart of themonastery and aroundthe battlements of townswhen threatened whosefeatures allow us to interpretthe claustral by externalenemies and even withthe ancient core as a primordial(Edenic) garden paradise on practiceby farmersof carryingholy relics around topof a cosmicmountain. thefields to ensuresuccessful crops.16

13 Van Gennep 1960:21, 24; James1966:45-46; Eliade The CloisterWalks as RitualPaths 1959b:25, 81; Cassirer1955: 103. 14 "Firstwalked the bearerof the holy water,next the Standingadjacent to the centralgarth and con- cross-bearerbetween two acolytes carrying lighted candles, followed thesubdeacon the in frontof entrywaysinto thatgarden, the cloister by carrying gospels taining thepriest who was to celebratemass. The conventwith thejuniors at itshead followed at a slowpace; theabbot, turningneither to the leftnor the right,walking in the and the last in the 11 A properlyhallowed setting could also be establishedby centreof the path being procession. moved and fourfeet an originalact of "taming"wilderness by the clearing Eachpair of brethren evenly regularly of land and the constructionof an organizedmonastic fromthe pair in front,all singingthe responses" (Crossley walks settlement,no matterhow rude, in a desolatelocation. By 1936:63). The monksprocessed along some of the themembers of the establishinga sanctifiedspace in the midstof surround- on a dailybasis, too, as community as a from to inthe course ing wildsthe cosmologicalquality and identificationof formallymoved body place place as often at all the theplace was transformedfrom that of a chaoticpagan of theirday. "Marching one, chanting, wildernessto thatof an orderly,even Edenicsite under variouschanges of the day ... the monkstruly perfect theformal motion of one incarnate God's protection(Braunfels 1972:74; Leeuw 1967:399; theprocession, body to God" see see descriptionof theceremony of possessionin Glacken dedicatedand subsumed (Sowers1951:234; 1967:309 andn. 68). Relatedhagiographical accounts also also Sparks1978:79-82; Lawrence1989: 115). trie describethe harmonious relationship between monks and 15 "It is theordered round or themonastery that keeps wildanimals in suchrustic locales; a friendshipreflecting devilat bay" (Ward 1976: 195). See descriptionsinCrossley Rites the(re)creation of earthbefore the Fall, when sinless man 1936:62f.; Evans1931:82-84; Lackner1972:55; of coexistedwith nature (Glacken 1967: 310; see also Durham1903: 105, 302 f. andmap. properly 1992:253 Remensnyder1995:57-66). 16 E.g., Remensnyder1995:32, 34; Koziol f.; 12 Farmer1991: 184-186; Remensnyder1995:21; Constable Eliade 1958:371; Cook 1974:11; Russell1994: 181; Duby 1982:51. 1995:90.

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Therepetitive nature of the Sunday processions, because,as firstprinciple paradise, the garth stood theirregular conduct, week after week, is signifi- in its own rightas an inviolablesacred center, a cant,too, for such periodicity not only bespoke the pointof hierophanicconnection between heaven persistentefforts needed to keep demonic elements and earth,a place indicativeof the powerand at bay (monasteriesfull of spirituallyinclined beautyof originalcreation. By definition,chaos and virtuousbut imperfect men were regarded as wouldbe perpetuallybanished from such a siteand favoritedemonic playgrounds) but also invoked demonswould find no lodgingthere; they could theprinciple of ritualrepetition by whichhiero- onlyassail theenvirons inhabited by stillearthly, phaniesare sustainedat sacredcenters. Thus the stillsinful men. Omitting the garth from protective Sundayprocessions appear as an expressionof andpurifying rituals, therefore, can be understood thebasic tenetthat "in religion,as in magic,the as a quiet acknowledgementand reemphasisof periodicrecurrence of anythingsignifies primarily the basic qualitiesand themythic creational time thata mythicaltime is madepresent and then alreadypresent there. used indefinitely"(Eliade 1958:392, emphasisin original).In generalterms, and in line withthe generaltheology of theage, themythic time per- Paradise and the Garth sistentlyevoked on Sundaysand majorfeast days by regularlyordered processions very likely was Whenconsidered in symboliccontext, the garth thatof creationalbeginnings when first principles emergesas the true ideologicalcenter of the of hierarchicalorder and harmonyorganized the cenobiticcommunity though it rarelyhas been cosmos.In addition,the processions would appear explicitlyrecognized as suchin scholarlydescrip- to haveindicated that the earthly locus of thecre- tionsand discussionsof medievalmonastic life.18 ationaltime that they evoked was not(or not only) Nonetheless,when the qualitativevalue of its the cloisterwalks but the cloistergarth, for the variousattributes are consideredboth in partand, progressof the processions clearly entailed a ritual especially,in whole,the garth appears as a sacred circling,that is, a ritualdefinition of thatcentral place defininga truecenter or inner"kernel" of place.More specifically, the repeated processions enclosedsacred space at theheart of thecloister can be understoodas constantly(re)evoking the andof the monastery; an intentionallycrafted place identificationaccorded to the garthby its own thatwas "intimateand precious"in its own right symbols(see below)as a siteof Edenicparadise, (Sowers1951: 229 f.) andthat must be regardedas a physicalsetting of creationaltime made present bothcosmological and cosmic in significancesince forthe brothers who, as would-beAdams, could "to organizea space is to repeatthe paradigmatic advancein formalprocessional order around its work of the gods" (Eliade quoted in Gellrich borderin close thresholdproximity to the para- 1985:68).19 disiacalgarden, but whose still imperfect state of spiritualityprevented them from formally (ritually) 18 In lightof itsmore imposing architectural presence and/or enteringit. the paramountimportance of the opus Dei in monastic The formalweekly circumambulations in the life,the churchis oftencited as the centerof monas- of and a terylife (e. g., Hunt1967: 109; Braunfels1979: xii; Barrie walks thus emphasizedthe focality 1996: Sometimes"the cloister" in hasbeen so a 230). general contextof "inaccessibility"for the garthas regarded(Cranage 1926: 1, 64) or thechapter house (Gil- spiritualand locationalcentral place withinthe christ1994: 166). The cloisterwalkways are occasionally cloistercompound.17 In addition,exempting the accordedcentricity by virtueof theirfunction as thebasic fromthe the that trafficlane linkingthe various perimeter buildings (Stod- garth cleansingrites, aspergings, dard1966: andsometimes the four cloister walks to- the circumambulationwould seem 21,29) accompanied getherwith the garth (Dickinson 1961: 28; Norberg-Schulz to furtherimply that the garthwas also recog- 1975:153). Only Sowers suggests the centrality ofa "court" nized as a place of inherentpurity that did not as basicto monastery organization, though his interpretation withits requirefurther protection against demons and the seemsto appreciatethe court (garth) surrounding chaos buildingsas muchas thecourt itself as thefundamental cosmological theyrepresented presumably unitin question(1951: 20). 19 In usingterms such as "space" and "place" I followin 17 By emphasizingthe garththese rituals further enhanced generalthe usage in anthropologyand geography in which therole of the walksas a borderingthreshold, too, for, "space" is a humanconstruct for humanaction and a as Barriehas noted,"architecture, and particularlysacred "place" is a centerwith human significance and some architecture,often involves a dynamicbetween the path degreeof emotionalattachment (e.g., Rodman1992). "A and theplace. It is possibleto examinethem separately, place is a socialconstruct; a location only becomes a place butthey can onlybe fullyunderstood in theirinterplay, as whensignificance is conferredon it" (Turner1988:421). an integratedwhole" (1996:40, 38 f., 119). "It is activitythat creates places, giving significance to

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As deliberatelycreated and organizedcosmo- The squareshape given the garth can be appre- logicalspace, the garth encoded numerous sym- ciatedin termsof thesacred geometry character- bolic significationsand identificationsand was isticof the Christian cosmological formulations of accordeda uniqueand distinctiveaesthetic qual- lateAntiquity and the early Middle Ages, in which ityexpressed by thepleasing arrangement of the the divineorder, stability, and harmonyof the parapets,arches, and entrywaysthat defined the cosmoswere based on numericalratios expressed boundary,the ordered patterning of paths,plants, in certain"perfect" proportions. The shapeof the and greenturf that covered the earth,the focal square(and presumablyof thegarth as a tangible placementof a fountain,or well,or a tree,and the expressionof the square),being based on the brightand airyopenness to thesky and to light. "perfect"ratio of 1:1,was indicativeof sameness, The garth'ssacred symbolism, however, begins equalityand unity,particularly the eternal,first withits formalpresentation as a boundedand principlerelationship between God theFather and enclosedspace, typically,though not inevitably,the Son in whichGod is supremeunity and the in theform of a square.20As an enclosure,this Son is unitybegotten by unity,as the square presentationis suggestiveof the long-standingresults from multiplication of a magnitudeby Germanictradition of recognizingcircumscription itself.23 The square also inscribedthe symbolism of as a meansof delineatinga qualitativelycharged divinequaternity (that is, perfection reflected in the space. Such settings,which were numerousin numberfour; e.g., Spitzer1963:67-69; Hopper Germanicculture, typically enclosed a thingor 1969:42, 83-84, 112-113) in thefour paths that an activityclosely associated cosmologically and typicallyled fromentrances at themiddle of each mythologicallywith the past or pasttradition. Ex- ofthe four surrounding cloister walks to the center amplesinclude (among others) the rope-enclosed of thegarth, dividing the garth into quarters and courtof law, thestone-ringed grave, and theen- delineatinga centralpoint at its heart.In cosmo- closureof a circular,square, or rectangularsacred logicallyinformed architecture in general, a square spacecontaining a ritual feature such as a spring, quarteredin thisway is saidto symbolizethe four hearth,standing stone, or monolith.21In addition, quartersof the worldand the center,the point it is particularlynoteworthy that, according to of intersectionof thepaths, to constitutean om- Webster'sDictionary, the word "garth," meaning phalos',a pointof supernaturallycharged contact yardor close,derived from Old Norse.According betweencosmological worlds (heaven and earth, to Pennick(1980:89), "garth"(and "yarth")also peopleand the gods, the living and the dead; Barrie meantearth in the sense of microcosm and are cog- 1996:115; Pennick1980: 180). An omphalos,in natewith "girth" (gyrth) which, in Old Scottish, turn,could be markedin tangibleiconography by meantsanctuary or asylumand was also used to an axis mundi.In theearly medieval garth either describethe circle of stones surrounding an ancient a treeor possiblya well or fountaingraced the place of judgement.22In lightboth of thesepast centerof thegarth in thiscapacity, and although practicesand definitionsand of thesignifications the exegesis of the symbolism of both is extensive, encodedin the garth itself, the continued use ofthe a reviewof someof the most basic tenets can cast term"garth" in thecontext of the enclosed garden furtherlight on thegarth's significance. at the centerof the cloisterseems appropriate, In theearly Middle Ages (as beforeand since), perhapsas anothermanifestation ofthe substantial the treeas a symbolicform embodied the most Germanizationaccorded early medieval European importantdoctrines of Christianity,being asso- Christianityin general(see Russell 1994; Riche ciatedwith pristine, first principle origins in Eden 1978:231). (theTree of Life and the Tree of Knowledge), with humanity'sfall fromdivine grace (the eatingof imperviousmatter" (Myers 1986:54). More specifically, the forbiddenfruit of the Tree of Knowledge), "the mostimportant spaces were linkedto the spot of withthe atoningevent that redeemed that fall creation,having temporal as wellas spatialvalue" (Vansina (Christ'scross as tree),and withthe heavenly 1985:125). 20 See Braunfels1972: 237; Hornand Born 1979: 100 f.; Gim- pel 1983:101. In somecases the shape as wellas thesize of 23 See Simson1988: 27, 49; Pennick1980; Horn 1975; Ladner thegarth was alteredto accomodatetopographical realities 1995;110, 113. Architecturally, themethod for determining as wellas thesize of thecommunity. theground plan of the garth and the adjacent cloister walks 21 Davidson1988:27; Bauschatz 1982: 17 f., 137,138; Gure- involved"doubling the square," yielding a proportionof vich1985:47. 1:2 betweenthe area of the garth itself and that of the garth 22 CompareBitel (1990: 59 f.)regarding the circular enclosure and walkscombined. This ratio stood next in rankto that delineatingthe Irish monastery as a replicaof thecosmos of thesquare as an intervalof perfectconsonance (e. g., anda hierophanicplace. Simson1988: 16, 21, 40, 49; Gimpel1983: 101).

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Sacred Landscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister 443 paradiseof the eternalfuture (the treesof the world(see, for example, Meyvaert 1986: 51 f.;also celestialJerusalem) (e. g.,Robertson 1951; Rahner note25). 1963:61-64, 67). As featuresof the(sacralized) In generalmyth, legend, and Biblicalscripture landscapetrees were also traditionallyassociated thecosmic tree and thetree(s) of paradise(past bothwith the abodes of eremiticalholy men and andfuture) are accompanied by a spring,fountain, withthe graves of saintsand could mark the sites or riverof flowingwater. The fountainappears of futuremonasteries.24 Considered in broader to have been a fairlycommon feature of the cosmologicalterms, such symbolically significant cloister garth, too, at least by the 12th-century treesexemplify the widespreadconcept of the (see Miller1986: 152; Meyvaert1973: 58), andin Cosmicor WorldTree, embodiment of profound cases whena fountainor well stoodat thecenter firstprinciple concepts in manycultures where it ofthe garth it, too, would appear to haveidentified standsas unifyingaxis mundi,25serves as cosmic thatpoint as an omphalos.However, at leastone theophanyand, as archetypeof life-givingplants, scholarfeels that a garthfountain was, in fact,a evidenceslife, immortality, and the mystery of the relativelyrare occurrence (Miller 1986: 141) and periodicrejuvenation and perpetualregeneration while there is mentionof "gushingfountains of of theuniverse.26 clear water"at seventh-centuryJumièges (Horn In lightof theseassociations it seemsreason- 1973:35), on the Plan of St. Gall no well or able to suggestthat the tree that frequently stood fountainis indicatedin thegarth (which may or at thecenter of theearly medieval cloister garth may not be a tellingindication. In the formal (thePlan of St. Gall indicatesan evergreensavin arrangementof thegarth only one representation, juniperat thatspot; Horn and Born 1979:123, eitherthe treeor the fountain/well,stood at the 246-248, 259)27 not only held a generalkin- centerand theother, if present,was placedelse- ship withtrees associated with abodes of holy wherein thegarden.) Regardless of thefrequency menin generalbut more specifically represented of its occurrencein the garth,however, water, one or more of the variousChristian interpre- if present,could conveymarked first principle tationsof the doctrinaltree and stood as axis symbolismin general,for its life-givingpotential mundi,thereby further identifying the centerof was well representedboth in old Germancos- thegarth as a manifestationof thecenter of the mology(Bauschatz 1982: 7, 16-26, 121, 211 f.; Davidson 1988:25 f.) and in the Christianrite of as well as in earlierOld Testament Riche 1978: Horowitz 1998: 9; baptism 24 E. g., Brown 1981: 76; 185; referencesto the chaos(the Daniélou 1964: 31-34; Meyvaert1986:38; see also notes watery deep)preceding 3 and 11. creation(Genesis 1.2,7; Psalm 24.1-2) and to 25 The cross as cosmic treewas lyricallydescribed by Hippol- the nurturingwaters of Eden.28Both the Edenic ytusof Rome in an Eastersermon dating from the beginning watersand the watersof baptismunderlay the of the thirdcentury: "This tree,wide as the heavens itself, ofthe Fountain of Life intoheaven fromthe earth.It is an immortal concept developedby early has grownup churchfathers and elaborated and growthand towerstwixt heaven and earth.It is thefulcrum by Carolingian of all thingsand the place wherethey are at rest.It is the latermedieval theologians (Underwood 1950). Not foundationof the round world,the centreof the cosmos. surprisingly,the presence of a sacredspring could In it all the diversitiesin our humannature are formedinto definethe site of a future (see note10) the monastery a unity.It is held togetherby invisiblenails of Spirit whilewithin the Honoriusof "Autun," so thatit not break loose fromthe divine. It touches monastery may the 12th who the highestsummits of heaven and makes the earthfirm writingin century(but compiled beneathits foot,and it grasps the middle regionsbetween earliersources) indicated that the cloister fountain them with its immeasurablearms ..." (quoted in Rahner signifiedthe baptismal font which was linked,in 1963: 67). turn,to the Tree of Life 1973:61, 64; 26 Kuntzand Kuntz 1987: 319-321; James 1966; Cook 1974; (Dynes Eliade 1958:267-288. Williams1962:48). 27 "Savin" or "savina" is the common name for Juniperus The placementof a treeand perhapsa foun- sabina, a. low spreadingshrub or small tree of Mediter- tain (or well) in the earlymedieval garth high- from ranean originthat can range in heightand character lightedthe formalpresentation of thatspace as a prostrateplant about 3-4 feet tall to a stronglytrunked no of as 17 feetwith branchesand an a garden.Although completedescription treeof as much spreading is umbrella-shapedcrown. It was introducedinto Germany a medievalcloister garth-cum-garden known, and France in pre-Carolingiantimes and fromthere was thegarth is generallyaccorded the particular ar- extended furthernorth (Horn and Born 1979:246-258, rangementscharacteristic of the small,secluded 259; see also Harrar1969: 137). A savin is also mentioned as the "bush" in the (presumably) center of the garth in the eleventh-centuryHorologium stellare monasticum 28 Rahner 1963:69, 79-81; Kuntz and Kuntz 1987:319; (Constable 1975: 7 and note 17, pp. 8, 13). Robertson1951: 30f.

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 444 MaryW. Helms hortusconclusus which, in additionto a central createdand thesea separatedfrom dry land, and feature,such as a well/fountainor a tree,and "asexual"(as it was thenbelieved; cf. Horowitz subdividingpathways, typically contained open 1998:37) seed-generatedvegetation grew but be- groundcovered by closelytrimmed green lawn forethe creation of active life forms of sea andair anda pleasantand orderly assortment of carefully andland that procreate bisexually (see also Coogan arrangedformal beds of flowers, small shrubs, and 2001: 11 f. [HebrewBible] notes for Gen. 1, verses evergreens(Harvey 1981:60 f.; Stokstad1983: 14-30; also note30). Likewise,the garth seems to 28-33). However,though enclosed and limited havealso referencedthe first stages of theGarden in its horizontaldimensions and secludedwithin of Eden whenAdam in innocencelived alone in the cloister,the gardengarth was not secretor unitywith his God beforethe creationof Eve hidden.On thecontrary, as Stokstadhas empha- (Leach 1969;also Helmsn.d.). Considered in these sized,such a garden,being completely exposed to terms,the definitivecharacteristics of the early the expansivecanopy of the sky,stood open to medievalgarth not only emphasize creational first everythingabove: "to thesun, to theelements, to principlesin generalbut referencethe very start God" (1983:29-31). Filled,then, with the bright and the"highest" order of principlesdesignating lightof heaven(in markedcontrast to the dark cosmologicalFirsts; replicate the beginning of the churchand the roofed and shadowy cloister walks beginning,the paradise of originalcreation as it surroundingthe garth) and standingas an oasis of was in itsinitial, purest, most ideal conditionand water,plants, fresh air, and sunlightthat was also in its totalperfection of differentiated"oneness" filledwith a deeplyexpressive silence, the garth and unity.31 as gardenconstituted "the ideal settingin which to conformthe humanspirit to celestialthings" (Leoni 1996:73, 80, 84 f. speakingof the wall The Cloisterand the CosmicMountain gardensof sixteenth-centuryFerrara).29 Indeed,the garthas an enclosedgarden can As was indicatedat thebeginning of thisessay, readilybe understoodas a literalrepresentation expression of unitywas essentialto earlymedi- of theconcept of paradise,as manyauthors have eval cosmology,theology, and monasticism.The done.30Even as cursorya discussionof the garth's carefulorganization of the monasticlife clearly attributesas has beengiven here reveals that each bespokethis fundamental sense of commonac- featureindividually signified the settingforth of cord,for the carefully ordered daily routine (see somefirst principle quality while the garth in its Meiseland del Mastro1975) formally coordinated entiretyrecreated analogically the overallnature a series of set activitiesconducted in various ofprimordial paradise, of Eden,conceived of as a locations- church,chapter house, cloister walks, carefullycrafted (planted) garden which man was refectory,dormitory - intoan integratedwhole. to dressand keep (cf. Rykwert1972: 13; Genesis The cloistergarth, though uninvolved in formal 2. 8, 15). Indeed,as I have arguedat lengthelse- communitylife, nonetheless also playeda vital where(Helms n.d.), the early medieval garth with rolein expressingthe completeness of thewhole itstree, water, and vegetation (see note29) seems by explicitlyemphasizing unity. Like monastic to have recreatednot simplyparadise but, more life in general,it did so by the symboliccon- specifically,the first three days of the hexaemeron, joining of themultiple discrete components that, the verybeginning of the creation,the still or as an ensemble,composed the garthitself, thus "static"period, as Leach has phrasedit (1969), allowingthe garthto standforth as constantly whenthe heavenswere distinguishedfrom the evoking,in microcosm,the "principle of unityin earthand lightfrom darkness, the firmament was multiplicity." By virtueof the combinedsymbolic signifi- 29 A completediscussion of the symbolic features of the garth cationsencoded in its variousfeatures the garth wouldalso include consideration ofthe significance ofgrass encapsulatedthat unity in a stronglycondensed andof the color green as representativeofthe seed-bearing earthand of eternalspring (life) as well as moredetailed discussionof thegarth as thecenter for the monastery's 31 In earlyChristian and medievalnumber symbolism odd receptionof celestiallight (lux). numbers,since they were not divisible, were regarded as 30 George Duby succinctlysummarized this well-known moreGodlike and "perfect"while even numbers, like the identification,noting how in thecloister garden "the air dualitythat appears with Adam and Eve, beingdeviations andsunlight, trees, birds and flowing streams still kept the fromunity, signified the corruptible and the transitory. The freshnessof thefirst days of theearth; a sortof paradise firstthree days of creationthus foreshadowed the trinity, regainedwhere all thingstestified to God's perfection" thetriad defined as perfectunity (Hopper 1969: 42, 83 f., (1995:63). 89, 101).

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SacredLandscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister 445 form.Unity was heraldedin thesacred geometry ciatedeither with this central universal point or ofthe garth's square shape as wellas in itsspatial at least withits permanenceand stability,and locationas thearchitectural center of thecloister are designatedaccordingly as sacredplaces on complex,where it compliedwith the medieval thelandscape where they may serve as places of dictumthat the center of a symmetricallypropor- revelationand visionand of pilgrimage.34Moun- tionedform was indicativeof "theway, the truth, taintops,being the nearestthing to the sky,are and the light"(see Eco 1986:40). Unityexisted especiallyimplicated in symbolismof ascentand in themultiple symbolic referencings encoded in transcendence,with visions of bothheaven and thecomplex of tangibleaccoutrements that, taken earth,and speakof thingscelestial, especially of together,defined the garth as Edenicparadise and brightcelestial light and of proximity to thedivine replicatedthe onenessof the firstthree days of ("The oldestheaven is themountain-top"; Leeuw creation.Unity would have been referenced,too, 1967:55; Eck 1987:132); indeed, God mayappear as varioustangible symbols defined the center of on themountaintop or mountainsmay be spheres thegarth as a probableomphalos and as siteof an of the divinein theirown right(Keel 1978:20; axis mundiwhere first principle cosmic conjunc- Eck 1987:132 f.; Scully1969). tioncould relate heaven and earth.Ultimately the In thecontext of Christianityand its forebears, combinationof all thesequalities identified the sacredmountains feature prominently in Biblical garthas "symbolic"in theprinciple sense of the and relatedtexts. In theOld Testamentthe most termas usedby church fathers to meana "drawing importantmountains are Sinai,the cosmic moun- together,"a summary and token or creed,of basic tainof firstprinciples in the arid wildernesson truthsof Christianity(Ladner 1983: 240). whosecloud-covered summit Moses encountered Muchof the conjunctive first principle symbol- themajesty of Yahwehand covenanted with Him, ismexpressed by thegarth is also associatedwith and Zion, the sacredmountain of Jerusalemas theconcept and extensiveimagery of the sacred the royalcity of David, of the Temple,and of mountain,particularly with the cosmic mountain, divinelyfavored and God-protectedhistory.35 In a verywidespread cosmological theme and one addition,according to Jewishtradition, the Messi- thatquite possibly may be directlyimplicated in ah willappear on thesummit of the holy mountain the symbolismof the garthand, by extension, (Eliade 1965:54 f.) and variousmountains figure of the cloisterin general.The cosmicmountain prominentlyin the life of Christ,among them is so called because it standsas a sacredcen- Calvary(Golgotha; by earlymedieval centuries ter linkingheaven and earthand centralto an believedto be thesummit of thecosmic mountain entireworldview (Eck 1987:130). Ancientcos- whereChrist will also return),the Mount of Olives mogoniesdescribe how the cosmicmountain or (associatedwith the last days of Christand by primevalmound rose out of theinfinite depth of traditionaccepted as the site of the ascension), theprimordial ocean at thetime of original,first and the mountainof the transfiguration.36John, principlecreation; how thecreator-god made his theauthor of Revelation,was shownin visionthe appearanceon it;how it was filledwith prodigious descentfrom heaven of theholy city of Jerusalem and vitalforces and servedboth as the fromthe vantage point of a great,high mountain energies - axis mundi,where earth and sky met,and as (Rev. 21.10) and of particularsignificance for - theomphalos of theworld, the point of absolute the monasterygarth the Gardenof Eden, the beginnings.32As a manifestationofthe axis mundi centerof the cosmos where Adam was createdand thecosmic mountain is also frequentlyassociated thesource of flowingrivers and of trees,also is withthe World Tree, which may be representedlocated on thecosmic mountain.37 iconographicallyas standingon its summit;life- givingcosmic waters(rivers) have theirsource 34 Eck 1987:132 f.; Bernbaum1997; Eliade 1975:379 and at the mountain,too.33 Not surprisingly,earthly 1958:100 f. mountains,standing high, often have been asso- 35 Levenson1985; Clifford1972:107-120, 131-160, 180, 191f.; Bernbaum1997: 99 f.; Cohn1981: 38-61, 66-70. 36 Donaldson1985; Bernbaum1997:89; Leclercq1961:68; 32 In somecosmologies mountains also constitute world pillars Eliade 1965:58 n.3 and 1959a:13, 14. thatsupport the vaultof heavenat the horizon(Keel 37 "You werein Eden,the garden of God . . . you wereon 1978:22 f.; Eck 1987:131). the holymountain of God . . ."; (Ezekiel28.13-14, 16; 33 See, forexample, Bernbaum 1997; Leeuw 1967: 55; Eliade see also Coogan 2001:1220 [HebrewBible] note for 1958:99-102 and 1975:380; Cook 1974:9 f., plate 7; Ez. 28.13-14; Clifford1972:51, 100, 103, 159; Leven- Moynihan1979: ill. b on p. 8, 8 f.; Anderson1988: 190 f.; son 1985:128,129, 131, 139; Bernbaum1997:88; Cohn Clifford1972: 158 f., 191; Levenson1985:20, 111-137; 1981:30. Apsidalmosaics in earlyChristian basilicas fre- Keel 1978:28 f. quentlydepict Christ seated on a throneand surrounded by

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Indeed,Eden's mountainstands as the arche- isticof themountain may be architecturallypres- typeof the cosmicmountain in that,according ent.For example,mountain temples often empha- to bothancient and medievalexegesis, it stood size the stabilityand permanenceof the cosmic higherthan all theother peaks and thuswas not mountain(and of theworld) by beingbuilt "four- inundatedby thewaters of theDeluge but instead square,"that is, withground plan in theshape of, provideda refugefrom that destruction.38 As such, and emphasizing,a square(Pennick 1980: 18 f.). Edenon itsmountaintop, safe from harm, reflects I should like to emphasizethis pointbecause a traditionaltheme in bothClassical and Christian I wish to suggestthat the architecturalform of literaturewhereby the terrestrial garden paradise, the medievalcloister, specifically the foursquare beinga verydesirable and blessed spot, is situated gardengarth with its surroundingwalks, when at a place separatedfrom and inaccessibleto consideredin conjunctionwith the first principle theinhabited world with its mortalimperfections symbolism it manifests,may also evokethe theme (Ladner 1959:64, 66; Giamatti1966: 79 f., 85). of theparadisiacal cosmic mountain even though Generallythe "distant" setting, marked by a grove theliteral representation of geographical elevation oftrees, is highon a mountain(alternatively, some is missingin thedesign of thecloister. place farto theeast; Giamatti1966: 50 note52, Thisinterpretation is encouraged by theuse, in 53-55, chap.1 in general).39 medievalthought, of the "mountain" as a tropefor Not surprisingly,the sacred mountain was also themonastery and the monastic vocation in general widelyexpressed architecturally. Various forms (thoughnot the only one by any means; the related of templesand mounds,often bearing hill-related concept of paradise,among others, was similarly names,have been interpretedas representingthe applied),although the actual geographical sitings primalmountain or as beingbuilt on a sacredor of earlymedieval Western European monasteries cosmicmountain (e. g., Coogan2001: 13 [Hebrew generallydid not explicitlyfavor mountainous Bible]notes to Gen.2.10-14) andhave delineated settingsover otherlocations. Rather, the paradi- thefocal points of sacredlandscapes.40 This can siacal themesof separationfrom worldly society be thecase evenin geographicalregions far from and of inaccessibility,which were architecturally actualmountains, for physical elevation or even an expressedin the enclosed structure of formalceno- appreciablerise of terrain need not be in evidence; bitichouses whether built in townor countryside, a topographicallyflat plain can readilyhouse a wereat timesenhanced by continuingthe long- "mountain"temple since shrinesinterpreted as establishedand admired practice of situatingmon- earthlyexpressions of the sacredmountains are asterieson islandsor in isolatedwastes and in the thoughtto be sitedat that point regardless of actual wildernessof the forest; "places on theedge" that, geographicallocation (Anderson 1988: 191 f., 199, to be sure,sometimes were marginal because they 207; Levenson1985: 122- 124).41Nor is it abso- werealso rockyor mountainous.Thus, in some lutelynecessary for a templeto literallyemulate suchcases, monasteries were literally constructed an elevationalcharacter in orderto situatea sacred amongand on themountains.42 mountain,though other features thought character- Regardlessof actual locality, though, the moun- tainand themountaintop became monastic meta- Apostleson the summit of a mountainwhence flow the four forthe and riversof Paradise (Hobbs 1995: 133; Duchesne 1912: 302). phors incomprehensiblemajesty gran- 38 Keel 1978:113-118; Levenson 1985:135; Anderson deurof God andfor the challenging and sometimes 1988:190, 199-202, 206, 211, 220 n.52; Boas 1948:80; frighteningsearch for knowledge of theunknow- Meyvaert1986:50 η. 104; Eliade 1975:375. able.The imageof MountSinai became a symbol 39 Extendingthe themeof distantheights, the gardenof forthis whenit was interms of the was quest expressed paradise also accordedfully supraterrestrial location 1998:107- In com- highin theair, often near the moon or in thethird level darklyapophatic (Lane 109).43 ofheaven as describedin St. Paul's rapture(II Corinthians 12.2-4). Sometimesthe earthly mountaintop, crowned with 42 E.g., Lane 1998:46-49, 106f.; Le Goff1988: 50 f.,58 f.; paradise,stood so highthat it touchedthe moon (Ladner Workman1927: 142, 159, 174, 220f.,238, 241; Remen- 1959:64-66; Corcoran1945: 17 η 3; Giamatti1966: 45, 56, snyder1995:23, 24, 56. SaintBasil describesthe wilder- 79 f.).The paradisiacalgarden is frequentlylocated on the ness,the home of thoseseeking the Lord in solitude,as a cosmicmountain elsewhere in theNear East, too (Manuel place of covenantand of sacredmountains as well as of andManuel 1971: 92; James1966: 74, 75). desertsand caves (Williams 1962: 39). 40 E. g.,Eliade 1958: lOOf.; Davies 1987:384; Eck 1987:131; 43 Origenlikened those who werefilled with the Word of butsee Bernbaum1997: chap. 6 n. 1. God (as evidencedin theirlives, knowledge, and teaching) 41 "Mostof thegreat Egyptian sanctuaries claimed to house to mountainsand hills; similarly, attainment ofthe highest withintheir courts the primeval hill, the 'glorioushill of stateof contemplationcould be describedas residenceon theprimordial beginning,' which had firstemerged from an InnerMountain (Costello 1976: 334 andnote 9; see note thefloods of Chaos"(Keel 1978:113, also 114). 46).

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SacredLandscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister 447 plementaryfashion, when God was tobe glimpsed (Cook 1974:10 f.; see also Barrie 1996:119).47 in all thesplendor of light,the earthly mountain If the walkway walls are recast as covered in questionwas themountain of Christ'spassion, galleriesand if the elevational feature is flattened, transfiguration,and anticipated future return, geo- Cook's schematicdiagram becomes virtually iden- graphicallyset in or nearJerusalem but located tical with the physicalform (enclosed square spirituallyin any place (such as the monastery) outline,four paths leading from the middleof where,far from the world and from sin, one could each side to thecenter) and majoraccoutrements drawclose to God.44"The mountainof thereturn (centertree or possiblyfountain) of the typical is the symbolof the monasticmystery, and for earlymedieval cloister garth with its surrounding everyChristian who becomes a monk,it is as ifhe cloisterwalks, which also providea ritualpath alwayslived in thisblessed spot. It is therethat he forpurifying, demon-thwarting circumambulating can be unitedto thereal Holy City," meaning (for processions.By now it shouldbe obvious,too, writerslike Saint Bernard) the heavenly Jerusalem, that the basic cosmologicalidentification of the whichfor the monkwas accessiblethrough the cosmicmountain as a centralplace and axis mundi monastery(Leclercq 1961:68, 69). "The monk expressiveof the mostfundamental imagery of leavesthe world ... he separateshimself from it. firstprinciple creation and indicativeof thepar- He goesaway into solitude, often onto a mountain, adisiacalgarden and of contactwith God also is the betterto fulfillthe preceptthat the Church, virtuallyidentical with the symbolismexpressed on the feastof the Ascension,gives to all the in thegarth. faithful:'to livein the celestial regions'" (Leclercq 1961:70, referencingsermons by Bernard).45Odo c > of Clunyused similar imagery when he compared C5 a goodmonk ready for monastic life to a mountain c> peak alreadybathed in thelight of eternaldawn (Hallinger1971: 40).46 Bearingin mindthese monastic allusions to thecosmic mountain, it is instructiveto compare thearchitectural and materialarrangements of the claustralgarth and surroundingwalks withthe schematicdiagram of the generic cosmic mountain offeredby Cook (1974: 10), somewhatsimplified hereas Fig. 3 (see note47), whichdepicts the mountainas set on a squarebase witha pathin the middleof each side leadingupward to the center wherethe fourpaths cross and the point 3: The CosmicMountain (adapted from Cook 1974: 10). cosmictree stands.Sanctuary walls aroundthe Fig. base markthe boundary between the sacredand theprofane, defending against "the demonic forces Descriptionsof cosmic mountains,however, ofchaos" which continually threaten from without. frequentlyplace the beckoningbut inaccessible Thesewalls apparently are also walkways,for they gardenof paradiseat the summitof the peak. are also thelocation of ritualcircumambulations This imagecan be accommodatedto theclaustral settingif we broadenthe perspectiveto include the surroundingmonastic compound and assert 44 "Themonastery shares Sion's dignity;it conferson all its in totobe assimilated inhabitantsthe benefitswhich are to the thatthe medieval monastery spiritual proper withthe al- places sanctifiedby thelife of theLord, by His Passion to a sacredmountain garden-garth, and Ascension,and whichwill one day see His returnin so ceremonially"inaccessible" during circumam- glory"(Leclercq 1961:68; Lane 1998:113). bulations, as the sublimeparadise and them- standing 45 Comparethe ascetical holy men of Syriawho called (cf. Eck 1987:132) at the selves"men of themountains" and sometimes deliberately "revelatorylandscape" soughtto liveon themountaintops (Brown 1971: 83). 46 In medievalCistercian literature John of Forddefines the monk'sspiritual life as a flightfrom sin followedby a 47 Cook's originaldiagram also includesa flatspiral within strivingfor poverty, peace, and patienceso as to be able thebase of themountain out of whichrises a doublehelix to followJesus "into the mountain"and culminatingin ofentwined serpents. The significanceof theserpent in the the attainmentof "the sublimedesert at the top of the contextof thecreational center is, of course,well-known. mountain,"that is to say,the highest state of contemplation The spiralas a meansof denotingthe centerand the of thedivine (Costello 1976: 334). mountainis consideredby Puree (1974: 18).

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summit.48The logic of such an associationhas lostand forgotten (and continues to be a matterof beenexplicitly stated by Eliade (in mountain-relat-debate), leaving Zion /Jerusalem as a physicalen- ed generaldiscussion of holy sites and sanctuaries tityto standalone.49 In somewhatsimilar fashion, as situatedat the centerof the world)in words earlymedieval Christian imagery (monastic and thatseem tailor-made for the medieval monastery ecclesiastical) explicitly focused on Jerusalem50 especiallyas viewedby the brothers resident there: as the earthlyand historicalformulation of the "'our world' is holy groundbecause it is the celestialcity of thefuture for which monastic life place nearestto heaven,because from here, from was a preparation.51In this context,the abbey our abode,it is possibleto reachheaven; hence church(considered both as a communityoffaithful ourworld is a highplace." Eliade thencontinues and as a building)was interpretedas a symbolic witha morerefined interpretation, one thatseems representationof the heavenlyCity of God and particularlyappropriate for the garthproper as as analogueof theChurch of theHoly Sepulchre paradisiacalsite of theaxis mundiand closestof in Jerusalemas well as of the Templeof Solo- all themonastic spaces to heaven, when he goeson mon.52 to say that"this religious conception is expressed UnlikeHebrew tradition, however, in theme- by theprojection of thefavored territory . . . onto dievalmonastic setting the ecclesiastical "Jerusa- thesummit of thecosmic mountain" (1959b: 39). lem"did notstand alone while its first principle - oriented"Sinai" dimmed. Far from it, for anteced- entfirst principles continued to exist,rooted not Conclusion onlyin tropesof originalhierophanic revelation thatidentified monastic sites but also, and especial- In Biblicaltradition the cosmic mountain as first ly,tangibly reconfigured as the paradisiacal Eden principlearchetype is a place whereinnocent man on theprimordial cosmic mountain manifested by (Adamin Eden) andprophetic man (Moses on Si- thegarth and its surroundingwalks at thecenter nai) firstapproached and encounteredGod. Seek- of everymonastic cloister. Similarly, as in the ingto attainsome degree of approximationto this relationshipbetween the two greatmountains of grace,medieval monks, striving to be morallyideal Israelitetradition in which"the presenceis the personsand as would-beinnocent Adams, were presenceof Zion, but the voice is the voice of permitted,by virtueof habitationin the cloister Sinai" (Levenson1985: 188), so in themonastery and pursuitof a carefullyregulated spiritual life, theliturgical duties of thechurch, the setting for to live in close associationwith their version of theopus Dei thatdictated the organization of the thecosmic mountain, too. In actuality,however, monasticday and night,commanded the energies themedieval monastery was composednot of one andthe greater physical presence of the monks but butof two sacred centers, the cloister garth, which an underlyingvoice speaking of first principles and emphasizedcosmological first principles, and the Adamiccovenants basic to the overallmonastic churchproper, largely defined by incarnational and ecclesiasticalhistoricity. This duality(which opensperspectives on medievalmonasticism that 49 Eck 1987:132; Levenson1985:90, 187; Hobbs 1995:33, 51-53. mostJews have avoided an go beyondthis study)has a strongparallel in Historically assigning earthlylocation to Mt. Sinai, for the presence of the Hebrew the relationbetween the two mostfundamental God was transferredfrom the mountainto the taberna- mountainsof Judaism and early Christianity, Sinai cle. Christians,however, have long soughtto identifya andZion. In theancient Hebraic tradition, the first topographicalsite. Although there is no firmagreement, principles heraldedat Sinai, thefavored site has beenJebel Musa in thesouth of the originally revelatory SinaiPeninsula. A settlementof whichbecame the mountainof the and of the covenant, monks, prophet famousmonastery of SaintCatherine, was established there eventuallyunderwrote and legitimatedZion as bythe 4th century and has continued to this day. See Hobbs historicalJerusalem, the fortress mountain of the (1995); Bernbaum(1997: 95 f.). templeand place of the priest,even thoughthe 50 Jerusalemhaving been rebuilt as thecenter of the Christian exactlocation of themountain of Sinai itselfwas faithafter the destructionof the JewishTemple (Binns 1994:82-84). 51 The monasteryin thiscontext was "a Jerusalemin anti- cipation,a place of ... preparationfor thatholy city 48 The analogyis furtherencouraged by the factthat, like towardswhich we look withjoy" (Leclercq1961:69, 70; thesacred mountain, the monastery is also surroundedby Remensnyder1995:21, 44, 84; Russell1997:43; Pelikan bandsof holiness such that only the purest, most spiritually 1978:42). developed,can actually serve (live) within its inner sanctum 52 Barne 1996:229; Norberg-Schulz1975: 146; McDan- whilethose less worthymust remain beyond the boundary nell and Lang 1988:78; Hunt 1967:110; Remensnyder andderive its benefits only from a distance. 1995:33,35; Simson1988: 37 f.

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This content downloaded from 152.13.249.96 on Mon, 29 Jul 2013 13:52:20 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SacredLandscape and the Early Medieval European Cloister 449 experienceemanated from the imagery of the quiet Biernoff,David gardenthat stood as symbolicreplication of the 1978 Safe and DangerousPlaces. In: L. R. Hiatt(ed.), Aus- tralianAboriginal Concepts; pp. 93-105. New Jersey: paradisiacalbeginning. HumanitiesPress. Outside the monasterywalls, however,the finerdistinctions of monastic wereof Binns,John experience 1994 Asceticsand Ambassadorsof Christ.The Monasteries less importance.Instead, the monasteryas an of Palestine314-631. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ideologicalwhole stoodas "theinclusive center of the landscape"(Remensnyder 1995: 72). In a Bitel,Lisa M. of foundation inmedieval 1990 Isle of theSaints. Monastic Settlement and Christian study monastery legends Communityin EarlyIreland. Ithaca: Cornell University southernFrance, Remensnyder has detailed(1995: Press. chap.2) how monasticcenters became the sym- bolicfocal of otherwise undefined Boas, George points generic, 1948 Essayson Primitivismand Related Ideas in theMiddle territorythrough various processes related to their Ages.Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins Press. individualbeginnings and foundations.She also recounts other howwider networks Braunfels,Wolfgang (among things) 1972 Monasteriesof Western Europe. The Architecture ofthe ofsecondary religious communities, churches, and Orders.Princeton: Princeton University Press. chapelsderiving from an originalmonastery and 1979 Foreward.In: W. Hornand E. Born(eds.), The Planof also establishedon sacredsites generally identified St. Gall. Vol.1; pp. ix-xii. inlegend as revelational(even if valued or selected Brown,Peter by moreearthly circumstances, too) could linka 1971 The Rise and Functionof the Holy Man in Late numberof separatetopographical points into an Antiquity.Journal of Roman Studies 61: 80-101. ordered"world." A worldof thissort is initiated 1981 The Cultof theSaints. Its Rise and Functionin Latin Christianity.Chicago: The University of ChicagoPress. by the abbey's origins;then "a map is created, and the abbey is at its center"(1995: 73 f.;cf. Bynum,Caroline Walker 1982 Jesusas Mother.Berkeley: University of California Pennick1980:41). I would amendand deepen Press. this evocativestatement by suggestingthat the foundingabbey that marked the center and stood Case, ShirleyJackson as of and as 1946 The Originsof ChristianSupernaturalism. Chicago: place origins legitimatingideological Universityof ChicagoPress. anchorfor such a topographicallyand ideologi- interrelatedworld can itselfbe Cassirer,Ernst cally appropriately of Forms.Vol.2: as the cosmicmountain, site 1955 The Philosophy Symbolic Mythical appreciated symbolic Thought.New Haven:Yale UniversityPress. ofcreational paradise and cosmological focal point ofthe surrounding microcosm. The early medieval Chenu,Marie-Dominique wasblanketed suchmonas- 1968 Nature,Man, and Societyin theTwelfth Century. Chi- Europeanlandscape by cago: Universityof ChicagoPress. tic "mountains"and their worlds. Clarke,H. B., andMary Brennan (eds.) 1981 Columbanusand MerovingianMonasticism. Oxford: BAR. ReferencesCited Clifford,Richard J. 1972 The CosmicMountain in Canaanand theOld Testa- Anderson,Gary A. ment.Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1988 TheCosmic Mountain. Eden and Its Early Interpretation RobertL. in SyriacChristianity. In: G. A. Robbins(ed.), Genesis Cohn, 1981 The ofSacred FourBiblical Studies. Chi- 1-3 in theHistory of Exegesis; pp. 187-224.Lewiston: Shape Space. EdwinMeilen Press. co: ScholarsPress. (American Academy of Religions Studiesin Religion,23) Balandier,Georges 1970 PoliticalAnthropology. New York:Pantheon Books. Constable,Giles 1982 Renewaland Reform in Religious Life. In: R. L. Benson Barrie,Thomas and G. Constable(eds.), Renaissanceand Renewalin Place. and 1996 SpiritualPath, Sacred Myth,Ritual, Meaning the TwelfthCentury; pp. 37-67. Cambridge:Harvard in Architecture.Boston: Shambhala. UniversityPress. Bauschatz,Paul C. 1988 Monks,Hermits, and Crusadersin MedievalEurope. 1982 The Well and the Tree. Worldand Time in Early London:VARIORUM Reprints. GermanicCulture. Amherst: The of Mas- University Constable,Giles (ed.) sachusettsPress. 1975 HorologiumStellare Monasticum. In: CorpusConsue- Bernbaum,Edwin tudinumMonasticarum. Vol.6: ConsuetudinesBene- 1997 SacredMountains of theWorld. Berkeley: University dictinaeVariae; pp. 2-18. Siegburg:Apud Franciscum of CaliforniaPress. SchmittSuccess.

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