Creationism in the United States: I. Banning Evolution from The

Creationismin the United States I BanningEvolution from the Classroom Randy Moore

Keepyour Biblein the worldof theologywhere it belongs tific, educational, intellectual, and media and do not try to ... put [it] into a courseof science.- establishments." Dudley Field Malone, shouting at prosecutors during the Scopes trial; July, 1925 * A national study of science teachers found that 45% support the inclusion of creationism in the A LTHOUGH evolution is the unifying theme for classroom (Affannato1986). Many biology teach- understandinglife and "one of the best docu- ers avoid teaching about evolution or present it mented, most compelling and exciting con- poorly (Monsour 1997). Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 cepts in all of science" (Gould 1983), it is being * In some states, over half of the science teachers challenged-not by new discoveries,but by the evan- and school board presidents favor the inclusion gelical zealotry of religious fundamentalists.Despite of creationism in the classroom (Zimmerman consistently clear court-decisions,extensive discredit- 1987; also see discussion in Taylor 1992). ation of creationism, and overwhelming evidence Several supporting evolution (see Prelli 1989; Hays 1983; schools now use the Bible as a textbook Scott 1997; and references therein), creationism has for "history" courses, and many teachers refuse to discuss evolution in become an increasingly popular belief (e.g., Sinclair their classes because they fear and Pendarvis 1998; Monsour 1997). For example, a politically powerful creationists.Similarly, many poli- and recent poll conducted by the National Science Board ticians administrators subvert the teaching of (1996) reported that most adult Americans reject the evolution by requiring the insertion of disclaimers that evolution is a in idea that humans developed from earlier species of (e.g., stating "only theory") classes and textbooks.!Some teachers animals. Similarly, a 1991 Gallup poll found that biology biology rejectevolution altogether see Lewis Per- 47% of Americans believe that "God created man (e.g., 1997). haps this is to be expected; after it has pretty much in his present form at one time within all, always been important to many people-scientists and non- the last 10,000years." Only 9%believe that "Man has scientists alike-that nature and natural vali- developed over millions of years from less advanced history date us, both as individuals and as a species. For forms of life. God had no part in this process" example, people refused to abandon Aristotle's (Gallup & Newport 1991). By comparison,a majority pur- poseful and perfect universe, as well as of scientists take the naturalist view shared by only Ptolemy's positioning of Earth in the center of the 9% of Americans. It is hard to imagine any other universe, despite Galileo's evidence both. The issue for which there is such a difference between against most personal aspect of the secularizationof the universe- laypeople and experts (see discussion in Shermer that is, Darwin's nonpurposeful explanation of life's 1997). diversity-has generatedthe most opposition because Given the public's acceptance of creationism, it it addresses some of our most basic questions:where is not surprising that creationists' beliefs (and the we came from, how life and how we're antievolution claims that accompany them) are developed, related to other organisms. Most people will not becoming increasingly common in classrooms. For accept the fact that humans evolved from (and are example, therefore related to) other forms of life. Many more Eve and Harrold (1991) concluded that "over a people are offended by the idea that if nature reflects quarter-and perhaps as many as half-of the nation's high school students get educations lThese disclaimers are ostensibly to promote "critical thinking." shaped by creationist influence-in spite of the However, on 8 August 1997 the U.S. District Court for the Eastem overwhelming opposition of the nation's scien- District of Louisiana rejected a policy requiring teachers to read aloud such a disclaimer when they taught about evolution (Freiler v. Tangipahoa Board of Education, No. 94-3577 E.D. La. Aug. 8, 1997; the disclaimer said that the only "concept" from which Randy Moore is Professorof Biology at the Universityof Louis- students were not to be "dissuaded" was the biblical story of ville, Louisville,KY 40292; e-mail: [email protected]. creation). The court's decision also noted that proposals for "intelli- edu. gent design" are equivalent to proposals for teaching "creation science."

486 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 the characterof a Creator,then God-at least the one Understanding the rhetoricalfeatures of issues such of CharlesDarwin's world-acts randomly, amorally, as the evolution/creationism controversy can also and cruelly. reveal aspects of science that are not otherwise readily Many teachers have misconceptions about the his- perceived (Prelli 1989). tory and legal aspects of the evolution/creationism controversy.For example, most people (and virtually Darwin'sIdeas in the Courts all biologists) think they know what happened at the infamous (and enormously influential) Scopes Charles Darwin's monumental On the Origin of "Monkey Trial," but they usually don't (Pigliucci Speciesby Meansof NaturalSelection refuted teleology 1998);views of that trial-which many people incor- and purpose as explanations of life's diversity, and rectly believe resulted in a long-lasting victory for suggested that humans are not exempt from processes evolutionists that transcended the fact that Scopes that affect other organisms. Despite Origin'smessage was, in fact, convicted-have been influenced far and implications, there was considerable acceptance more by inaccuratemedia reports and the admittedly of Darwin's ideas by American Protestants. That fictitious Inheritthe Windthan by what actually hap- acceptance resulted largely from the advocacy of pened.2Similarly, many teachersbelieve that the U.S. Darwin's ideas by Harvard'sAsa Gray,an evangelical

Supreme Court has ruled that creationism is not Christian who was America's leading botanist and Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 science. It has not. president of the American Association for the This series of articles presents a brief legal-history Advancement of Science (AAAS). Gray, who es- of the evolution/creationism controversy as a means poused a progressive,God-driven evolution, arranged of highlighting the issues involved in this controver- for the initial publication of Darwin's Origin in the sial clash of two powerful constituencies.Understand- U.S. (see Moore 1997 and references therein).4When ing the legal history of this controversycan be useful Gray proclaimed that he had reconciled God and to teachers because it can be used to show students: evolution, many American Protestants were put at ease and accepted the idea (Scott 1994). However, * how scientists respond when their most valued that acceptance didn't last long, for by the end of ideas are challenged by nonscientists, World War I, religious attitudes had shifted; a collec- * what arguments scientists use to convince the tive nostalgia for the relative simplicity of prewar public and a nonscientific legal system of the life, combined with a perceived decline in morality, merits of their ideas, and led many people to rely increasinglyon their religious * the importanceof the creationism!/evolutionclash faith for stability and comfort.Religious fundamental- as a culturalstruggle for the public schools, which ism, based on a literal interpretation of the Bible, are key to a particularcultural vision's hegemony became very popular.5Although creationistsdisagree (Taylor & Condit 1988).3 on some of the details (e.g., see Scott 1997), the essence of their beliefs is summarizedin the following 2Scopes'trial was the basis for Inheritthe Wind,a long-running, three-actplay written by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee in six tenets, each of which arises from a fundamentalist 1950. The play, which opened on 10 January1955, got its name Christianinterpretation of the creationstory in Gene- from Proverbs 11:29, "He that troubleth his own house shall sis (Shermer 1997; Taylor 1992; and references inherit the wind, and the fool shall be servant to the wise of heart."Lawrence and Lee (1955)wrote the popularplay in response therein): to the threatto intellectualfreedom presented by the anti-Commu- nist hysteria of the McCarthyera (the Scopes trial, then safely a * Evolution cannot adequately account for the generation in the past and no longer perceived as an ongoing development of life and its various forms. threat, was used to examine the anxiety and anti-intellectualism * The universe, energy and life were created sud- in the 1950s). In the highly inaccurateplay, the principals of the trial were given sound-alike names (e.g. Scopes became Cates; denly from nothing by a Creator. Darrowbecame Drummond;Bryan became Brady).The screenplay of the script (written in 1960), which starredSpencer Tracy (Dar- most pervasive means for promoting our common destiny. In no row), Frederic March (Bryan), Gene Kelly (Mencken),and Dick activity of the state is it more vital to keep out divisive forces York (Scopes), downplayed the academic and theological issues than in its schools ..." while emphasizing the trial's circuslike atmosphere. In 1988, a 4Gray's First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology (1857; made-for-televisionmovie (staringJason Robardsas Darrow,Kirk later renamed The Elements of Botany) was the leading botany text Douglas as Bryan, and Darren McGavin as Mencken) appeared of the late 19th century, and was the first high school text after on NBC. Readers of Inheritthe Wind often overlook the authors' the publication of Origin to include Darwin's ideas about evolution. disclaimerin the preface:"Inherit the Windis not history" (Law- Gray, who was America's foremost Darwinist, was the only Ameri- rence & Lee 1955). Contraryto Inheritthe Wind,Scopes was not can taken into Charles Darwin's confidence prior to the publication arrestedby police and townspeople in his classroomwhile teaching of Origin (Larson 1989). evolution, did not have a deceitfulgirlfriend who was the daughter 5Fundamentalists got their name from a series of 12 small of a minister, and was not hated by Bryan or the citizens of pamphlets (containing 90 articles) titled "The Fundamentals" that Dayton (Comelius 1990, 1997). were written between 1910 and 1915. These pamphlets proclaimed 3The importance of public schools to a culture was stated biblical literalism as the antidote to "modernism." Millions of the explicitly by Supreme Court JusticeJ. Frankfurterin Illinoisex rel. pamphlets were given away (Larson 1989). This project was McCollum v. Board of Education, 333 US 203, 231 (1948): "The financed by Lyman and Milton Steward, who founded the Union public school is at once the symbol of our democracy and the Oil Company (Clouse 1995).

CREATIONISMIN THEUNITED STATES 487 * Humans and apes do not share a common Banning Evolution:The Scopes Trial ancestry. tried to save * Changes occur only within fixed limits or within In the 1920s,religious fundamentalists discussions of originally created forms of life. the nation's morality by eradicating * Geological history is best explained by catastro- evolution from society, beginning with the public phism, including a Noachian flood.6Many claims schools. On 24 March 1923, and with little fanfare, of creationists are not falsifiable.7 Oklahoma Governor John C. Walton (a progressive * The Earth is young (less than 10,000 years old). Democrat) signed America's first anti-evolution law; that law offered free textbooks to public schools Following World War I and the successful cam- whose teachers would not mention evolution.9 In paign to outlaw liquor, fundamentaliststurned their 1924, the California State Board of Education attention to Darwin. Led by religious leaders such as instructed teachers to present evolution "as a theory William Bell Riley, John Roach Straton,John Franklin only," and the North CarolinaBoard of Education- Norris, Aimee Semple McPherson,and-most promi- with the governor's support-barred public high nently-William Jennings Bryan, fundamentalists schools from using biology textbooks that presented denounced Darwin's ideas as being responsible for an origin for humans that differedfrom that described the decline of the nation's morals, and feared that in the Bible (Larson 1989). Tennessee and Arkansas, evolution was "the most present threat to the truth with the support of groups such as the Ku Klux Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 they were sure they alone possessed" (Smith 1965).8 Klan, made it a crime to teach nonbiblical ideas Fundamentalist preachers such as Billy Sunday (a such as evolution in public schools (Larson 1997; former Chicago Cubs outfielder) used theatrical ser- Shermer 1997). vices to link evolution with eugenics, prostitution The anti-evolutionmovement reached a worldwide and crime; Aimee Semple McPherson presided at audience in July, 1925, when 24-year-old coach and ritualhangings of "monkey teachers";other preachers substitute science teacher John Thomas Scopes cited Darwin as a primary supporter of the four (Figure1) volunteered to be tried in Dayton, Tennes- "p's": prostitution, perversion, pornography and per- see for breaking Tennessee's Butler Law, a four- missiveness Gould 1983,Larson 1997, de Camp 1969). month-old statute that made it a crime to teach To these and other people, antievolution laws repre- human evolution.10The Butler Law, like Scopes' trial, sented a return to pre-war normalcy,just as creation- was influenced by the rich, populist Democrat and ism in the public schools representeda public valida- three-time presidential candidate William Jennings tion of a populist lifestyle (Larson 1997; Taylor & Bryan. In 1924, faced with a fading influence in the Condit 1988). Democratic Party, Bryan told his son that he was Forty-three years after Darwin's death, the clash going to shift "from the politics of ballot boxes to between science and fundamentalism went on trial the politics of saving souls" (Scopes Trial Museum). in Dayton, TN in the infamous "Monkey Trial." As part of his plan to save souls, Bryan lectured in Despite the fact that it has often been misreported 1924 in Nashville on "Is the Bible True?" as the and misinterpreted(Cornelius 1990), the Scopes trial legislature was discussing the evolution question has profoundly influenced virtually all legislation, (Cornelius1991). Bryan'slectures catapultedthe evo- court decisions, and local actions involving the evolu- lution/creationism issue to public attention. Copies tion/ creationismcontroversy during the past 75 years of Bryan's talk were twice sent to the legislators, (Larson 1997; Cornelius 1991). Scopes' trial has one of whom was John W. Butler [a part-timeteacher become the standard to which all subsequent "evolu- and clerk of the Round Lick Association of Primitive tion trials" have been compared (Cornelius 1991). Baptists (Scopes & Presley 1967)].Butler was a pros- Although Scopes' misdemeanorcarried the same pen- perous farmer and legislator who, as the father of alties as minor drinking violations heard in batches five, worried that his children would be corrupted in Dayton's court every day, it became the basis for by the public schools [Butlerhad taken up the anti- one of the most influential and celebrated trials of evolution cause in 1922 after hearing a preacher tell all time (Larson 1997). 9WilliamJennings Bryan didn't learn about the Oklahomalaw until after it passed, even though it had been done in his name. 6A popular book promoting the flood-The Genesis Flood: The Oklahoma's anti-evolution law was repealed soon after Walton Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications (Whitcomb& Morris was impeached in 1925. America'ssecond anti-evolutionmeasure 1961)-became the flash point for the subsequent demand by became effective on 25 May 1923 in Florida,but it did not have creationistsfor "equal time" in the classroom(see Moore 1998b,c). the force of law or any significant impact on teaching. Indeed, 7Whitcomband Morris (1961) demonstrate the unfalsifiability the measure was not noticed by the press (Larson 1989). of creationists'claims by stating that the "geological record ... "0Scopes,who had intended to leave Dayton for the summer can give no informationas to the process ... employed by God to be with his family, was available for the trial in July only during the Creation,since God has plainly said that those processes because he had a date with "a beautifulblonde" at a forthcoming no longer operate." church social (Larson 1997). In 1925, Dayton had 1500 residents 8See http:/lxroads.virginia.edu/-UG971inherit/l925home.html. and nine churches.

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of a woman whose faith had been shaken after she to teach instead that man is descended from a lower went to a university and was told about evolution order of animals" (Cornelius 1991). Butler's statute (Scopes Trial Museum)]. In 1924, Butler responded was passed without debate by the Tennessee House by spending his birthday (17 December) writing 75-5 on 28 January 1925, and by the Senate 24-6 House Bill 185, which became known as the Butler on 13 March 1925, after which it was signed-under Law ("An Act prohibiting the teaching of the Evolu- pressure by fellow Baptists-into law by Governor tion Theory.. ."); that bill, which Butler had promised Austin Peay on 21 March 1925 (thereby becoming in an election campaign several years earlier, made Chapter 27 of the Public Acts of Tennessee for 1925). it "unlawful for any teacher in any of the Universities, Neither Peay nor the legislature intended to enforce Normals and all other public schools of the state ... the Butler Law. Peay tried to disarm critics by claim- to teach any theory that denies the story of the ing that "Nobody believes that it is going to be an Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and active statute" (de Camp 1969; Larson 1997). Within

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Figure 2. The Scopes trial was concocted at Robinson'sdrugstore as a way of generating publicity and enhancing Dayton's economy. Virtuallyno one in Dayton had an intellectualinterest in testing the ButlerLaw (i.e., the law banning the teaching of human evolution). The phrase "Where It Started"was echoed by a potential juror on Day 1 of the trial. Photographcourtesy of BryanCollege. just a few weeks, however, some of the residents CumberlandCoal and Iron Company in Dayton, was of Dayton would use John Scopes to prove the intrigued by the ad. With the newspaper in hand, govemor wrong. Rappleyea went to a popular local gathering-spot- Scopes' trial-a world-class event in its day- Robinson's drugstore (Figure2)-where he, Fred E. resulted from an ad the ACLU placed in the 4 May "The Hustling Druggist" Robinson (president of the 1925 issue of the ChattanoogaDaily Timessaying that school board and owner of Robinson's drugstore), "We are looking for a Tennessee teacher who is and other locals decided to concoct a trial to test willing to accept our services in testing this law in the law and, more importantly,boost Dayton's econ- the courts. Our lawyers think a friendly test case omy (e.g., Rappleyea's company and others were can be arranged without costing a teacher his or her having financial trouble; see Allem 1959).12 When job. Distinguished counsel have volunteered their the ACLU offered to finance the case, Rappleyea services. All we need now is a willing client" (Larson 1997; Irons 1988).11Dr. George Rappleyea (Figure1), a chemical engineer and the manager of the ailing "2Rappleyeadisliked fundamentalism; that dislike increased when he heard a fundamentalistpreacher tell weeping parents that their dead child was "awrithin'in the flames of hell" because "1Morethan a week before placing the ad, the ACLU released the parentshadn't had the child baptized. Accordingto Rappleyea, a survey showing that "more restrictive laws had been enacted "A few days later I heard that this same bunch, the Fundamental- in the last six months than at any time in the history of the ists, had passed that Anti-Evolution Law, and I made up my country" (Larson 1997). mind I'd show them up to the world."

490 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 90~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Fir 3

to Scopes' right with his hand coveringhi s mouth. Over Scopes' left shouldercourtesy.of is Photograph William;Jennings_Bryan.

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Figure 3. John Scopes being arraigned in the Rhea County Courthouse for teaching evolution. Gordon McKenzie is the man to Scopes' right with his hand covering his mouth. Over Scopes' left shoulder is William Jennings Bryan. Photographcourtesy of Bryan College. summoned Scopes to Robinson'sdrugstore and asked the First Amendment's protection of freedom of if he'd be willing to be arrested for violating the speech and the establishment of religion, and the new law. When Scopes agreed, the ChattanoogaNews Fourteenth Amendment's provision for personal lib- was called and the ACLU was told that a test case erty. It would also pit science against religion, the had evolved (Cornelius 1990). Rappleyea swore out academic freedom of teachers against the academic a warrant for Scopes' arrest, after which a deputy freedom of students, and governmental authority found and arrested Scopes where Rappleyea said against parental rights. Scopes, who described the he'd be, in Robinson's drugstore, drinking a Coke.'3 trial as "just a drugstore discussion that got past After a preliminary hearing on 10 May, Scopes was control,"quickly became irrelevantas the trialbecame arraigned and bound over to the grand jury under a battle of evangelical faith and majoritarianism $1,000bond (Figure3). No one-least of all Scopes against scientific secularism and individual liberty anticipated that the case would become one of the (Cornelius 1990). most famous trials in U.S. history (Scopes 1961). When word got out that Scopes would test the Indeed, before it was over, Scopes' trial would test Butler Law, people quickly began choosing sides. On the same day that Scopes agreed to be tried, I"Theoriginal table from Robinson's drugstore at which the the World's Christian Fundamentals Association decision was made to test the Butler Law can be seen in the Scopes Museum in the basement of the Rhea County Courthouse denounced "the teaching of the unscientific, anti- in Dayton, TN. Christian, atheistic, anarchistic, pagan rationalistic

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evolutionary theory" (Irons 1988).The AmericanFed- be used to disprove evolution." William Jennings eration of Teachersthen passed a resolution support- Bryan and the jury visited the "monkey house" and ing Scopes, telling Scopes that: posed for photos at Robinson'sdrugstore as headlines proclaimed that "Cranks and Freaks Flock to Day- It is neitherscience nor religionthat is on trial, but the ton," "Europe is Amazed by the Scopes Case" (one publicschool. article in a European newspaper began by stating However, the larger National Education Association that "The assumptions of fundamentalism are so rejected a similar resolution as "inadvisable." The preposterous .. ."), and that "Strange Creeds and Tennessee Academy of Science, which included most Theories Are Preached and Sung Within Shadows of Tennessee's leading scientists, said nothing against of the CourtHouse." Princetonpresident John Hibben the ButlerLaw until afterit became law (Larson1997). denounced the Butler Law as "outrageous" and the Scopes' trial (State of Tennesseev. John ThomasScopes, upcoming trial as "absurd,"and Yale presidentJames Nos. 5231, 5232 [1925]), which opened on 10 July Angell reminded people that "the educated man 1925 and ended on 25 July 1925, was a media circus. must recognize and knit into his view of life the Dayton was flooded by a motley assortment of ven- undeniablephysical basis of the world" (Larson1997). dors, street salvationists, sincere spectators, and George Bernard Shaw condemned the "monstrous money-based promotions. Adult citizens of Dayton nonsense of Fundamentalism" (see Larson 1997), were outraged by the arrival of two apes and Jo Albert Einstein noted that "Any restriction of aca- Viens [a 1-meter-tallman claiming to be "The Missing demic freedom heaps coals of shame upon the com- Link" (see Dayton Keyed Up 1925)];the town's wrath munity," and LutherBurbank (a famed horticulturist was placated only after it was said that "they may well-known to many Tennessee farmers) called the

492 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 trial "a great joke" (Church 1925; Kuh 1925; Shaw How can teacherstell studentsthat they camefrom monkeys and Coleman on Scopes Trial 1925;Luther Burbank to and not expect them to act like monkeys?'4 John Haynes Holmes 1925;Ginger 1958;Larson 1997). Dayton-described as being "literally drunk on Dayton's visitors included circus performers,"some religious excitement" (Famous Trials in American of the world's champion freaks," monkeys (Mindy History)-welcomed about 500 visitors (and almost the Monkey arrived in Dayton with golf clubs and 200 newspeople) during the trial. The courthouse presented several piano concerts) and monkey-based seated about 400, but 300 more standees crammed advertisementsby local merchants, religious fanatics in to watch Dayton's most historic event (Famous (including a hairy prophet who billed himself as Trials in American History). More than 2300 daily John the Baptistthe Third),and unabashed religiosity: newspapers tracked the trial; "no periodical of any signs posted outside the courthouse urged "Sweet- sort, agricultural or trade as well ... ignored the hearts, Come to Jesus," a three-meterbanner on the subject"(Lienesch 1993). The ChattanoogaTimes pub- courthouseproclaimed "Read Your Bible,"and hand- lished full transcripts of the daily proceedings, and lettered signs posted by Deck Carter (the self-pro- in China alone, 27 newspapers bought and published claimed "Bible Champion of the World") warned

that the kingdom of God was at hand. Monkeybecame 14Bryan, invoking nationalism, later proclaimed (on Day 5 of Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 the most popular word in Dayton's vocabulary;docu- the trial) that humans didn't evolve from monkeys, "not even from American monkeys." Bryan, who hadn't practiced law in ments were delivered by a courier service renamed the 30 years before the Scopes trial, believed that 1)there is no "The Monkey Express,"a constable'smotorcycle was scientific proof for human evolution, 2)the teaching of human labeled "Monkeyville Police," and Robinson's drug- evolution undermines students' faith and social values, and 3) the "Bible believing" majorityshould control public schools. Bryan's store sold "simian"sodas (Larson1997). Even William typical speech in Dayton attackedDarrow and was similar to the Jennings Bryan exploited the idea: many stump speeches he had used to attack academic freedom.

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Figure 4. Front-pageheadline of the 14 July 1925 issue of the New Yorkjournal. Darrow's objectionto prayers that opened each session of the court was highly unpopular. full telegraphic transcriptsof events in Dayton (Met- hired extra staff, Southern Railway added extra ser- zger 1978; Trial Transcript 1925). Newspapers such vice, the Chattanooga-DaytonBus Line added extra as the New YorkJournal gave the Scopes trial front- buses (and ran ads urging "Let's All Go To The page coverage in war-type headlines almost 5 cm Scopes Trial"),and the progressive Dayton Club sold high (Figure4). Reporters-who often invented sto- souvenir coins stamped with an image of a monkey ries associated with the case (Allem 1959; de Camp wearing a straw hat (Larson 1997). 1968)-came from as far as Hong Kong (Scopes' trial Scopes was tried for teaching evolution as pre- was the first trial in history that included daily sented in a textbook that he used titled A Civic broadcasts of trial updates on the radio; see Scopes Biology: Presentedin Problems,by George William 1961;Cornelius 1991),15 and included the cynical and Hunter (Hunter 1914; also see Gillis 1994).16 Hunter's caustic H.L. Mencken of the BaltimoreSun. Mencken book, a best-sellerin the field, included sections titled referred to the people of Dayton as "yokels," "The Doctrine of Evolution," "Evolution of Man," "morons," "anthropoid rabble," "gaping primates," and "Charles Darwin and Natural Selection." Other and "hillbillies," (among other things) and had to biology textbooks popular before Scopes' trial (e.g., be rescued from an angry mob by the Dayton sheriff (de Camp 1969;Famous Trials in American History). "6Infact, Scopes was not even in school on the day mentioned Robinson's drugstore hung a banner that bragged in the indictment (he had assigned the evolution chapter on 23 April, but was sick the next day and the class recitationnever "Where It Started" (Figure 2) as Western Union took place). That is, Scopes didn't "teach" evolution; he merely strung extra telegraph wires, the telephone company assigned the offending pages as part of a review for an exam (Larson1997). The textbookby Hunter, a formerbiology teacher, was sold at Robinson'sdrugstore and was the state-approvedtext "5Telegraphers sent out 165,000 words per day about the trial; in Tennessee high schools (Dayton schools had used the book these telegraphers sent more words to Europe and Australia than since 1919). Hunter's book-oriented toward public health rather had ever been cabled about any other event in American history. than theoreticalbiology-was blatantly racist;in its discussion of The trial was broadcast by the Chicago Tribune's WGN radio five races of humans, Hunter concluded that "the Caucasians (Figure 3) from the Rhea County Courthouse [at a cost of $1,000 represented by the civilized white inhabitants of Europe and per day for the telephone line (Comelius 1991)]. America" were "the highest type of all."

494 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 Moon's Biologyfor Beginnersand Gruenberg'sElemen- The Primary Players tary Biology)were also proevolution; the word evolution appeared extensively, and several chapters were Scopes' trial was an all but manufactured test case devoted to the topic. Moon's book even identified that involved four primary players, all of whom evolution as a fundamental and unifying concept of became national bywords: biology, noting that "both man and the apes are John Scopes, described by Edward R. Murrow (1950) descended from a common ancestor from which as "a ratherpersonable" young teacher, encouraged both lines have his students to testify at the trial, but never took developed" (Grabiner& Miller 1974). the stand himself.'7The regularbiology teacher(W.F. Books that treated evolution cautiously (e.g., Biology Ferguson) refused to participatein the case (Corne- and Human Welfare,by Peabody and Hunt) excused lius 1990). Unlike Ferguson, who had a family and their caution by citing a report by the College EntranceExamination Board claiming that a thorough 17Two of Scopes' students testified at the trial. One of those treatmentof evolution might be too difficult for high students, 14-year-oldHoward Morgan, was the son of a banker school students (Grabiner& Miller 1974). who had given up his home for the Darrows. Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 NABT Affiliate ...... The2>2sSf2,Es. laeeductio'offrs''ne. , , .in . life science Members :.:...... '..'.',:...... '.. || ,...... heOu. k The NationalAssociation of Bi- ology Teachers thanks its affiliate organizations fortheirsup- port and fortheirefforts to fur- oniesource.2 infonnation ther biology and life science education. * PositionStat ee rn

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CREATIONISMIN THEUNITED STATES 495 administrativeresponsibilities, Scopes was an ideal By 1924, Bryan had expanded his indictment defendant: he was single, easy-going, and had no (Irons 1988): plans to stay in Dayton; he would test the law without making trouble (Larson 1997). Although All the illsfrom whichAmerica suffers can be traced backto the teachingof evolution.It wouldbe better Scopes knew little about evolution, he opposed the to destroyevery other bookever written,and just ButlerLaw; he didn't understandhow anyone could save thefirst threeverses of Genesis.21 teach biology without considering Darwin's theory. However, Scopes was largely irrelevantto the trial; Bryan had been instrumentalin passage of the 16th he wasn't told about many of the issues associated Amendment (income tax) and the 18th Amendment with the trial, and when he was late for court, the (prohibition),and hoped to add an anti-evolution trial started without him (Larson 1997). Although amendmentto the U.S. Constitution.Fiery evangelist Scopes was used by others for ulterior motives, he T.T. Martin's Hell and the High Schools:Christ or took the issues seriously [he had been a student at Evolution-Which?, which laid out Bryan's case the Universityof Kentuckywhen its presidentfought against evolution, was a best-seller on the streets of against anti-evolutionlegislation; Scopes admiredthe Dayton during the Scopes trial (Martinwould later president's courage (see Larson 1997)]. As Clarence become a field secretaryof the Anti-EvolutionLeague Darrow said seven years after the trial, "Scopes was of America;see Moore, 1998b).When Bryan,a mem- trying to do for Dayton, Tennessee what Socrates ber of the AAAS (Coletta 1964-1969), agreed to did for Athens" (Darrow 1932). participate in the trial on 13 May 1925, the trial Judge John Tate Raulston, an elected official who assumed major-leaguestatus (Comelius 1991). chased publicity, felt called by God to preside over Clarence Darrow-the labor advocate who Bryan Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 the trial. He was also a devout Baptist who lectured labeled as "the greatest atheist or agnostic in the Darrow about salvation. Raulston started each day's United States"-was America's foremost criminal proceedings with a prayer to the Christian God, defense attorney of his day and was one of several during which prosecutors bowed their heads and lawyers for the ACLU-sponsored, pro-evolution defendants stared out the window (Larson 1997). defense."2Darrow, who had campaigned for Bryan William Jennings Bryan assisted prosecutor A. and who believed that Scopes "was indicted for the Thomas Stewart,an AttorneyGeneral of Tennessee.'8 crime of teaching the truth"(Cornelius 1995; Darrow Bryan, a former Secretary of State to Woodrow 1932), "wanted to put Bryan in his place as a Wilson, championed the creationists'fundamentalist bigot" (Smith 1965). Although the ACLU had tried cause.'9Although Bryan wrote a syndicated weekly to remove Darrow from the case, Darrow persisted column about the Bible and described the Scopes and did an excellent job at the trial (Larson 1997). trial as a "contestbetween evolution and Christianity Scopes' case was the only case for which Darrow ... a duel to the death" (Smith 1965), he did not ever volunteered his services (Tompkins 1965). rejectall of evolutionarybiology; he merely objected to humans having evolved from other animals (Lar- Before the trial, Bryan campaigned for the Butler son 1997).2? Bryan-a spell-binding orator who Law by writing and lecturing about the scientific worked on the Scopes case without salary-insisted and moral failings of evolution. At a rally in Nash- on the divine creation of humans, and objected to ville, Bryan proclaimed that scientists "have not tree because it included humans an evolutionary found a single link" and-remembering that the "in a little ring with lions and tigers and everything that smells in the jungle" (Ginger 1958;Gillis 1994). Butler Law pertained only to the teaching of human Bryan believed that evolution was responsible for evolution-stressed the missing links between World War I and the evils of society. As he said humans and their simian relatives (Larson 1997). in 1923 (Cowen 1986), Darrow also used the media to make his points Rammingpoison down the throatsof our children (Darrow Likens Bryan to Nero 1925; Darrow Loud is nothingcompared with damningtheir souls with in His Protest 1925): the teachingof evolution. Nero tried to kill Christianitywith persecutionand law. block with law. Had we Mr. "8Thecounsel for the prosecution included Bryan (a popular Bryanwould enlightenment orator on the Chautauquacultural circuit),Bryan's son (William Bryan'sideas of whata man may do towardsfree thinking, Jennings Bryan, Jr.), Ben McKenzie (a former Assistant Attorney General and a practicing lawyer in Dayton for more than 30 2lIronically,Scopes had alreadymet Bryanyears before the trial; years), J. Gordon McKenzie (Ben McKenzie's son and former Bryan, who was born in Salem, IL, spoke at Scopes' high school county judge), A.T. Stewart (Attomey Generalfor the Eighteenth graduationin Salem, IL in 1919. Judicial Circuit, which included Rhea County), Wallace Haggard 22Counselfor the defense included Darrow,John R. Neal (Rhea (FredE. Robinson'sbrother-in-law), and brothersSue and Herbert County native and former dean of the University of Tennessee Hicks (Dayton attorneys).Sue Hicks was the original"Boy Named Law School at Knoxville;Figure 1), Arthur Garfield Hays (New Sue" of the Johnny Cash hit song (Cornelius 1991). York counsel to the ACLU), Dudley Field Malone [New York "9Bryanhad been thrust into national prominence in 1896 (at divorce-attorneyand "backslidden"Catholic (see discussion in the age of 36) by his "Cross of Gold" speech at the Democratic Cornelius 1991)], W.O. Thompson (Darrow's law partner and Convention in Chicago, where he was nominated for president replacementfor BainbridgeColby, who resigned the day before (that same year, Bryan was nominated for president by seven the trial started),and F.B.McElwee (one of Neal's formerstudents other parties).Ironically, Darrow was a delegate at that convention. and replacementfor John L. Godsey, who resigned on the first Although Bryan swept the South in each of his three tries for day of the trial). By some accounts, Bryan was out-debated by President,he never carriedRhea County, the location of Dayton, Malone, a former subordinateof Bryan'sin the State Department Tennessee (Larson 1997). (when his law practice later declined, Malone gave up law and 20Bryan'scolumn was published in over 100 newspapers-an became a bit-part actor for the next decade). The defense was estimatedreadership of 15 million. His weekly Bible class in Miami assisted by librarian and Biblical authority Charles F. Potter, a grew to 5,000 people and had to meet in a park (Cornelius1997). Unitarianpreacher (Scopes & Presley 1967; de Camp 1968).

496 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 we would still be hanging and burning witches and punish- Realizing the publicity and economic benefits that ing persons who thought the earth was round ... America the trial could bring, leaders in nearby Chattanooga is founded on liberty and not on narrow, mean, intolerable, and brainless prejudice of soulless religio-maniacs. tried (unsuccessfully) in mid-May to move the trial from Dayton to their Memorial Auditorium, after Throughout Scopes' trial, Darrow tried to replace which they tried to stage their own case involving a Scopes' teaching of evolution with Bryan's threat to Chattanooga teacher (Cornelius 1990, 1995). Dayton's individual liberty; that strategy persisted until Dar- entrepreneurs responded by recalling Scopes from row hounded Bryan into the witness chair on the his Kentucky vacation, arranging a special meeting seventh day of the trial (Larson1997). Bryan's response of the grand jury (instead of waiting until the regular to Darrow was simple (Larson 1997; Scopes 1989): session in August), and staging two fights to keep Darrow is an atheist, I'm an upholder of Christianity. the media interested in the case (Cornelius 1991, That's the difference between us ... If evolution wins, 1995). On 2 July 1925 in New York, the defense Christianity loses. decided to broaden the case to pit science against The ACLU staged photo-opportunities for Scopes Fundamentalism and to sacrifice Scopes' acquittal for at the Statue of Liberty and in front of the original the chance to appeal the verdict to a higher court copy of the U.S. Constitution in the Congressional (Allem 1959; Scopes & Presley 1967). Everything was Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 library,where Scopes professed his "deep" religious set for "the trial of the century." feelings (Scopes Rests Hope in U.S. Constitution and Supreme Court 1925; Larson 1997). Whereas most of The Trial the public idolized Bryan, sentiment was fiercely against Scopes and Darrow.3 Scopes' father attended The Scopes trial opened on Friday, 10 July 1925, the trial, as did Butler, who cheered Bryan against two days after the 29th anniversary of Bryan's famous the "infidel outsiders."24Ben McKenzie, Assistant "Cross of Gold" speech. The trial unfolded as follows:27 Attorney General of Tennessee and dean of the local Bar, also invoked regionalism and Southern pride in his attackson the defense (FamousTrials of American History; Larson 1997):?5 We don't need anybodyfrom New York to come down here to tell us what [the Butler Law] means ... As for the Northern lawyers, who have come down to teach the "ignorant yokels" what to believe, they had better go back to d ' iv their homes, the seat of thugs, thieves, and Haymarket E L I rioters, and educate their criminals rather than to try and proselyte here in the South, where people believe in the Christian religion, and know that Genesis tells thefull and completestory of creation . . . [It is] better to kill all children under two years of age than to have teachers who will wreck the lives of children with atheist theories which will put them on the toboggan slide which leads to hell.26

n3Scopesand Darrow received thousands of letters such as this here is no betterclassroom to learnabout the marine one from a woman in Kentucky:"If you convert everybody to Tenvironment_ _ .. than the ocean.s itself. And there is no better . your way of thinking, what will you accomplish?The place to do it than in Belize.on the world'ssecond longest churches barrier reef. Let Aqua Red Diving Adventures bring the will be tom down, men will have to go armedto protectthemselves miraculousLunderwater realm to you and your students. A'LA from murder and lust, and sin will be rampant in the world, for Yourstudents will have the benefitof experiencedscuba instructors, men will not fear God and therefore will do as they please ... Yknowledgeablelocal guides and a Ph.D. in MarineBiology to learn The only thing you will accomplishwill be the about the ocean in a safe. comprehensive and of course, fun manner. making of infidels Dates willbook fast so call now to receive an and the sending of innumerablesouls to and informationpackage or to hell," this one from reserve space! ask how can for FREE! a man in North Carolina:"God will not permit [you] to live. you go You are the enemy of everything that is Christian and decent" PADI SCUBA CERTIFICATIONS ADVANCED SCUBA CERTIFICATIONS (Scopes 1989). Scopes bumed most of his mail in large bonfires MARINE BIOLOGY STUDIES MAYANRUINS (Moore 1998a). WHALE SHARK EXPEDITIONS JUNGLE, CAVE & RIVER TOURS 24Althoughthe public liked Bryan, some reporterswere biased SNORKELING PROGRAMS ADULT PROGRAMS against him; he CORAL ATOLLDIVING BLUE HOLE DIVES was referred to as an "old buzzard" who gave email: "a grotesqueperformance ... touching in its imbecility"(Comelius LNissman@aol.com 1990). Butler attended the trial after a newspaper offered to pay CALLTODAY FOR MOREINFORMATION him for his commentary (Larson 1997). 25Twoweeks after the trial, McKenzie wrote letters praising Darrow's work at Dayton. When McKenzie was arrested near Dayton for illegally transporting whiskey, Darrow asked if he needed counsel. McKenzie declined Darrow's offer. educated, polished gentleman [when compared] to the most igno- 26References to nationalism and Southern pride occurred rant man in some of our northern states." throughoutthe trial, and peaked on Day 5 of the trial when Hicks 27Unless specified otherwise, all quotations are from the stenogra- proclaimedthat "The most ignorant man in Tennessee is a highly pher's court transcript (Trial Transcript 1925).

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Day 1 (Friday, 10 July 1925): The trial opened jury whose term had expired so that another town with a fundamentalist preacher giving a prayer did not "steal the show" (see Larson 1997; Cornelius described by Scopes as "interminable" (that prayer 1991; Scopes 1965)]. The court then chose 12 jurors, was aimed at the judge and defense, and instructed three of whom said that they had never read any them to "be loyal to God"). Following the prayer, book except the Bible, and one who admitted that Attomey General Stewart pointed out that since the he couldn't read. A local preacher,when being ques- trial's verdict would probably be appealed, tioned as a potential juror by the defense, was applauded by spectators when he proclaimed that Bothsides are anxiousthat the recordbe keptstraight and regular,[so] that no technicalobjection may be madeto it he preached against evolution; he wasn't chosen for in the appellatecourts.28 the jury (see Scopes 1961). Day 2 (Monday, 13 July 1925): After an opening Judge Raulston then read the 31 verses of Genesis prayer, the defense argued that the Butler Law is I, after which he seated another grand jury that re- unconstitutional,adding that it should be overturned indicted Scopes [mindful of the publicity and eco- so that (Scopes 1961): nomic stimulus the trial could produce, Raulston had ... a teachermay tell the truth withoutbeing sent to jail. allowed Scopes to be indicted on 25 May by a grand After some preliminary sparing over legalities, Dar- row (Figure5) argued that the Butler Law established 18Similarconcern for a "straight and regular" proceeding was voiced throughout the trial by all parties, including Stewart (Day a particular religion in public schools. He then pro- 1), Raulston (Day 5), and Darrow (Day 6). claimed that (Scopes 1961):

498 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 Day 3 (Tuesday, 14 July 1925): When the day started with another prayer, Darrow objected to the prayer and to the jury being present for the discussion of his objection (Figure4). Judge Raulston overruled the objection,after which Stewart referredto Darrow as "the agnostic counsel for the defense" (Darrow later backtracked on his objection). Court was then adjourned for the day to enable Judge Raulston to write a decision about the previous day's challenge to the constitutionality of the Butler Law. Day 4 (Wednesday, 15 July 1925):After an opening prayer, Raulston overruled the earlier objection that the Butler Law was unconstitutional. Darrow then expressed pride in being an agnostic: I do not pretendto know where many ignorantmen are Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 I. . sure; that is all agnosticismmeans. In the afternoon, Scopes pleaded not guilty. Malone told the court that "science and religion embrace two separate and distinct fields of thought and leam- ing" and that "there is no conflict between evolution and Christianity." The prosecution attacked the defense, and testimony was heard from Superinten- dent of Schools WalterWhite, School BoardChairman Fred E. Robinson,and two of Scopes' students [Scopes had used a back seat of a taxi to coach the prospective student witnesses on evolution so that they could truthfully say that they learned the subject from Scopes (see Cornelius 1990)]. In the entire trial, these were the only witnesses whose testimony was part of the official court record.30Although Scopes later admitted that he wasn't sure if he had taught evolution (Scopes & Presley 1967), he wasn't called to the witness stand because, as Darrow told Judge Figure6. WilliamJennings Bryan addressing the court.Photo- Raulston, graphcourtesy of BryanCollege. YourHonor, every single word that was said against this defendant,everything was true. [Scopes] is here because ignorance and bigotry are rampant, 9hs oito wa th bai fo h rsctonsltragmn toand prhii [that] th_xettsioym is a mighty combination.uprfeouin Day 5 (Thursday, 16 July 1925): After an opening prayer, Attorney General Stewart moved to exclude When the defense asked if the Butler Law favored the testimony of expert witnesses because it would Christianity over other religions, Stewart responded be irrelevant;after all, the validity of evolution wasn't that: the issue during the trial (it was whether a law had The state, through the legislature, has the right to control been broken), and the defense had admitted that its schools by controlling the content of their curriculum Scopes had taught that "man descended from a ... The laws of the land recognize the Bible. We are not lower order of animals.""3William Jennings Bryan, living in a heathen country.29 Later, as testimony strayed even further from the 30Day4 of the trial ended with zoologist Maynard Metcalf on Butler Law and the ban on teaching evolution, the the witness stand saying that "I doubt very much if any two prosecution asked the judge about the purpose of [scientists] agree as to the exact method by which evolution has Darrow's questions. Darrow again made his point: been brought about, but ... there is not a single one among them who has the least doubt of the fact of evolution." Metcalf's We have the purpose of preventing bigots and ignoramuses testimony, as well as that of other expert witnesses for the defense, from controlling the education of the United States ... The was not allowed to be considered as evidence in the trial. fu~ndamentalistswill make the ages roll back ... Ignorance 3lInterestingly,Butler argued to let the defense present its andf fanat1icism areOeverV busyi anidneeod feed4ing. evolution experts: "The judge ought to give 'em a chance to tell what evolution is ... Besides, I'd like to know what evolution is myself' (FamousTrials in AmericanHistory). One scientist made it to the stand, but Judge Raulston ruled that scientific testimony was not admissible (Scopes 1965).

500 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 Jr. continued the argument, to which the defense pher's transcript noted "profound and continued responded that expert witnesses were important to applause").Butler described Malone's speech as "the show what kind of evolution Scopes had taught and finest speech of the century," and 40 years later its relationship to the Biblical account of creation. Scopes described it as "electric ... [Malone's] reply After four days of virtual silence, William Jennings to Bryan was the most dramatic event I attended in Bryan cited Hunter's book and used Darrow's argu- my life" (Tracy 1925; Butler 1925; Scopes & Presley ments in earlier (and infamous) trials to point out 1967). Even Bryan conceded that Malone's speech the dangers of evolution being taught and the Bible was "the greatest speech I've ever heard." Malone's being excluded from the classroom (Figure6). After speech produced bedlam in the courtroom; people his speech, Bryan received loud applause and shouts applauded and yelled wildly, and a policeman (on of "Amen." However, the best was yet to come, as loan from Chattanooga) cheered by pounding a Malone rose to respond for the defense: nearby table, eventually splintering the table (Scopes I have neverseen harmin learningand understanding,in 1965). Stewart then proclaimed that he didn't humility and open-mindedness....This is not a conflict believethat [he] camefrom the samecell with the monkey of personages; it is a conflict of ideas.... There is never and the ass, a duel with truth;the truth alwayswins, and we are not afraidof it. The truth is no coward.The truth does not after which he and Hays finished the day with needthe law. The truthdoes not needthe forces of govern- arguments about legal interpretationsof the law. Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 ment. The truth does not need Mr. Bryan. The truth is Day 6 (Friday, 17 July 1925): Another prayer imperishable,eternal and immortaland needs no human agencyto supportit. We are readyto tell the truthas we opened what would be the shortest day of the trial. understandit and we do not fear all the truth that they The prosecution claimed that the defense was using can present as facts.... We feel we stand with progress. the trial for publicity purposes, and Judge Raulston We feel we stand with science. We feel we stand with barred scientists from testifying for the defense intelligence.We feel we stand with fundamentalfreedom (Scopes 1961).After some discussion, Raulstonagreed in America. We are not afraid.... to allow the defense to read expert testimony into The press, breakingits customarysilence of neutral- the record, but not in the presence of the jury (i.e., ity, gave Malone a standing ovation (the stenogra- the expert testimony would not be evidence in the

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trial). Darrow-realizing that Raulston had ruled for Bannerreported that the defense was "preparing to the state on virtually all of the trial's major issues- spring a coupd'etat," (see Larson 1997 and references became sarcasticand accused Raulstonof bias against therein). Monday would prove them right. the defense and for the prosecution. Darrow already Day 7 (Monday, 20 July 1925): The seventh day knew the fate of the case: of the trial opened with a prayer. Judge Raulston (We] well know what the judgmentand verdict in this then cited Darrow for contempt of court, setting his casewill be. We havea right to presentour case to another bail bond at $5000 (Stewart had told Raulston about court and that is all we are after. the significance of the comments made by Darrow on the previous Friday). For the rest of the morning The state rested its case after less than an hour and some of the afternoon,Hays read into the record (Larson1997). At midmorning, Raulston recessed the testimony from the defense's expert witnesses.32Dur- trial to give the defense time to prepare statements ing a break for lunch during the reading of that of the expert witnesses. testimony, Raulston examined cracks in the ceiling July 18, 19: To this point, Scopes' trial had been of the first floor caused by the weight of the crowd rather dull. Faced with hearing hours of expert testi- in the upstairs courtroom, and Stewart arranged for mony being read into the court record,many reporters Darrow to apologize to the court for his comments left Dayton on Saturday. Mencken went home to on the previous Friday (Figure7). When court recon- Baltimore, and the WGN radio crew returned to Chicago; as Scopes would later note, "many of the army of newspapermen had evidently deserted" (de 32Scientistshad dictated more than 60,000 words of testimony supporting the defense. Most of these scientists had left town Camp 1968; Scopes & Presley 1967). Even some of before Bryan took the witness chair, but their testimony was the attorneys left: Thompson left for Florida, and entered into the record(i.e., not as evidence) with the jury excused. William Jennings Bryan, Jr. returned to California. The statement of the final witness, Horatio Newman (Dean of the College of Arts & Sciences at the University of Chicago) However, others in Dayton suspected that there could concluded by saying that "The evolution principle is thus a great be fireworks at the trial when Sunday's Nashville unifying and integrating scientific conception."

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vened, Darrow apologized, and Raulston-quoting Scopes that "Hell is going to pop now" (Scopes & scripture-forgave Darrow (Figure 8). Because of Presley 1967), Hays announced to the court that intense heat (the summer of 1925 was one of the The defensedesires to call Mr. Bryanas a witness. hottest and driest summers on record in Tennessee; the jury foreman had requested fans for the jury on When Bryan was called to the witness chair (as Day4) and a fear that the courthouse floor might an expert on the Bible; see Scopes 1961),34his hand- collapse under the weight of the throng attending fan froze in his hand (de Camp 1969) as the state's the trial, Raulston reconvened the court on a dais other lawyers jumped to their feet to object. Bryan under shade trees on the courthouse lawn (the condi- did not have to testify, and Raulston left the decision tion of the courtroom floor was an ongoing concern, to Bryan. Bryan-falling for Darrow's trap-took the for on Day 5 of the trial, Raulston had noted that witness chair the floor was "burdened"). Faced with intense heat ... to protectthe wordof God against the greatestatheist and the boredom of hearing more statements of or agnosticin the United States. expert witnesses, most reporters who hadn't already Before agreeing to take the witness chair, Bryan left Dayton spent the afternoon away from the trial insisted that he would later be allowed to question looking for relief from the heat. In fact, only about Darrow, Malone, and Hays (Cornelius1991; de Camp six reporters heard the dramatic afternoon session.33 1969). After sparring at a distance for more than a After Hays finished reading the statements of week, Darrow and Bryan were set to go head-to- expert witnesses, Darrow objected to the "Read Your head in a clash of religious faith versus science as Bible" banner on the courthouse and had it removed the way of best understanding nature (Figure9). (thatbanner was similar to the one shown in Figure 1). During his 90-minuteexamination, Darrow covered Then almost 2,000 spectators watched the trial reach some 50 topics. He referredto Bryan's "fool religion" its climax: after earlier baiting Bryan by saying that and questioned Bryan about his "fool ideas" (e.g., "Bryan has not dared test his views in open court Jonah being swallowed by a whale, Joshua's com- under oath" (Bryanand Darrow Wage War of Words in Trial Interlude 1925; Darrow's Statement 1925), 34Hickshad talked about Bible experts on Day 5 of the trial. Hays asked Judge Raulston for permission to intro- The strategy to call Bryan as a Bible expert had been planned duce one more witness. As Malone whispered to for several days and rehearsedwith Harvardgeologist and Baptist Bible school teacher Kirtley Mather, who played Bryan in the rehearsals.When Bryan agreed to take the witness chair, Judge "'Given the drama of the afternoon session, Scopes was con- Raulston asked Darrow, "Do you want Mr. Bryan sworn?"; to scripted to write news stories for the delinquent reporters(Scopes which Darrow replied, "No ... I take it you will tell the truth, & Presley 1967). Mr. Bryan."

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9. The Figure bizarre climnaxof the Scopes trial occurred on the aftemoon of Day 7 (Monday, 20 July 1925) as Clarence Darrow William (right) questioned Jennings Bryan (left) on an outdoor dais. Photographcourtesy of Bryan College. manding the sun to stand still to lengthen the day, However, Raulston overruled Stewart, after which everyone speaking one language before the Tower Darrow promised that the defense would of Babel was built, the worldwide flood), eventually ... not takean exception,either way you want it, because forcing Bryan to admit that he didn't believe in a we want the case passedon by the highercourt. Darrow asked literal interpretationof the Bible. When Darrow had just sanctioned the error that would God told Bryan how the serpent had walked before ultimately prevent the case from reaching the U.S. it to crawl on its belly, the audience laughed and Supreme Court (see Moore 1998a). The jury, which Bryan became flustered. After Darrow told Bryan during the trial was in court for little more than I am examiningyou on yourfool ideas that no intelligent three hours, deliberated for nine minutes on the Christianon earth believes, courthouse lawn and delivered its verdict: Scopes there was a near-riot and court was abruptly was guilty of the crime of teaching evolution. adjourned. Raulston fined Scopes $100 [plus costs], the mini- Day 8 (Tuesday, 21 July 1925): Rainy weather mum allowed.37 After being prompted by Neal (Figure1), Raulston asked Scopes if he had anything moved the trial back indoors for the eighth and final to say. In his first and last statement to the court, day of the trial. After an opening prayer, Raulston Scopes responded (Smith 1965): expunged Bryan's testimony from the record (de Camp 1969; Comelius 1991) because it 35Raulstonmay have also been influenced by recommendations ... can shed no issues that will be pending from the Sheriff and other officials to end the trial as soon as light uponany possible to avoid injury; emotions were running high, and both beforethe highercourts."' Darrow and Bryan had received threats (de Camp 1968; Harris 1990). Darrow then told Judge Raulston: `6This move prepared the case for an appeal, spared Darrow from having to be questioned by Bryan, and avoided the closing I thinkto save time we will ask the court to bring in the argument that Bryan had been preparing (Scopes 1967). When jury and instruct the jury to find the defendantguilty.36 Darrow waived the closing argumentfor the defense, the prosecution was denied its opportunity for a closing argument as well. During a discussion that followed, Stewart (cor- 37Mencken,acting on behalf of the BaltimoreSun, promised to rectly) stated that the jury should set Scopes' fine. pay Scopes' fine (Scopes 1965; Olson 1995).

CREATIONISMIN THEUNITED STATES 505 YourHonor, I feel that I have beenconvicted of violating appears in Tennessee Historical Quarterly40 (Summer 1981), an unjust statute.I will continuein thefuture, as I have 129-143]. in the past, to opposethis law in any way I can. Any Cornelius, R.M. (1997). William Jennings Bryan, the Scopes trial, otheraction would be in violationof my idea of academic and Inheritthe Wind.Dayton, TN: Bryan College. freedom ... I believe the fine is unjust. Cowen, R. (1986).Creationism and the science classroom.California ScienceTeacher's Journal, 16(5), 8-15. Bryan declared that the trial was about one of the Darrowlikens Bryanto Nero. (1925,18 May).Nashville Banner, p. 1. causes that "stir the world," and Darrow said that Darrow loud in his protest. (1925, 8 July). NashvilleBanner, p. 1. Here we have doneour best to turn backthe tide that has Darrow's statement. (1925, 19 July). CommercialAppeal (Mem- soughtto force itselfupon this ... modernworld, of testing phis), p. 1. everyfact in scienceby a religiousdictum. Darrow, C. (1932). The Story of My Life.New York:Scribner's. Dayton keyed up for opening today of trial of Scopes. (1925, 10 After another Christianprayer, the "trial of the cen- July). New YorkTimes, p. 1. tury" was over (A Typical Southern Jury 1925). de Camp, L.S. (1968). The Great Monkey Trial. Garden City: However, its legacy would echo for decades. Doubleday. de Camp, L.S. (1969). The end of the monkey war. Scientific American,220, 15-21. Acknowledgments Eve, R. & Harrold,F. (1991). The CreationistMovement in Modern America.Boston: Twayne.

I thank Dick Storey and three anonymous reviewers Famous trials in Americanhistory: Tennessee v. John Scopes, The Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 for their helpful comments, and Edward Berman for "Monkey Trial."http:I/www.law.umkc.edu/ftrialslscopeslscopes/htm. providing me with a copy of his interesting paper. Gallup, G.H., Jr. & Newport, F. (1991). Belief in paranormal I am especially gratefulto RichardCornelius of Bryan phenomena among adult Americans. SkepticalInquirer, 15(2), College for his interesting papers, hospitality, in- 137-147. Gillis, A.M. (1994). Keeping creationism out of the classroom. sights, and tour of the Scopes trial sights in Day- BioScience,44, 650-656. ton, Tennessee. Ginger, R. (1958). Six Days or Forever?Tennessee vs. John Thomas Scopes.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gould, S.J.(1983). Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes. New York:Norton. Grabiner,J.V. & Miller, P.D. (1974). Effects of the Scope trial. Next in the series: Science,185, 832-836. Gray, A. (1857). First Lessonsin Botanyand VegetablePhysiology. New York: Ivison. II. The Aftermathof the ScopesTrial Harris,R.C. (1990). Telephone interviews. Cited in Cornelius(1991). Hays, A. (1983). The Scopes trial. In G. Kennedy (Ed.): Evolution and Religion:The Conflictbetween Science and Religionin Modern America.Boston: D.C. Heath. References Hunter, G.W. (1914). A Civic Biology:Presented in Problems.New A typical southern jury. (1925, 17 July). Pittsburgh American, p. 4. York:American Book Co. Affannato,F. (1986).A survey of biology teachers'opinions about Irons, P. (1988). The Courageof their Convictions.New York: The the teaching of evolutionary theory and/or the creation model Free Press. in the United States in public and private schools. Unpublished Kuh, F. (1925, 22 June). Ape case loosens up tongue of Einstein. doctoral dissertation,University of Iowa, Ames, IA. PittsburghSun, p. 10. Allem, W. (1959). Backgrounds of the Scopes trial at Dayton, Larson, E.J. (1989). Trialand Error:The AmericanControversy over Tennessee. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Tennessee, Creationand Evolution(updated edition). New York: Oxford Knoxville. University Press. Bryan and Darrow wage war of words in trial interlude. (1925, Larson, E.J. (1997). Summerfor the Gods: The Scopes Trial and 19 July). New York Times, p. 1. America'sContinuing Debate over Science and Religion.New York: Butler, J.W. (1925, 19 July). For heaven's sake! CommercialAppeal Basic Books. (Memphis),p. 3. Lawrence, J. & Lee, R.E. (1955). Inherit the Wind. New York: Church,D.M. (1925,7 June).News of Dayton trialspreads. Nashville BantamBooks. Banner,Sec. 2, p. 7. Lewis, R. (1997, 12 May). To effectively discuss evolution, first Clouse, R.G. (1995). Evangelicalismbefore and after the Scopes define "theory." The Scientist,pp. 13-14. an Controversy:A Symposium on the trial. In Creation of Evolving Lienesch,M. (1993).Redeeming America: Piety and Politics in theNew 70th Anniversary of the Scopes Evolution Trial (pp. 11-16). Dayton, ChristianRight. Chapel Hill: University of North CarolinaPress. TN: Bryan College. LutherBurbank to John Haynes Holmes. (1925,29 July). in ACLU Coletta, P.E. (1964-69). WilliamJennings Bryan. Three volumes. Archives,vol. 274. Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press. the Cornelius, R.M. (1990, November). The trial that made monkeys Metzger, G.O. (1978). Looking back to original publication. out of the world. USA Today Magazine, 119, 88-90. pp. xvii-xix in Trial Transcript(1925). TheWorld's Most Famous Cornelius, R.M. (1991). World's most famous court trial. In B.J. CourtTrial: Tennessee Evolution Case. Dayton, TN: BryanCollege. Broyles (Ed.): History of Rhea County, Tennessee (pp. 66-71). Monsour, T. (1997). Evolution getting short shrift in class. Saint Dayton, TN: Rhea County Historical and GenealogicalSociety. Paul PioneerPress, 149 (167), 1, 6. Cornelius, R.M. (1995). Their stage drew all the world: A new Moore, R. (1997). The persuasive Mr. Darwin. BioScience,47, look at the Scopes evolution trial. In R.M. Cornelius & J.D. 107-114. Morris (Eds.):Scopes: Creation on Trial(pp. 2-21). El Cajon,CA: Moore, R. (1998a).Creationism in the United States. II. The after- Institute for Creation Research [Note: much of this text also math of the Scopes trial. TheAmerican Biology Teacher, in press.

506 THEAMERICAN BIOLOGY TEACHER, VOLUME 60, NO. 7, SEPTEMBER1998 Moore, R. (1998b). Creationism in the United States. III. The ban Scott, E.C. (1997). Antievolution and creationism in the United on teaching evolution reaches the Supreme Court. The American States. Annual Review of Anthropology, 26, 263-289. Biology Teacher, in press. Shaw and Colemanon Scopes trial. (1925,25 July).New Leader,p. 6. Moore, R. (1998c). Creationism in the United States. IV. Equal time Shermer, M. (1997). Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, and "creation science." The American Biology Teacher, in press. Superstition, and Other Confusions of our Time. New York: Murrow, E.R. (1950). I Can Hear It Now. Vol. III. New York: W.H. Freeman. Columbia Records. Sinclair, A. & Pendarvis, M.P. (1998). Evolution vs. conservative National Science Board. (1996). Science and Engineering Indicators- religious beliefs: Can biology instructors assist students with 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. their dilemma? Journal of College Science Teaching, 27, 167-170. Olson, L.R. (1995). Legacy of Faith: The Story of Bryan College. Smith, S.D. (1965). The great monkey trial. The New YorkTimes, Hayesville, NC: Schoettle Publishing Co. 4 July 1965. Pigliucci, M. (1998). Summer for the gods (book review). BioScience, Taylor, C.A. (1992). Of audience, expertise and authority: The 48, 406-407. evolving creationism debate. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 78, Prelli, L.J. (1989). Practicing rhetorical invention: Creating scientifi- 277-295. cally reasonable claims. In L.J. Prelli (Ed.): A Rhetoric of Science: Taylor, C.A. & Condit, C.M. (1988). Objectivity and elites: A Inventing Scientific Discourse (pp. 218-257). Columbia: University creation science trial. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, of South Carolina Press. 5, 293-312. Scopes rests hope in U.S. constitution and Supreme Court. (1925, Tompkins,J.R. (1965).John Thomas Scopes: A profile. In JerryR. 13 July). Washington Post, p. 1.

Tompkins (Ed.): D-Days at Dayton: Reflections on the Scopes Trial Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/60/7/486/10317/4450533.pdf by guest on 02 October 2021 Scopes, Jack. (1989). The man who put the monkey on Dayton's back. Chattanooga Life and Leisure, 5, (July): 12-15, 19, 21. (pp. 7-16). Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. Scopes, John T. (1961). The trial that rocked the nation. Readers Tracy,S. (1925, 17 July). Malone wins cheers from Dayton people Digest (March), 136-144. on answering Bryan. CommercialAppeal (Memphis), p. 1. Scopes, John T. (1965). Reflections: Forty years later. In J.R. Tomp- Trial Transcript. (1925). The World's Most Famous Court Trial: kins (Ed.): D-Days at Dayton: Reflections on the Scopes Trial (pp. Tennessee Evolution Case. Dayton, TN: Bryan College. 17-31). Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. Whitcomb, J., Jr. & Morris, H.M. (1961). The GenesisFlood: The Scopes, John T. & Presley, J. (1967). Center of the Storm: Memoirs BiblicalRecord and its ScientificImplications. Philadelphia: Presbyte- of John T. Scopes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. rian and Reformed Publishing. Scopes Trial Museum. Dayton, TN: Rhea County Courthouse. Zimmerman,M. (1987).The evolution-creationcontroversy: Opin- Scott, E.C. (1994). The struggle for the schools. Natural History, 7/ ions of Ohio high school biology teachers.Ohio Journal of Science, 94, 10-13. 87, 115-125.

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