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The Critical Characteristics of Chinese Chinese Characters http://www.paper.edu.cn The Critical Characteristics of Chinese Chinese Characters Zi Gusheng (School of Foreign Languages, Yunnan Agricultural University) Abstract: The Chinese writing system has been developing for millennia, in which Chinese characters have experienced successive evolution of the Oracle Script, the Bronze Script, the Seal Script, the Clerical Script, the Grass Script, the Running Script, the Standard Scripts and the Simplified Script, let alone the variants of their pronunciation. With the development of computer technology, many flexible and pragmatic fonts have been created and used alongside, which makes the admirable and chameleonic Chinese characters appealing and puzzling to many beginners in learning Chinese. To make their learning Chinese more pleasant and fruitful, this paper briefly and analytically illustrates the pivotal characteristics of Chinese Chinese characters (CCC). Key words: Chinese character, script, writing style, font, pronunciation, meaning 1. Introduction Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, which is also called Zhengwen, Putonghua, Hanyu, Huayu, Guanhua, Guoyu, Mandarin, Standard Chinese and the like. Chinese characters have been developing with such a system in which most of the symbols represent concepts along with the corresponding pronunciations. The very first characters were created from the graphic representation of corresponding objects; for example, 日 (rì, sun) used to be the outline of the sun in the sky , 目 (mù, eye) used to be the profile of a pair of human eyes . In the course of evolution, pictographs, ideographs, composite ideographs, semantic-phonetic compounds, transformed characters and borrowed characters came into being to meet the needs of daily communication and records. Many homophones have been gradually accumulated, polysemies aggregated along, and various writing styles and fonts have been created as well. Generally the square-shaped Chinese characters, formed by strokes, carry their own specific orthography, pronunciation and semantics, which seems too arbitrary and perplexing for beginners and laymen to learn, master and use. Because of rectification, a majority of our daily or commonly used CCC do not carry their originally obvious or direct link between form, sound and meaning. As a result, the present simplified CCC make their writing simpler and more convenient, but much more difficult for beginners to learn and master. In order to familiarize those learners with Chinese characters and make their learning Chinese more enjoyable and fruitful, a brief account of the holistic characteristics of CCC with the evolution of Chinese characters and the intrinsic properties of CCC are illustrated and analyzed in this paper. 2. A Brief Account of the Holistic Characteristics of CCC with their Evolution The specific origin of Chinese characters is still waiting for greater efforts to determine though Chinese legend has it that Chinese characters were originally created by Cang Jie (the Left Historiographer of Emperor Xuanyuan, 仓颉, 轩辕黄帝左史官), who was an official recorder of the legendary Huangdi (Emperor Huang) of China in about 2,600 BC, and archaeological findings with unearthed oracles during 19-20th centuries have traced Chinese characters back to the Shang Dynasty in 1,700 BC. Moreover, Chinese commentaries through the centuries hold that the fully developed form of Chinese characters can be traced back to Cāngjié (仓颉篇), a non-extant work of character recognition listing about 3,300 Chinese characters in Small Seal Script. This legendary work has been purported to be compiled by Li Si, the Emperor’s Prime Minister (丞相) during the reign of the first Emperor of China, Qin Shihuang (306 BC – 250 BC), on the grounds that currency, laws, weights, measures and writing were all systemized after the unification, and that nearly all the books were burnt during the disastrous campaign of “Burn Books and Bury Confucian Scholars Alive” (213 BC – 206 BC). Characters different from those found in the newly compiled Cāngjié were discarded so that the characters in Li Si’s Cāngjié in Small Seal Script became the standard, though Li Si’s Cāngjié was based on the characters used in all the seven former kingdoms before the Qin Dynasty. Philological and etymological researches have verified that Chinese characters were initially pictographs (also known as pictograms or logograms) symbolizing the referent of the real and concrete objects in the world. And it has been found that most of the primitive pictographs are only iconic, looking like the shape with the most important characteristic of the objects they stand for. For example, 目(mù, eye): 1 http://www.paper.edu.cn pictograph of a pair of eyes (originally , later on, , and );月(yuè, moon): pictograph of the moon ; 日(rì, sun): pictograph of the sun , 门(mén, door): pictograph of two leaves of a door facing each other . As time went on and people were eager to express some more complex ideas or concepts, a few ideographs were then created, which look like some visible things but denote something abstract. For example, 高 (gāo, tall, high), used to be , which looks like a high building at that time, implying “as tall / high as the house”. Gradually people learned to make composite ideographs by combining two or more pictographs to suggest an idea. The components for the composites can be different pictographs or identical ones. In this way, a number of new characters came into being and use. For example, 明 (míng, bright): a sun (日) and a moon (月), implying that it must be bright with a sun and a moon together in the sky at the same time; 好 (hǎo, good): a woman (女) with a child (子) beside, indicating that it is good like that; 森 (sēn, woods, forest): a tree (木) with another two trees, meaning such places as woods or forest in which there are many trees growing together Still, there were many objects and abstract ideas that were difficult to explicitly express through pictographs, ideographs or composite ideographs. Then came the phonetic-semantic compounds formed by adding different phonetics to significs, in which the signific suggests meaning, the phonetic indicates pronunciation, which may be twisted from its original or remain identical to its original. For example, “鸟” (niǎo, bird) is the general term for birds, but there are various birds in the world, and it is impossible to differentiate each of them by way of pictography or ideography. The dilemma was solved with the help of phonetic-semantic compounds as 鸽 (gē, pigeon), 鹤 (hè, crane), 鹅 (é, goose). These three characters have been created with “鸟” (niǎo, bird) as the signific and their own phonetic tokens, to stand for the corresponding different birds, though they are pronounced differently from the mother character “鸟” (niǎo). 像(xàing, like) is made of 亻(rén, person) and 象(xiàng, elephant), in which 亻(rén, person) is used to discern 像(xàing, like) from 象(xàing, elephant, though they sound the same. Moreover, some Transformed Characters (also called Transferred Characters or Derived Characters) were created with shared radicals or components to stand for the same referent, though they are pronounced differently and applied in different regions. For example, 老 (lǎo) and 考 (kǎo) share a common etymological root “耂” meaning “old”, implying they both mean “old” but differ in that one part is changed to indicate a different pronunciation at the beginning. 爸(bà) and 爹(diē) are a pair of transformed characters, both of which possess the radical 父(fù, father) and mean father, though 爸 was mainly used in the south, while 爹 in the north. With such new coinages, Chinese language gradually gained a considerable collection of usable characters. In the course of applying those characters by different people in different circumstances or places, many existing characters acquired new meanings with the same or similar pronunciation, which have been called the borrowed characters (also known as phonetic loans). For example, 明(míng): bright (a.) → clear (a.) → understand, know (v.); 好: good (a., hǎo) → like (v., hào). As far as the borrowed characters are concerned, semantic and phonological variants of the same character(s) can be found in Chinese Chinese characters (hanzi), Japanese Chinese characters (kanji) and Korean Chinese characters (hanja or hanmun). For example, “汤” means “soup” in hanzi, but “hot water” in kanji, “soup” and “bath” in hanja; “勉强” means “to be forced” in hanzi, but “study” in kanji; “手纸” is pronounced “shǒuzhǐ”, meaning “toilet paper” in hanzi, while pronounced “tegami”, meaning “letter” in kanji. Even within CCC, the same character can be pronounced quite differently in mainland China and Taiwan, without mentioning different dialects. For example, 垃, 崖, 幢, 堤 are pronounced respectively in mainland China as lā, yá, zhuàng, dī, while in Taiwan as lè, yái, chuáng, and tí. To transcribe spoken Chinese of native Chinese speakers and mark the pronunciation of the characters concerned, over the past two centuries, four transliteration systems have been designed --- (1) Wade-Giles System, (2) Gwoyu Romatzyh, (3) Zhuyin Fuhao, and (4) Pinyin System. Wade-Giles System is a system of recording and pronouncing Chinese characters in Latin letters. It was invented by Sir Thomas Francis Wade and Herbert Allen Giles in the 1870s. It came into use in 1895 and was modified by Herbert Allen Giles in 1912 (e.g. ai, chai, ch`ai, ch`uai, ch`üeh). Gwoyu Romatzyh,which was created by Y. R. Chao in 1920s eliminated the use of graphs and numbers to represent tones, and used letters instead (e.g. chai, chair, chae, chay). 2 http://www.paper.edu.cn Zhuyin Fuhao, developed in 1913, is a system based on the shape of the strokes of CCC. It was the major phonetic system used in China until the early 1950s and is still being used in Taiwan today (e.g. ㄓㄞ, ㄔㄞ, ㄓㄨㄞ).
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