1367-1936 ׀ E-ISSN:2514-6009

Volume 20 ∙ No 1 ∙ Summer 2020 Cilt 20 ∙ Sayı 1 ∙ Yaz 2020 e-ISSN:2514-6009 ׀ ISSN: 1367-1936 Journal of ISLAMICJERUSALEM STUDIES e-ISSN:2514-6009 ׀ ISSN: 1367-1936 Volume 20, No 1, Summer 2020 Cilt 20, Sayı 1, Yaz 2020 Kurucu Editörü ׀ Founding Editor Prof. Dr. Abd Al-Fattah EL-AWAISI

*Editör Kurulu ׀ Editorial Board Dr. Haithem F. AL-RATROUT, Prof. Dr. İbrahim ÖZCOŞAR, Dr. Khalid EL-AWAISI, Dr. Ziya POLAT Sayı Editörü ׀ Issue Editor Dr. Haithem F. AL-RATROUT *Sekreterya ׀ Secretariat Reyhan ÖNAL *Danışma Kurulu ׀ Advisory Board Prof. Abd Allah AL-NIFISSI (Kuwait University, Kuwait), Prof. Abdul-Nabi ISSTAIF (Damascus University, Syria), Dr. Abdulkadir MACİT (Kocaeli University, Turkey), Prof. Abdullah EKİNCİ (Harran University, Turkey), Dr. Abdulmuttalip ARPA (Sabahattin Zaim University, Turkey), Dr. Ahmed M. A. AL-SAMARRAE (University of Samarra, Iraq), Dr. Ahmet KÜTÜK (Mardin Artuklu University, Turkey), Prof. Ali MAHAFZAH (University of Jordan, Jordan), Dr. Aminrassuyid YATIBAN (University Utara Malaysia, Malaysia), Dr. Ayhan AK (Samsun 19 Mayıs University, Turkey), Dr. Beverley MILTON-EDWARDS (Queen’s University of Belfast, UK), Prof. Beyhan KANTER (Mardin Artuklu University, Turkey), Dr. Bustami Mohamed KHIR (University of Birmingham, UK), Prof. Fathia EL-NABARAWY (Al-Azhar University, Egypt), Dr. Fatih TOK (Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey), Dr. Feridun BİLGİN (Mardin Artuklu University, Turkey), Dr. Haithem F. AL-RATROUT (An-Najah University, Palestine), Prof. Hugh GODDARD (University of Edinburgh, UK), Dr. Hussein ABDUL-RAOF (University of Leeds, UK), Dr. Ian A.K. HOWARD (University of Edinburgh, UK), Dr. Jabal BUABEN (University Brunei Darussalam, Brunei), Karen ARMSTRONG (London, UK), Khudhr E. J. ALMOHAMMED (Educational College, Iraq), Prof. Mahmoud AL-SARTAWI (University of Jordan, Jordan), Prof. Mahmoud AYOUB (Temple University, USA), Dr. Mahmut KAYA (Harran University, Turkey), Prof. Michael DUMPER (University of Exeter, UK), Prof. Mohammad A. AL-BAKHIT (Al-Bayt University, Jordan), Prof. Dr. Mohd Roslan Bin Mohd NOR (University of Malaya, Malaysia), Prof. Muhammad AL-MAJALI (University of Jordan, Jordan), Dr. Muhammed Fatih KILIÇ (Social Sciences University of Ankara, Turkey), Dr. Muhammad I. SURTY (Birmingham University, UK), Prof. Mustafa GÜLER (Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey), Dr. Othman Saeed HURAN (Yalova University, Turkey), Raif NIJEM (Amman, Jordan), Dr. Sabah H. K. ALKUBISY (Iraqi University, Iraq), Prof. Saleh HAMARNEH (University of Jordan, Jordan), Dr. Suha Taji-FAROUKI (University of Exeter, UK), Prof. Walid KHALIDI (Harvard University, USA), Dr. Yasin TAŞ (Harran University, Turkey), Dr. Yunus KAPLAN (Van Yüzüncü Yıl University, Turkey). Ada göre alfabetik sıra ׀ In alphabetical order * Tashih ׀ Proof Reading Türkçe - Reyhan ÖNAL ׀ İngilizce - Adiba FIRMANSYAH ∙ Turkish ׀ Arapça - Mustapha ELADEL ∙ English ׀ Arabic Tasarım A. EL-AWAISI ׀ Design İletişim ׀ Correspondence Academy for Islamicjerusalem Studies (ISRA), PO Box 10120, Dundee, DD3 6WX, Scotland, UK Web: www.isra.org.uk, Email: [email protected]

Beytülmakdis Çalışmaları Vakfı Web: www.isravakfi.org, Email: [email protected]

Kudüs Çalışmaları Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi - Ankara Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi Web: www.kam.asbu.edu.tr

Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies is an international biannual peer-reviewed journal which is published twice yearly (Summer and Winter) by the Academy for Islamicjerusalem Studies ISRA (UK) in Cooperation with Beytülmakdis Çalışmaları Vakfı (Turkey) and Social Sciences University of Ankara (Turkey). The contents of the journal cannot be published partially or entirely without permission. Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies is Indexed by Index Islamicus, ASOS Index amongst others. Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, Academy for Islamicjerusalem Studies (Britanya), Beytülmakdis Çalışmaları Vakfı (Türkiye) ve Ankara Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi (Türkiye) iş birliğinde altı ayda bir yaz ve kış dönemlerinde yayınlanan uluslararası hakemli bir dergidir. Dergideki yazılar kısmen ya da tamamen başka bir yerde izinsiz yayınlanamaz. Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi; Index Islamicus ve ASOS Index gibi veritabanlarında taranmaktadır.

Articles - Makaleler

Khalid EL-AWAISI & Emine YİĞİT Early Foreign Penetration in The Holy Land 1 Osmanlı Son Dönem Beytülmakdis’inde Erken During the Late Ottoman Period: - 18 Yabancı Nüfuzu: Britanya’nın Rolü The Role of Britain Birkan ERTOY

The Situation in the “Middle East” After the 19 Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Çöküşü Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Providing a - Sonrasında Orta Doğu’nun Durumu: 32 Theoretical Solution for the Instability İstikrarsızlığa Teorik Bir Çözüm Azka MADIHAH

Geopolitics and Occupation of 33 - Akdeniz’in Jeopolitiği ve İşgali the Mediterranean Sea 46

Arabic Articles - Arapça Makaleler Othman S. HOURAN

Jewish religious texts and the 47 Yahudiliğin Kutsal Metinleri ve - historical reality of the Temple 84 Tarihi Mabet Gerçeği Issa BARAIJIA

The Role of History in Understanding Israeli 85 İsrail Siyasetini Anlamada Tarihin Rolü: Politics: an Analogy between the Crusades - Haçlı Seferleri ile Siyonizm Hareketi 102 and the Zionist Movement as a case study Arasında Benzerlik Örneği Marwan M. H. AQRA Ottoman Schools and their 103 Beytülmakdis’teki Osmanlı Medreseleri ve role in the educational process in - 118 Eğitim Sürecindeki Rolü (1874-2019) Bayt al-Maqdis (1874-2019) Zinelabidine ZARIOUH The monuments of Bayt al-Maqdis in light 119 Siyonist Kazıların Gölgesinde Beytülmakdis of Zionist excavations: Between the goal of - 138 Mirası: Yok Etme ve Himaye Arasında destruction and the means of protection Musa AKKARI

The popular embrace of the Palestinian 139 Beytülmakdis Şehrindeki Filistin - Resistance in Islamicjerusalem city 1987-2019 154 Direnişine Halk Desteği 1987-2019 Aziz M ALASSA

The Heads of the Islamic Supreme İşgale Karşı Direnişe Öncülük Eden Committee in Bayt al-Maqdis leading the 155 - Beytülmakdis İslam Heyeti Başkanları: Şeyh Resistance against the Occupation: 188 İkrime Sabri Örneği Sheikh Dr. Akrama Sabri as a model

Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20(1): 1-18 DOI: 10.31456/beytulmakdis.385423

EARLY FOREIGN PENETRATION IN THE HOLY LAND DURING THE LATE OTTOMAN PERIOD: THE ROLE OF BRITAIN

Khalid EL-AWAISI*, Emine YİĞİT**

ABSTRACT: Western foreign interest in controlling the Holy Land throughout history has been successful in several occasions, such as the crusades and the British occupation in the twentieth century. However modern interest in occupying this land started practically with Napoleon’s occupation of Egypt and with his failed attempt to occupy the Holy Land, during which he called for the ‘restoration’ of Jews to Palestine. His campaign had two long-term consequences, it instigated British interest mingled with the idea of “Jewish Restoration” to Palestine in preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. Evangelical Christian groups were the first to promote the idea of an official political representation, which led to the opening of a British consulate in Jerusalem, during the occupation of Muhammad Ali Pasha. Other Western powers followed suit, with the aim of consolidating their influence and penetrating the region. The British were able to consolidate their influence and penetration of the region through initially establishing a consulate in Jerusalem and followed by many steps until occupying the Holy Land in the fall of 1917 and assessing in establishing a Zionist client-state that would serve western interest in the region.

KEYWORDS: Britain, European, Imperialism, Zionism, Christian-Zionism, Foreign Consulates, Palestine.

INTRODUCTION The French attempt at occupying the Holy Land in the late 18th century was a turning point in the history of the region as a whole. This occupation not only affected the Ottomans, but also worried the British, as its commercial routes in its eastern colonies were under threat, putting it at risk of losing its political superiority. For this reason, England did not leave the Ottomans alone in their fight against France, but helped pervade the existence of the Ottomans in this region for another century. This instigated in the British mind, for the first time since the crusades, the idea of bringing the Holy Land under its control once again. British penetration started with evangelical Protestant groups, who had little to no representation in the region. Thus, both politically and religiously, the Jews were a tool for Britain to gain a foothold in the region. Missionary groups, for

* Associate Professor of Islamic History, Social Sciences University of Ankara (ASBU), Turkey, [email protected]. ** PhD Candidate in History, Mardin Artuklu University, Turkey, [email protected]. 2 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) establishment Christ. of coming second the for preparation in land backto this them and Jews take to the both convert wanted reasons, religious increase their influence and penetration and influence their increase many many protect Russia and France in, just as consulate immigrants Jewish allow to Ottomans the clientbuffer or a b matched swiftly was This region. in the foothold in strong creatinga step political was first their this and in Jerusalem to British consulate (1838) establisha able was It Pasha. Ali Muhammad and French the against them supporting after especially project, he was not successful not was project, he Ottomans the by approved Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT The seventeenth and eighteenth centur and eighteenth The seventeenth IN FOREIGN EARLY Land Holy inthe state of Zionist the Ottoman period Ottoman late regionthe during in the influence imposing their and penetrating successful in Britain continued to push its scheme forward scheme its to push Britain continued over Palestine, mandate or occupation its During century. of turn the the at Land able Holy to the occupy eventually century was and nineteenth in the direction measures for subsequent W client a as to act them over to Palestine handed (Friedman 1986: 281 1986: (Friedman France penetration in the Holy Land and a and Land Holy in the penetration Ottoman the dependen increased their and by economically This new ofrise within Ottoman territories territories Ottoman within minorities living with links direct sought toestablish and initsaffairs intervention through affairs domestic Ottoman exploited powers of. Western advantage this early interest and the way way the and interest early this extend y other other y estern imperialist and colonialist ideal colonialist and imperialist estern W ,

estern powers to increase their influence. The weakness of the Ottomans Ottomans of the weakness The influence. their increase powersto estern together with the decline of the Ottoman Empire politically and and politically Empire ofOttoman decline the the with together W Britain capitalised on its influence over the Ottomans over the on influence its Britain capitalised ed doing estern players competing for control over the Holy Land Holy Land the over control for competing players estern W

its reach under the pretext of protecting Orthodox Orthodox of protecting pretext reachits under the e estern powers. However, Britain was ahead in developing the idea of of idea the developing in ahead was Britain However, powers. estern xtended protection to Jews in the region. Britain’s scheme was not was scheme Britain’s region. the in Jews to protection xtended W ,

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rting Jews to Christianity and taking them to Palestine, such them as to Palestine, taking and to Christianity rting Jews political existence as a nation among nations nation among a as existence political Although there was no rally of Muslim support against the Ottomans, nor nor Ottomans, the against support of Muslim rally no was there Although Foreign relations between the Ottomans and the French were affected affected were French the and Ottomans the between relations Foreign The Holy Land or Islamicjerusalem since the late Ayyubid period remained remained period Ayyubid late since the Islamicjerusalem or Land Holy The ed a - 24) ed stronger presence in stronger in presence

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3 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 4 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) The inauguration of the Suez Canal and theand Canal ofSuez inauguration the The Egypt was an important turning point for the Britis for the point turning important an was Egypt of whole Syria the across acti missionary powers. Protestant 1990:9). in 1838 Jerusalem in mission diplomatic foreign first the founded actions these With inhabitants. foreign and Jews onChristians, restrictions abolished region, the of governor the establishment of a establishment the as well as times, few a proposed was of consulate a idea The rule. Egyptian the to hope rule gave region.His in the foothold their strengthen to able were powers foreign Empire, Ottoman the and Ali Pasha Muhammad between relationships bad the on Capitalising non for created a Pasha, son his Ibrahim of command under the Pasha 2003:111 could proper Jerusalem mission in Protestant Permanent Palestine…. the Pasha first entered by Ibrahim “ states: Nicolayson Occupation. Egyptian region, the churchesand in missionaries establishm the for demands were There Ottomans. the from independence these by rejoiced consulate, the to establish decided British government to establish the consulate. the to establish ratheris vague City forCity in the Holyseat permanent a to establish determined region onthe 1826 3 January (Buzpınar earlier However issue. on this Government British the to requests official of records no are There 2003:29). (Perry groups missionary of circles limited the than further go however city. official in the an to establish presence essential it Rev. considered and Lewis Nicolayson JohnW.B. Rev. both consul in Jerusalem; dominating trade in trade dominating of in terms Ottomans of position its the allies as from Britain also benefited work, most of which w which of most work, cartographical and archaeological as well as consulate, of a establishment the by were missionary activities trade, besides and initiated, Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT British The occupation of Jerusalem The occupation Since 1824, missionaries believed missionaries 1824, Since ).

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funded by t funded

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it was necessary to have a British British a to have necessary was it and Syria Ali in1831 byMuhammad

A gradual penetration was was penetration gradual A s wells as (Carmel 1986:111 (Carmel

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decision was made decision was

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1996: 932) (1713 prompt region, cameto the Ali Pasha of armies untilMuhammad case the to the be Greek and Catholic through asserted was Influence occupation. prior Egyptian to the erasin previous as has had happened result a this of as beto occupied fear we and all… them destroy t of attention of focus the is city our as especially corruption, have much luck either muchhave luck it In of Jerusalem. inhabitants and notables by I Mustafa to Sultan petition written crusade, ofrenewed in Jerusalem a community Muslim 63) 1996: (Eliav 1997: 16, 114) 16, (Eliav 1997: c in the consuls appoint right to France the granted Ottomans the and France between Capitulation the However, there. themselves unable to establish were but region the come to would foreigners and Europeans Syria,some of occupation Egyptian the Prior to IN JERUSALEM FOREIGN CONSULATES period of injustice against against period injustice of of round,ruleMuham time the this as say a had would nothave region.Muslim in inhabitants the missionary activities consulates of establishment the through powers foreign short was this Porte. However, the and French Ambassador the between negotiations accusations of outcomel the was It in 1623. in Jerusalem Jean Lempereur, first consul, century ( twentieth the of beginning the at Palestine of occupation the and Holy Land “the country had become Christianised and the rule of Islam has ended” has Islam of the rule and Christianised become had country “the one. not Muslim ruler and a of Christian that a as Ali Pasha Muhammad of actions the saw of inhabitants the Many Islamicjerusalem. of region in the rule his against rebellions caused Muslims ‘ Jerusalem to him ( to him Jerusalem al Fakhr of Lebanon, Amir recorded by Konstantin Bazili, in his history of Ottoman Syria and Palestine and Syria Ottoman in history his of Bazili, Konstantin by recorded 2016 fellahin proto more were they that argued is it but population, tolerance ,

they stated; “ stated; they : 10 – - lived 1714) stayed in their positions positions their in 1714) stayed Convents, protected by France and Russia, within the city. This continued continued This city. the within Russia, and France by protected Convents, Under

ing who happened to be overwhelmingly Muslim. Muslim. overwhelmingly be to happened who ) . Bar There were a number of revolts in 1830s against his rule by the local local rulehis the by against in 1830s revolts of number a were There .

’ , .

It is argued that the reason for this failure was the fear localof fear the the the reasonfor that argued was is failure It this

as it is alleged that the co thatthe alleged is it as , W Thus, foreign consuls could not establish themselves in Jerusalem in Jerusalem themselves consuls establish couldThus, not foreign to non

- Yosef 2005: 2 2005: Yosef the consul was arrested and deported merely merely deported and arrested consul was the the r the estern powers to consider establishing consulates in Jerusalem consulates establishing to consider powers estern ” If the [French] consul is allowed to reside here… it will cause a great great a will cause it here… reside to allowed is consul the[French] If

(Salhieh 2006:97) (Salhieh eign of Muhammad Ali Pasha of Muhammad eign . -

Muslims and foreigners. His oppressive policies against against policies oppressive His foreigners. and Muslims Ze’evi 1996:21 Ze’evi

Early Foreign Penetration in the Holy Land During the Late Ottoman Period :

Sébastien de Brémond(1699 de Sébastien ities under Ottoman control. France thus appointed thusappointed France control. under Ottoman ities - - Din, and were presumably going to deliver the city of the to deliver presumably going were and Din, 3) the localpopulation It is reported that many would say in this period that inthisperiod that say would many that reported is It .

- Successors of the first French consul did not French not consul did of first the Successors for for nsul had supported the rebellion of the Druze rebellion ofDruze the supported the nsul had 22, 165; Avci 2004: 63 2004: Avci 22,165;

mad Ali Pasha and his son was seen as seenas son a hiswas and Ali Pasha mad under one year in the Holy City the in one year under , Bayt al Bayt ,

while conversely while – - In any case any In 1700 - Maqdis nationalist revolts by the the by revolts nationalist which ,

as well as permitting permitting as well as )

he infidels, may God God may infidels, he ). and Jean de a year later a

was recorded in a a in recorded was was opened up to up opened to was Based on these these on Based , the actions of of actions the , ,

a period a of

(Mochon (Mochon

engthy (Ilhami ( Blacas Blacas , Ze’evi

as is is as its

5 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 6 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) in 1901 that Russian and French Consuls were " were Consuls French and Russian that 1901 in d'A right the protect and observe to both established were they that claimed consulates letter written in 21 June 1825 1825 June in 21 written letter missionary groups. Rev. W.B. Lewis W.B. Rev. missionary groups. an establishing of idea The THE IN ESTABLISHING MISSIONARIES OF ROLETHE 110) foreignpowers these between apparent Rivalry was followed suit in 1856 and Russia 1857 Russia and 1856 suitin followed 2013:208), to Jerusalem, to Jerusalem, visit following issue his on the Dalton expands Britishgovernment. the with rests appointment of a British Consul in the Holy City in the ofBritish Consul a appointment John Nicolayson Rev. Danish of position the the argues, argues, BritishGovernment to the communicated being gover consideration, of serious worthy is it that and Jerusalem in consul the for having case the make to tries He 1826:76). emphasises communities religious over control their only extending not through region the in influence can b Pasha Ali Muhammad Jerusalem in Jerusalem suit followed countries other and 1838 so in Jewish Jewish earlier communicated was issue this that mentions he which in Dalton George Dr by 1825 May 23 on writing region. They requested the establishment establishment the requested They region. the in Jews the amongst succeed didn’t however activities missionary Protestant to Christianity them converting B to spread was aims of their One years. in later easily more much ambitions their served region;this to able were which they during rule Egyptian demographically. advantage their to situation exploitthe powers Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT lonzo, former attaché to the Consulate General of France in Jerusalem, wrote wrote Jerusalem, in France of General Consulate the to attaché former lonzo, .

nment nment of Christians and Jews in the region in the Jews and of Christians Missionary groups found it relatively easier to operate under the liberal liberal under the to operate easier relatively it found Missionary groups their with European powers, E were to his side his to xpositor

France and Sardinia in 1843, Austria in 1847, Spain in 1854. America America Spain in 1854. in 1847, in 1843,Austria Sardinia and France “the necessity of having a resident [British] consul in City” the consul Holy of [British] necessity “the a resident having , limited to the audience of audience the to limited (Jewish Expositor 1826:76) Expositor (Jewish

but sub and

and Friend of Israel of Friend and also by also sequent years. Prussia founded a consulate in 1842 consulate a Prussia founded years. sequent .

In contrast contrast In in his observations he includes the proposa the includes he observations in his ritish missionaries amongst the Jews with the aim of aim the with Jews the amongst missionaries ritish

creating a political presence. Britain was the first to do first to do the was Britain presence. political a creating (Jewish Expositor 1826:76) Expositor (Jewish e (Talbot 2013: official British presence was was firstby proposed official British presence Europeans, interpreted interpreted

in preparation for the second coming of Christ second coming for the in preparation

in 1826, but acknowledging that the decision decision the that acknowledging but in 1826, conflicting interests, desired to expand their their to expand desired interests, conflicting ,

then (Scholch 1990:229; Avci 20 Avci 1990:229; (Scholch who had travelled to Palestine in 1824 to travelled Palestine who had The Jewish The Jewish .

45; Madox 1834:357 45; Madox However, there was n was there However, (Satış2013:187,208; 2008:Leest and

and began to establish consulates in in consulates establish to began and of a Protestant Church in 1833 and and in 1833 Church Protestant a of resting the case with the British British the with case the resting irreconcilable rivals irreconcilable his efforts his efforts secure , particularly the British, wanted to wanted British, the particularly

(Perry 2003:29; Jewish Expositor Expositor Jewish (Perry 2003:29; politically, economically and economically and politically, , as these these as , E

(Perry 2003: 29) 2003: (Perry xpositor (Crombe 1998:45 (Crombe BRITISH BRITISH

. This was published in published was This .

a strong foothold into the into the stronga foothold (Eliav 1997: 17) 1997: (Eliav to win over European European over to win proposals, as Perry Perry as proposals, CONSULATE - 360) " o record of this of this record o

(D'Alonzo 1901: 1901: (D'Alonzo 04:64)

This was also Thiswas - . 46)

l for the the for l Alphonse Alphonse . These . These

35 put in in put (Satış (Satış - . ina 36)

The The

. . ,

region. They requested the establishment establishment the requested They region. the in Jews the amongst succeed didn’t however activities missionary Protestant to Christianity them converting B to spread was aims of their One years. in later easily more much ambitions their served region;this to able were which they during rule Egyptian argues, BritishGovernment to the communicated being gover consideration, of serious worthy is 1826:76) Holy City in the ofBritish Consul a appointment to Jerusalem, visit following issue his on the Dalton expands Britishgovernment. the with rests Jewish earlier communicated was issue this that mentions he which in Dalton George Dr by 1825 May 23 on writing John Nicolayson Rev. Danish of position the the 1825 June in 21 written letter emphasises Lewis W.B. Rev. missionary groups. an establishing of idea The THE IN ESTABLISHING MISSIONARIES OF ROLETHE 110) " were Consuls French and Russian that 1901 in d'A foreignpowers these between apparent Rivalry was right the protect and observe to both established were they that claimed consulates 1857 Russia and 1856 suitin followed 2013:208), in Jerusalem suit followed countries other and 1838 so in communities religious over control their only extending not through region the in influence demographically. advantage their to situation exploitthe powers can b Pasha Ali Muhammad lonzo, former attaché to the Consulate General of France in Jerusalem, wrote wrote Jerusalem, in France of General Consulate the to attaché former lonzo, .

nment nment of Christians and Jews in the region in the Jews and of Christians European powers, with their their with European powers, Missionary groups found it relatively easier to operate under the liberal liberal under the to operate easier relatively it found Missionary groups E were to his side his to xpositor . He tries to make the case for having the consul in Jerusalem and that it it that and Jerusalem in consul the for having case the make to tries He .

(Jewish Expositor 1826:76) Expositor (Jewish limited to the audience of audience the to limited

but sub and

and Friend of Israel of Friend and also by also sequent years. Prussia founded a consulate in 1842 consulate a Prussia founded years. sequent .

in preparation for the second coming of Christ second coming for the in preparation

in 1826, but acknowledging that the decision decision the that acknowledging but in 1826, conflicting interests, desired to expand their their to expand desired interests, conflicting ,

then (Scholch 1990:229; Avci 20 Avci 1990:229; (Scholch The Jewish The Jewish in 1824 to travelled Palestine who had .

45; Madox 1834:357 45; Madox However, there was n was there However, (Satış2013:187,208; 2008:Leest and

(Perry 2003:29; Jewish Expositor Expositor Jewish (Perry 2003:29; politically, economically and economically and politically, , as these these as , E

xpositor xpositor (Crombe 1998:45 (Crombe BRITISH BRITISH

. This was published in published was This . a strong foothold into the into the stronga foothold (Eliav 1997: 17) 1997: (Eliav to win over European European over to win (Perry 2003: 29) 2003: (Perry proposals, as Perry Perry as proposals, CONSULATE - 360) " o record of this of this record o

(D'Alonzo 1901: 1901: (D'Alonzo 04:64)

This was also Thiswas - . 46)

l for the the for l Alphonse Alphonse . These . These

35 put in in put (Satış (Satış - .

36)

The The in a

. , .

evangelists evangelists “a been always has he that himself about writes Shaftesbury possible. is stage early this well Shaftesbury’s by influenced was Palmerston that arguments Also, daughter. her and mother to a throughmarriage with Palmerston the second time he was inoffice was he time second the Palmerston with Palmerston and Shaftesbury may have started before before started have may Shaftesbury and Palmerston Farren climat political in the change the and influence missionary to due been have may London consulting before Jerusalem in agent an appoint to 1834 in Farren, c role their to negate Thus, process. the during minds their of back in the been have may and consulate establishment British the within L the with associated evangelists from originate did idea this However, accomplishment. creditfor claimed this groups whichafter these consulate, a Office to establish Foreign the by made was decision until a after found is missionary influences Consul Britain’s of insistence the through Jerusalem in consulate a in establishing interested was establishment British the before decade a over took It Society. Jews of London the agenda the 2003:111) (Buzpınar activities for their support diplomatic to give consulate fora press to continued Palestine. Palestine. and Jerusalem in France Russiaand of influence increasing onthe Palmerston to Farren of letter onsecond a one based political a purely was decision diary. Thus diary. Britain, Britain, for candidate aperfect be would Nicolayson that suggesti the behind alsobeen have Nicolays missionary the of family the first was the that states Verete but letter, in his them not mention does He in Jerusalem. Britishfamilies two having is consular agent decision oninfluence the t establishing of matter oninfluence the missionary activity. missionary activity. or Jews of the because not 1970:330),and (Verete consulate of the establishment Palmerston’s decision decision Palmerston’s Shaftesbury , Still ned te cin ae b Sras Consul Syria’s by taken action the Indeed, It has been argued that family relations between the Foreign Secretary of of Secretary Foreign the between relations family that argued been has It evangelicalclear itwas any if there not make does correspondence Official

in making this decision this in making Palmerston ( Palmerston on and the second on the and Eaglcl f h Evangelicals” the of Evangelical n , ondon Jews Society. It is likely that it would have reached officials officials reached have would it that likely is It Society. Jews ondon

, It was thereforeIt Verete argues Verete

had been , to negate any influence may not may influence any to negate

may have been a factor in the decision in the factor a been have may .

Fear may also have been involved, with this with involved, been alsohave may Fear

ompletely would inaccurate. be ompletely pushing for this issue a decade earlier, for decade pushing a issue this Levine 2003:47), and his evangelical stepson his evangelical and 2003:47), Levine o

Early Foreign Penetration in the Holy Land During the Late Ottoman Period ccurred , - making is not clear. not is clear. making due to due

was political reasons - two years before Shaftsbury wrote about it in his inhis it about wrote Shaftsbury before years two General in Syria. No record of evange of record No Syria. in General ,

well before they took the decision on creating a a creating on decision the took they before well

a Jewish family. The evangelist influence could could influence evangelist The family. Jewish a a argues that one of the reasons for needing a onefor needing ofreasons that arguesthe

on lack of evidence in official documents official in evidence of lack

by Niven Moore, the BritishConsul in Beirut the Moore, Niven by - known ideas about Jews and Palestine at at Palestine and Jews about ideas known he consulate, consulate, he th

be However,

at we (Tibawi 1961:34).A (Tibawi

the as Foreign Secretary. Secretary. Foreign as accurate, as relations between between relations as accurate, - General, John William Perry William John General, -

British Consul in the city the Consul in British making. Verete argues that that argues Verete making. re the re

this continued to be on on be to continued this and they they

driving factor for the drivingfactor forthe but thus their level of of thus level their

bec only bearing fruit onlyfruit bearing

fear fear ame - in dditionally - seemingly seemingly law

relatives relatives that this this that lical or lical or ,

Lord .

e. e. , ,

7 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 8 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) because of the Muslims or Jews or of Muslims the because not and differences, sectarian to due Christian present must be agent consular Society Jews London authoritie 1837 March in early agreed Palmerston groups. such to importance of equal was Holy Land in the Church Protestant the activities missionary forcover diplomatic to their give consulate a on keen were Missionaries greatly. from benefited and wanted missionaries establishment if the Even mind. British the in Jerusalem of symbolism religious the forgetting not groups, evangelical appease to and political to due was of consulate the establishment the that argued Palmerston that ifaProte that Palmerston inter namely consulate, a to establish need the in mind notoriginate in did Palmerston’s idea this that argues manner” same mind 111 is developments to developments However, these these However, Returnaccurate is orproblem Jewish Jewish the considered. h into account, taken were considerations commercial where Syria, in consulselsewhere from appointing different strikingly was Jerusalem in consulate of issue a the with of Palmerston dealing one especially dismissed, entirely representative overRussia control Jews tightened through appoint Palmerston would accept accept would Palmerston Moreover, the examples given by Verete do not correspond with do with not correspond Verete by given examples the Moreover, there. much attention as pay not did Britain and places other in stronger O Jerusalem, the Russian Consul in Beirut came to Jerusalem with a with to came Jerusalem in Beirut Russian Consul the Jerusalem, A administration. Russian under be would Palestine when time a anticipated he that in Jerusalem justified Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT

ttomans ttomans

no compelling recorded evidence recorded compelling no - evangelical circles evangelical 112)

who influenced Palmerston to arrive at this decision this at to arrive Palmerston influenced who

while taking the de the taking while . Besides their idea of their idea Besides Verete’s conclusion that nothing in official correspondence relates to the to the relates correspondence in official nothing conclusion that Verete’s

, as in April 1840 the Russian Consul of Beirut Beirut of RussianConsul the 1840 April in as , s to have a Protestant Church built in Jerusalem as requested by the the by requested as Jerusalem in built Church Protestant a have to s “constituting him also consul in Jerusalem and its dependencies” its and Jerusalem consul in also him “constituting

was purely part of a political power struggle, it was something the the something itwas struggle, power of purely apolitical part was

as the as (Friedman 1968:28; Tibawi 1961: 43) 1961: Tibawi 1968:28; (Friedman may have been communicated verbally and were in Palmerston were and verbally communicated been have may Palmerston ( Palmerston dditionally,

Russian consul consul Russian (Verete 1970: 344) 1970: (Verete (Friedman 1968:28 (Friedman stant Chapel was to be established inJerusalem tobe established was Chapel stant cision for cision the restoring

since

Tibawi 1961:43), 1961:43), Tibawi following the Ottomans regaining regaining Ottomans the following establish . H e states:

Shaftesbury writes explicitly writes Shaftesbury

several reasons. Th reasons. several had had the Jews to Palestine, to Palestine, Jews the (Verete 1961:336 (Verete

to intervene with Ottoman and Egyptian Egyptian and Ottoman with to intervene ment ofment . Col. Campbell gives another reason for for another reason gives Col.Campbell . - acted over Russian Jews. Yet Jews. Russian over acted 29) owever, h owever,

. Moreover, who -

Christian conflict. He writes to to writes He conflict. Christian a consulate in Jerusalem in consulate a (Verete 1970:326 (Verete

ordered Young to act ordered ere none of these were even openly openly ; Tibawi . Young wrote of these Youngwrote .

is possibility possibility is . Howe . Russia’s influence was was influence Russia’s several . ing the the

told Russian pilgrims pilgrims told Russian R reason behind the the behind reason ather

. could . It be 1975) establish

ver,

a that (Buzpınar 200 (Buzpınar firman any reason reason any

- reasons 327, 334 327, , itoriginated vakeel

again

he was the the was he control of of control cannot be be cannot

Friedman Friedman

from the ment ,

then a a then “in the “in the ,

. The . : - there

or a a or 335) both both

why why and

of of 3: 3: ’s ’s .

because of the Muslims or Jews or of Muslims the because not and differences, sectarian to due Christian present must be agent consular ifaProte that Palmerston inter namely consulate, a to establish need the Society Jews London authoritie 1837 March in early agreed Palmerston groups. such to importance of equal was Holy Land in the Church Protestant the 111 activities missionary forcover diplomatic to their give consulate a on keen were Missionaries greatly. from benefited and wanted missionaries establishment if the Even mind. British the in Jerusalem of symbolism religious the forgetting not groups, evangelical appease to and political to due was of consulate the establishment the that argued is one especially dismissed, entirely mind these However, Returnaccurate is orproblem Jewish Jewish the considered. h into account, taken were considerations commercial where Syria, in consulselsewhere from appointing different strikingly was Jerusalem in consulate of issue a the with of Palmerston dealing accept would Palmerston do with not correspond Verete by given examples the Moreover, there. much attention as pay not did Britain and places other in stronger in mind notoriginate in did Palmerston’s idea this that argues manner” same to developments representative overRussia control Jews tightened through appoint O a with to came Jerusalem in Beirut Russian Consul the Jerusalem, A administration. Russian under be would Palestine when time a anticipated he that in Jerusalem justified

ttomans ttomans

no compelling recorded evidence recorded compelling no - evangelical circles evangelical 112)

who influenced Palmerston to arrive at this decision this at to arrive Palmerston influenced who

while taking the de the taking while . Besides their idea of their idea Besides to the relates correspondence in official nothing conclusion that Verete’s

was purely part of a political power struggle, it was something the the something itwas struggle, power of purely apolitical part was as the as (Friedman 1968:28; Tibawi 1961: 43) 1961: Tibawi 1968:28; (Friedman may have been communicated verbally and were in Palmerston were and verbally communicated been have may Palmerston ( Palmerston dditionally,

since

Tibawi 1961:43), 1961:43), Tibawi following the Ottomans regaining regaining Ottomans the following establish .

H e states:

Shaftesbury writes explicitly writes Shaftesbury

several reasons. Th reasons. several had had the Jews to Palestine, to Palestine, Jews the (Verete 1961:336 (Verete

. Moreover, who -

Christian conflict. He writes to to writes He conflict. Christian a consulate in Jerusalem in consulate a (Verete 1970:326 (Verete

ordered Young to act ordered ere none of these were even openly openly ; Tibawi . Young wrote of these Youngwrote .

is possibility possibility is . Howe . Russia’s influence was was influence Russia’s several . ing the the

told Russian pilgrims pilgrims told Russian R reason behind the the behind reason ather

1975) establish

ver,

a that (Buzpınar 200 (Buzpınar firman any reason reason any

- reasons 327, 334 327, , itoriginated vakeel

. could . It be again

he was the the was he control of of control cannot be be cannot

Friedman Friedman

from the ment ,

“in the “in the , then a a then

. The . : - there

or a a or 335) both both

why why and

of of 3: 3: ’s ’s .

neither issues issues of number on a government the lobbying in successful were They . Eliav 1997:29) Britishgovernment the with forward A control. Ottoman under in Palestine Jews the for scheme settling detailed Shaftesbury even even Shaftesbury than Shaftesbury to influence Palmerston on matter this Palmerston to influence Shaftesbury than enthusiastic more anyone found have not could they and consulate the of project (Tibawi 1961:33). SocietyJews of London the lobbying to due the Thus, Jews. of protection and migration to the Palmersto influence did and pressing groups,kept of behalf missionary on Shaftesbury, consulate, the ofsuccess establishing Following the event. important an as inJerusalem arrival of the Young hailed and they Indeed, in Jerusalem 114) 2004: Finlayson Jews, conversion into Christianity as well as the the as well as Christianity conversion into by God to be an instrument of good of an instrument be to God by the as Palmerston saw Shaftesbury Furthermore, Yet, consulate. of thethat with linked Churchwas Protestant the of establishment Thus, the ideology of the second coming of Christ coming second the of ideology concerning diary, in his records Shaftesbury providence. of divine part all as it sees and lthough 1970: 316). Gentile cea Kingdoms that of first the is England and nations, the among place a resume to about is of God dulyconsidered, wonderfulwhat a is event of this!the peopleThe city ancient inmates Armenian oftheir and convents and Greek thethe Catholic, Turks,that but me will there, formed see trustwhichto I establishment,the Protestant religious indisputes Jerusalem, and other deservants of that chapel chapel that deservants of other and respectto support and proper thematter clergyman ensure of necessity a to me to appears It the appointmentof British a Consular Agentthere will be a Vice HerMajesty's who justbeen has leave appointed Young, Took morning of this and (Verete 1970:344) (Verete Missionaries were enthralled with the idea of the settling of a British consul of settling British consul the a idea the enthralled with were Missionaries

did did -

Consul at this was this he is quoted quoted is he Young’s appointment as consul in Jerusalem on 29 September 1838 September on 29 Jerusalem consul in as appointment Young’s

the the

(Verete 1970: 341(Verete1970: , were the first to enc the were

as it would undoubtedly strengthen their work their strengthen would it undoubtedly as the remit of the consul was extended to bear the protection of Jews of protection the bear to extended consul was of the remit the

a Missionaries, as Tibawi argues, were the main promoters of the the promotersof main the were argues, Tibawi as Missionaries, evangelical groups, and both continued to push their ideas ideas their to push continued both and groups, evangelical mongst the aims of this church was to push for local Jewish Jewish for local to push was of church aims this the mongst

Jerusalem! He will sail in a day or two for the Holy Land. If this Land. issail twoJerusalem!for the will Holy day or in a He wrote to wrote not realised, Shaftesbury did not give up give not did Shaftesbury realised, not .

Early Foreign Penetration in the Holy Land During the Late Ottoman Period as saying as .

Palmerston, Palmerston, - et with every possible opposition, not on the part of of the part on opposition,not everypossible with et 342) ses 'to tread her downtread her 'to ses

in 1840 .

ourage an official British presence and rejoiced rejoiced and presence British official an ourage

to His ancient people ancient to His , that . (Hyamson 1918:138 (Hyamson -

following verbal discussions with him, a him, with discussions verbal following Shaftesbury is Shaftesbury as from what I know of the spirit of of spirit the of know what I from as

“ restoration Palmerston has already been chosen chosen been already has Palmerston n on a number of issues related related of issues number a on n hand God of ' (Hodder 1887: 233; Verete Verete 233; 1887: (Hodder

quite blatant quite

of Jews - 139; Verete 1970:316; 1970:316; Verete 139; ” on on

(Hodder 1887: 310; 1887: (Hodder

(Joseph 1995: 48). 1995: (Joseph

his attempts, his attempts, in supporting the the in supporting . (Tibawi 1961:34) , in serving the the in serving ,

on this point on this and and :

9 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 10 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) seen to be adequate. to adequate. be seen Egyptian control Egyptian under areas in all representative senior England’s was 1833 who since Campbell, Consul from the advice sought April 1835), W occupation of Palestine. ofJaffaoccupation being aport Palestine. city Consul in Jaffa Consul in the matter the British representative third reason of State wi Agents Consular from appointing it. approve subjects in Jerusalem ha in Jerusalem subjects Under permanent despatched his response in June 1835, the Foreign Secretary was again again was Secretary Foreign the 1835, June in response his despatched hein When of BritishAgent a Jerusalem. appointment the necessitating Merad to enter to enter Merad ofin Britain Sardinian Vice Serapion so. to do timely was thusit o the was essential to have to have essential was Consul Jerusalem fo lobbying Ali Pasha, Muhammad of occupation Followingthe CONSULATE BRITISH A OF ESTABLISHMENT THE and Jews England, between relationship the is Palestine in policy England’s behind force steering main the People Chosen Moreover, second is the diasporic), and (biblical Jews to attitude its is first The reasons. for three Talbotas argues, in Palestine, interested British were The Palestine. and England November 1834 on the necessity of consular services in Jerusalem in of services consular necessity on the 1834 November for reporting intelligence of public eventspublic of intelligence reporting for agent efficient an have to desirable is where it and attention much attracted [lately] and la adds he Also, arose. problems if to toturn anyone nothave who would travellers as well city as in the residing Britishsubjects few

Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT ellesley (Duke of Wellington), Foreign Secretary Secretary (Duke ofForeign Wellington), ellesley pposition of the local Muslims was now reduced under reduced now was Muslims local the of pposition rgest city in the extreme south of Syria and the centre of provinces which have have which provinces of the centre and Syria of south extreme inrgest the city - There w There It can be seen t seen be canIt General in Syria stationed in Damascus, visited Jerusalem and saw that it it that saw and Jerusalem visited Damascus, in Syriastationed in General

and its its began in earnest began

t However, t However, but he British consider themselves biblical Israelites and also the new alsothe and biblical Israelites themselves Britishconsider he interpretation of bib of interpretation so so Jerusalem i - s Consul in Jaffa, Jaffa, in Consul

(Talbot 2013: 36 2013: (Talbot

the appointment was not sanctioned by the Foreign Office. The The Office. Foreign the by sanctioned not was appointment the in relation in relation into did not give a positive opinion, explaining his reasons forreasonshis not opinion,positive explaining a notgive did (Ver appointed by Egypt’s Consul Egypt’s by appointed a series of l of a series - Secretary, John Backhouse, noted on this issue that British British that issue this on noted John Backhouse, Secretary,

this this ete 1970: 319 1970: ete s a

here were reservations and instructions restricting Farren Farren restricting instructions and reservations were here in Alexandria and later Beirut. Campbell was asked asked was Campbell Beirut. later and in Alexandria Although he frowned on the conduct of Farren, of Although conduct frownedonhe the . hat there is a complicated relationship between Jews, Jews, between relationship complicated a is there hat Vice

d office with the hope that the Foreign Secretary would would Secretary Foreign the that hope the with office Farren requested permission from Ibrahim Pasha for Pasha from Ibrahim permission requested Farren

no representative, representative, no

to the - from Consul in the Holy City. He wrote to Palmerston Palmerston to wrote He City. Holy in the Consul engthy was was

- the End of Days and the role of England in it. role of the of End and England Days the 37) Apocalypse lical prophecy and and prophecy lical

- 1833. In October 1834 InOctober 1833. supposedly requested to be the consular agent agent consular to the be requested supposedly 324) . Thus, besides Thus, . thout the previous sanction of the Secretary Secretary the of sanction previous thoutthe

correspondence

Merad, an Armenian from Jaffa serving as as Jaffaserving from Armenian an Merad, .

”

(Verete 1970: 320) 1970: (Verete .

- General in Egypt, Colonel Patrick ColonelPatrick in Egypt, General but -

General following the Egyptian Egyptian the following General and not far from Jerusalem was was notfarand fromJerusalem

political and economic reasons, reasons, economic and political that, that that at the the

s the time (November 1834 (Novemberthe 1834 time

between London and fate of of fate as Jerusalem is “ is Jerusalem as , there was a British Vice a was there

John Farren, the British British the John Farren,

Egyptian occupation, occupation, Egyptian . He also notes that that also notes He . the the r a consulate in consulate r a .

Holy Land. The The Land. Holy He mentions a a mentions He the chief chief the

Arthur Arthur about the the in in - -

despatched his response in June 1835, the Foreign Secretary was again again was Secretary Foreign the 1835, June in response his despatched hein When of BritishAgent a Jerusalem. appointment the necessitating matter the British representative control Egyptian under areas in all representative senior England’s was 1833 who since Campbell, Consul from the advice sought April 1835), W to adequate. be seen ofJaffaoccupation being aport Palestine. city Jaffa Consul in ha in Jerusalem subjects Under permanent of State wi Agents Consular from appointing it. approve to enter Merad ofin Britain Sardinian Vice Serapion so. to do timely was thusit o the eventspublic of intelligence reporting for agent efficient an have to desirable is where it and attention much attracted [lately] and la adds he Also, arose. problems if to toturn anyone nothave who would travellers as well city as in the residing Britishsubjects few Jerusalem in of services consular necessity on the 1834 November to have essential was Consul Jerusalem fo lobbying Ali Pasha, Muhammad of occupation Followingthe CONSULATE BRITISH A OF ESTABLISHMENT THE and Jews England, between relationship the is Palestine in policy England’s behind force steering main the People Chosen Moreover, third reason second is the diasporic), and (biblical Jews to attitude its is first The reasons. for three Talbotas argues, in Palestine, interested British were The Palestine. and England ellesley (Duke of Wellington), Foreign Secretary Secretary (Duke ofForeign Wellington), ellesley pposition of the local Muslims was now reduced under reduced now was Muslims local the of pposition rgest city in the extreme south of Syria and the centre of provinces which have have which provinces of the centre and Syria of south extreme inrgest the city - It can be seen t seen be canIt There w There General in Syria stationed in Damascus, visited Jerusalem and saw that it it that saw and Jerusalem visited Damascus, in Syriastationed in General

and its its began in began earnest

(Talbot 2013: 36 2013: (Talbot

the appointment was not sanctioned by the Foreign Office. The The Office. Foreign the by sanctioned not was appointment the into in relation did not give a positive opinion, explaining his reasons forreasonshis not opinion,positive explaining a notgive did

appointed by Egypt’s Consul Egypt’s by appointed (Ver

a series of l of a series - Secretary, John Backhouse, noted on this issue that British British that issue this on noted John Backhouse, Secretary,

this this ete 1970: 319 1970: ete s a

d office with the hope that the Foreign Secretary would would Secretary Foreign the that hope the with office for Pasha from Ibrahim permission requested Farren

no representative, representative, no

- the from Consul in the Holy City. He wrote to Palmerston Palmerston to wrote He City. Holy in the Consul engthy was was

- the End of Days and the role of England in it. role of the of End and England Days the 37)

Apocalypse lical prophecy and and prophecy lical

- 1834 InOctober 1833. supposedly requested to be the consular agent agent consular to the be requested supposedly 324) besides Thus, . thout the previous sanction of the Secretary Secretary the of sanction previous thoutthe

correspondence

Merad, an Armenian from Jaffa serving as as Jaffaserving from Armenian an Merad, .

”

(Verete 1970: 320) 1970: (Verete .

- General in Egypt, Colonel Patrick ColonelPatrick in Egypt, General but -

General following the Egyptian Egyptian the following General and not far from Jerusalem was was notfarand fromJerusalem

political and economic reasons, reasons, economic and political

that, that that at the the

s the time (November 1834 (Novemberthe 1834 time

between London and fate of of fate

as Jerusalem is “ is Jerusalem as , there was a British Vice a was there

John Farren, the British British the John Farren,

Egyptian occupation, occupation, Egyptian . He also notes that that also notes He . the the r a consulate in consulate r a .

Holy Land. The The Land. Holy He mentions a a mentions He the chief chief the

Arthur Arthur about the the in in - -

Agent Jerusalem”at Octobe (7 memorandums Campbell’s Despite notforsuitable post. was this candidate an that Armenian seems it Campbell, by noted as Syria, in Armenians the and Russia between connections close the idea, but to to the due now more Jerusalem. inclined was Palmerston at Agency Consula to the Merad of Armenian the appointment the confirm to Palmerston Orthodox Arabs Russiaha and Christians Catholic oninfluence the r the in influence religious French and Russian regarding matters about wrote Farren whole. a Syriaas and Jerusalem in certain events of unfolding the with 26 October) 1836 (received September on 18 to Palmerston appointment of an agent in Jerusalem. Jerusalem. in of anagent appointment November 1836 that November 1836 3 on memorandum Backhouse’s to responded and idea, the to now favourable on the selection of a candidate candidate of a selection on the JohnBidwell, Services, Consulate for suitable position, this to someone choose Campbell consulted with both British Consuls in Damascus (Verete 1970:337 (Verete Damascus in Consuls British both with consulted in port especially Campbell, by 1836 in autumn accepted Syriawere in to appointed be agents wishe he that expressed who Palmerston, Through the directive of Moore, directive the Through ( Tanner Young partner,William business Moore BeirutThe Consul, candidate. a choose order to (Verete 1970:319 (Verete Campbell by outright rejected proposal hiswas but missionary Nicolayson, interesting and useful prove both frequently would there from “ was Jerusalem importantly in Jerusalem Consular Agent. Moore was of opinion the was Moore Agent. Consular 1836, untilspring matter reports the any on forward not did Moore matter. on the decisiona making before Moore, Niven applied to the Foreign Office directly Office Foreign to the applied hiscandidacyoffering one questions of the Syria, in subjects to British sent survey a commissioned Syria, and of Palestine for Campbell preparation in Moore, issue. this on place took developments conditional agreement of having a viceroy a of having agreement conditional an appointment such “ Jerusalem being one of the Holy Cities he could not take upon himself to sanc to upon himself take not could he Cities Holy the of one being Jerusalem However, Campbell approached Muhammad Ali Pasha on the issue and was told that told was and issue on Ali the Pasha Muhammad approached Campbell

in order in

in the situation was situation the - 324)

trying to strengthen its influence. He ended his letter letter his influence. its ended He to trying strengthen cities, namely Tyre, Sidon Tyre, Acre and namely cities, and Backhouse’s opposition, who both wrote unfavourable unfavourable wrote both who opposition, Backhouse’s and

(Verete 1970:325; Eliav 1997:113). 1970:325;Eliav (Verete . “ being being ” (Verete 1970:339). Campbell was able to secure a to secure able was Campbell 1970:339). (Verete ”

Early Foreign Penetration in the Holy Land During the Late Ottoman Period . I think it would be expedient to expedient be would it I think

Campbell accepted this on 5 August 1837 and Young Young onAugust and this 5 1837 accepted Campbell Moors’s recommendations for a number of Consular ofa number for Consular recommendations Moors’s to provide services to British travellers, but more more but travellers, to services British provide to r and 2 November 1836 respectively), Palmerston was was Palmerston respectively), 1836 November 2 and a garrison of considerable importance and intelligence intelligence and importance considerable garrison of a related to places where it was desirable to have to have a it desirable towhere places was related (Eliav,

who who

soon on 27 June 1837 June 27 on (Eliav 1997: 24) 1997: (Eliav Britain

wrote to Campbell on 29 November 1836 1836 on November 29 Campbell to wrote to change following a letter from Farren fromFarren letter a following change to d

that to hear to hear

, 113 , Verete 1970: 325; Perry 2003:29) 1970: Verete in Jerusalem it was desirable to have an agent agent an tohave desirable itwas -

114; F.O 78/295). Campbell thus thus 78/295). Campbell 114;F.O and from the new Consul in Beirut, in Beirut, Consul new from the . , d

Young Young

, was quick to nominate his quick to nominate was ,

influence with the Greek Greek the with influence Directing him to instruct instruct him to Directing

thus for a full year no fullno thusfor a year was have an English Consular Consular English an have ,

egion; as France had had France as egion; but he opposed the but opposedhe the in 1837 pending the the pending in 1837

”. ”. the Inspectorthe of the wrote to Campbell Campbell to wrote He nominated the the nominated He ) and Beirut in in Beirut and by by asking ’s

with with tour tour tion tion r .

11 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 12 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) 30 June 1838, the 30 Junethe 1838, 1970:339,344). (Verete matter Shaftesbury and “ “ was he that Ponsonby to twice wrote Palmerston prob no had subjects British that noted clearly was it where correspondence to earlier contrary Thisis Sultan the of consent peculiar, . F.O.78/300) Istanbul, Ponsonby, to procure a to procure Istanbul, Ponsonby, Palm government Nicolayson Rev.Mr. the by and Moore Consul Mr. “ situation and the fitfor was he that wrote He for job. the candidate possible a as of Young nomination the with together 318) Ottoman mean Treaty, Kutahya central the by approved be ofaffairsmust foreign Porte was referred to matter the this Thus, issue. in importance this of immense factor was religious the clear is It that grounds. religious consenton doubt however Ali Pasha Muhammad a letter dated 19 August 1838(Eliav 1997:115 August 19 1838(Eliav dated a letter Pa ordered by was 116). Young w he Ponsonby,by as The Hofman 1975:318). 1970:339; (Verete Jerusalem Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT 2013:47) Vice Majesty's her as Jerusalem to Young William appointed of Palmerston Britain Foreign The Secretary Holy Land. nohad Britain As section). next (see there consulate the from citizens of oftheir some protection the requested many as powers, foreign all to importance paramount Jerusalem he brought to the attention of Palmerston the desirability of desirability the of Palmerston attention the brought to he Jerusalem .

erston then in a letter dated 11 November 1837 instructed his ambassador in in ambassador his instructed 1837 11 November dated letter in a erston then meet with in places of considerable with places considerable meet of in to afford themAgent whichto expect to the ordinary assistance British travellers British there no was in visiting interest so much which place theyfelt a in that Jerusalem, at been have who travellers English by Govt. madeH.M. to been Campbell informed the Foreign Office of Muhammad Ali Pasha’s Ali Pasha’s of Muhammad ForeignOffice the informed Campbell Your Excellency will state to the Turkish Minister that frequent complaints have have frequentcomplaints Minister that Turkish the to state will Excellency Your to continue to press the Porte the press to continue to Negotiations with the Ottoman government continued for months, and on on formonths,and continued government Ottoman the with Negotiations As the first proper foreign consulate in the region, Britain’s role was of of role was Britain’s region, in the consulate foreign first proper the As P . Young related to Jews of the regio of the Jews to related Young . and - rotestant com rotestant Egyptian rule; rule; Egyptian ,

The reason presented for the establishment of the consulate, is quite quite is of consulate, the for establishment the presented reason The Palmerston wrote: Palmerston

c who ommenced the processes of officially establishing the consulate in in consulate the establishing officially of processes the ommenced firman ,

following many discussions wrote officially to him on this to officially him wrote discussions many following as to as lem in Jerusalem (Verete 1970:323) (Verete Jerusalem in lem ing munity in the region, it used the Jews as a way into the the into way a as Jews the used it region, in the munity

Ottoman in theory, Egyptian in practice in Egyptian theory, Ottoman was issued. Britain issued. was

that Jerusalem and Palestine were undernominal ajoint Palestine Jerusalem and that

(Tibawi 1961:31; Hofman 1975:318; Eliav 1997:114) Eliav 1975:318; Hofman 1961:31; (Tibawi be the superior of the new Vice superiorof new the be the

lmerston to set off to Palestine as documentedin as to off Palestine lmerston to set

Firman ”, especially as he was now being pressed by pressed now being was he as especially ”, note ( note - Consul in 1838 (Verete 1975:317; (Verete in 1838 Consul ed whether the Sultan would give such such give would Sultan the whether ed

from the from the Verete 1970:339). Verete , -

following the consent of the Ottoman Ottoman of the consent the following 116). strongly recommended to me both by by both me to recommended strongly

” n, and before setting forth to to forth setting before and n,

Sultan ( (Tibawi 1961:31; Eliav 1997:114) Eliav 1961:31; (Tibawi anxious to learn the decision the learn to anxious firman

government, as per the government, per the as

Eliav .

- Consul ( was sent to Campbell to Campbell sent was Months went by and and by went Months 1997:

(Hofman 1975:317 (Hofman 115; FO 78/322; 78/322; FO 115; Eliav 1997:115 Eliav

, Consular

since issues since issues response,

Talbot Talbot ” - . . - Jerusalem he brought to the attention of Palmerston the desirability of desirability the of Palmerston attention the brought to he Jerusalem 2013:47) Vice Majesty's her as Jerusalem to Young William appointed of Palmerston Britain Foreign The Secretary Holy Land. nohad Britain As section). next (see there consulate the from citizens of oftheir some protection the requested many as powers, foreign all to importance paramount 1997:115 August 19 1838(Eliav dated a letter Pa ordered by was 116). Young w he Ponsonby,by as The Hofman 1975:318). 1970:339; (Verete Jerusalem government 30 Junethe 1838, 1970:339,344). (Verete matter Shaftesbury and “ “ was he that Ponsonby to twice wrote Palmerston prob no had subjects British that noted clearly was it where correspondence to earlier contrary Thisis peculiar, F.O.78/300) a to procure Istanbul, Ponsonby, Palm Nicolayson Rev.Mr. the by and Moore Consul Mr. “ situation and the fitfor was he that wrote He for job. the candidate possible a as of Young nomination the with together 318) Ottoman mean Treaty, Kutahya central the by approved be ofaffairsmust foreign Porte was referred to matter the this Thus, issue. in importance this of immense factor was religious the clear is It that grounds. religious consenton doubt however Ali Pasha Muhammad Sultan the of consent .

erston then in a letter dated 11 November 1837 instructed his ambassador in in ambassador his instructed 1837 11 November dated letter in a erston then meet with in places of considerable with places considerable meet of in to afford themAgent whichto expect to the ordinary assistance British travellers British there no was in visiting interest so much which place theyfelt a in that Jerusalem, at been have who travellers English by Govt. madeH.M. to been Campbell informed the Foreign Office of Muhammad Ali Pasha’s Ali Pasha’s of Muhammad ForeignOffice the informed Campbell Your Excellency will state to the Turkish Minister that frequent complaints have have frequentcomplaints Minister that Turkish the to state will Excellency Your to continue to press the Porte the press to continue to As the first proper foreign consulate in the region, Britain’s role was of of role was Britain’s region, in the consulate foreign first proper the As on formonths,and continued government Ottoman the with Negotiations P . Young related to Jews of the regio of the Jews to related Young .

and - rotestant com rotestant Egyptian rule; rule; Egyptian . ,

The reason presented for the establishment of the consulate, is quite quite is of consulate, the for establishment the presented reason The

Palmerston wrote: Palmerston c who ommenced the processes of officially establishing the consulate in in consulate the establishing officially of processes the ommenced firman ,

Ottoman in theory, Egyptian in practice in Egyptian theory, Ottoman was issued. Britain issued. was

that Jerusalem and Palestine were undernominal ajoint Palestine Jerusalem and that

(Tibawi 1961:31; Hofman 1975:318; Eliav 1997:114) Eliav 1975:318; Hofman 1961:31; (Tibawi be the superior of the new Vice superiorof new the be the

lmerston to set off to Palestine as documentedin as to off Palestine lmerston to set

from the from the Verete 1970:339). Verete , -

following the consent of the Ottoman of Ottoman the consent the following 116). strongly recommended to me both by by both me to recommended strongly

” n, and before setting forth to to forth setting before and n,

Sultan ( (Tibawi 1961:31; Eliav 1997:114) Eliav 1961:31; (Tibawi anxious to learn the decision the learn to anxious firman

government, as per the government, per the as

Eliav .

Consul ( was sent to Campbell to Campbell sent was Months went by and and by went Months 1997:

(Hofman 1975:317 (Hofman 115; FO 78/322; 78/322; FO 115; Eliav 1997:115 Eliav

, Consular

since issues since issues response,

Talbot Talbot ” - . - . maintaining 1961:3) upons thepresent Lordship His to reporting of early opportunity will an take andyou generally tothe Jews protection afford to Jerusalem at consul vice British as duty your of apart be will it that states Bidwell by written 31 Januaryletter The letter1839. in a dated documented This is generally. Jews of protection of the idea the forth push to duties his amongst it made Palmerston the relations with . Following the arrival of Young in the region on 19 September 1838, 1838, region onSeptember in the 19 Young arrival of Followingthe

Figure 1: Figure

“a favourable impression” favourable “a Letter from British foreign office to the viceLetterforeign fromofficethe British to Jews in Palestine (Eliav inPalestine Jews

Early Foreign Penetration in the Holy Land During the Late Ottoman Period ,

“I am directed by Viscount Palmerston to state to you you to state to “IPalmerston directed Viscount am by F.O.78/368author) (taken by tate of the Jewish population of Palestine of population theJewish tate of

towards England by cultivating friendly cultivating by friendly England towards 1997: 116; F.O. 78/340). F.O. .

- consul in Jerusalem. Jerusalem. in consul

” (

Tibawi Tibawi

13 Beytülmakdis Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2020, 20 (1) 14 Journal of Islamicjerusalem Studies, 2020, 20 (1) towards the colonisation of the land, land, of the colonisation the towards t region. inthe policy its implement atoolas to Jews using the region, for the plan bigger England’s of part was this that argued occupation. Both these attempts failed, but it alerted another another alerted it but failed, attempts these Both occupation. a political bothLand presence through creating first the France was crusades. memoriesof the reignited had Napoleon’s expedition from vanished never Land Holy the reclaiming al Salah of hand the at Jerusalem lost powers European Since CONCLUSION of 1995:48 (Joseph work T 1961:43). (Tibawi activities missionary through educationally levels all at exercised Tibawi argues as Indeed, region. in the influence w as neighbours, willingness its and was Government British the how kind Jews the to show instructions general Palmerston’s 120 1997 Eliav 78/344; (F.O. the over jurisdiction no had he that Campbell,

Ottoman sentiments when it needed to do so. It forged alliances with the newly newly the with alliances forged It to do so. needed it when sentiments Ottoman capitalise on rising national movements national rising on capitalise whe later, overcentury a just to dramatically change This was not still ripecommunities. of inthese Ideas nationalism were Jews. and France failed; where succeeded Britain own. on it its implemented and on project this took thusit in India, colonialinterests its and to Britain threat a as seen was Palestine and Egypt into action military much was who Britain, namely 78/368 (no.8) F.O. 1968:25; possession” This subjects. foreign protection Ottoman Governor, Governor, Ottoman subjects Jewish Ottoman including Guardian” natural s he Palmerston, with correspondence a In nationalities. of Jews wasdifferent offering to he European protection that consulate and later managed to occupy the land tooccupy the managed later and consulate Khalid EL-AWAISI &EmineYİĞİT ogether with employing Jews for agricultural and cultivation of the land as a step step a as land of the cultivation and for agricultural Jews employing with ogether the consulate the country during the Ottoman period to attempt the penetration of the Holy of Holy the penetration the to attempt period Ottoman the countryduring The establishment of the consulate prepared the groundfor the prepared consulate of the The establishment This instruction was a direct interference with Ottoman domestic issues, as as issues, domestic Ottoman with interference direct a was Thisinstruction Napoleon failed in stirring up anti up in stirring failed Napoleon ,

and to the to the and

however . ell as the local Authorities” thelocal ell as

both of may be extended only to foreign national and not Ottoman notOttoman and only to foreignnational extended be may Muttasarif - 50). All of of All 50). :

“Protestant Christian, his legitimate legitimate his Christian, “Protestant , politically through the consulate throughthe politically

was left to Young for implementation, and it is noted noted is it and for implementation, to Young left was ; “the Jews unto whom God originally gave this land for for land gave this originally JewsGod whom unto “the

Fig.1 - 121). However 121). , and he was warned by superior his warned he in Egypt, and , was

). This extended ). Thisextended more successful in its endeavour. Napoleon’s Napoleon’s endeavour. in its successful more this , which

as well as well as was carried carried was “to shield them from oppression of their their of oppression from them shield “to tated that Britain was destined to be to be destined was Britain that tated -

Ottoman sentiments amongst Muslims Muslims amongst sentiments Ottoman , and was and

according to Young to according brought Young in conflict with the the with conflict in Young brought (Friedman 1968:26) (Friedman ra

archaeological and cartographical cartographical and archaeological ‘ it created the first longstanding first longstanding the created it yah,

perceived protection of all Jews, Jews, of all protection perceived (El out out , - ,

Awaisi 2019) Awaisi

or or British influence was to be be to was influence British successful in creatinganti in successful and later through military throughmilitary later and W under the diplomatic cover cover diplomatic the under subjects, of th subjects, estern imagination and and imagination estern n ,

offspring” Britain was able to able Britain was and his was carried ouhis carried was , - . . W

Din, the idea of of idea the Din,

this fitted with with fitted this religiously and It may may It also be estern power, strong British British strong e Ottomans Ottomans e

(Friedman (Friedman “the “the t - Ottoman sentiments when it needed to do so. It forged alliances with the newly newly the with alliances forged It to do so. needed it when sentiments Ottoman movements national rising on capitalise whe later, overcentury a just to dramatically change This was not still ripe ofcommunities. inthese Ideas nationalism were Jews. and land tooccupy the managed later and consulate France failed; where succeeded Britain own. on it its implemented and on project this took thusit in India, colonialinterests its and to Britain threat a as seen was Palestine and Egypt into action military much was who Britain, namely another alerted it but failed, attempts these Both occupation. a political bothLand presence through creating first the France was crusades. memoriesof the reignited had Napoleon’s expedition from vanished never Land Holy the reclaiming al Salah of hand the at Jerusalem lost powers European Since CONCLUSION of 1995:48 (Joseph work land, of the colonisation the towards t T 1961:43). (Tibawi activities missionary through educationally levels all at exercised Tibawi argues as Indeed, region. in the influence region. inthe policy its implement atoolas to Jews using the region, for the plan bigger England’s of part was this that argued w as neighbours, willingness its and was Government British the how kind Jews the to show instructions general Palmerston’s 120 1997 Eliav 78/344; (F.O. the over jurisdiction no had he that Campbell, Governor, Ottoman subjects Jewish Ottoman including 78/368 (no.8) F.O. 1968:25; possession” Guardian” natural s he Palmerston, with correspondence a In nationalities. of Jews wasdifferent offering to he European protection that This subjects. foreign protection ogether with employing Jews for agricultural and cultivation of the land as a step step a as land of the cultivation and for agricultural Jews employing with ogether the consulate the country during the Ottoman period to attempt the penetration of the Holy of Holy the penetration the to attempt period Ottoman the countryduring This instruction was a direct interference with Ottoman domestic issues, as as issues, domestic Ottoman with interference direct a was Thisinstruction The establishment of the consulate prepared the groundfor the prepared consulate of the The establishment Napoleon failed in stirring up anti up in stirring failed Napoleon ,