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Effects of Expectation, Experience, and Environment on Visual Search

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Effects of Expectation, Experience, and Environment on Visual Search Effects of Expectation, Experience, and Environment on Visual Search by Mathias S. Fleck Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Stephen Mitroff, Supervisor ___________________________ Amy Needham ___________________________ David Madden ___________________________ Elizabeth Marsh Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy in the Department of Psychology & Neuroscience in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 ABSTRACT Effects of Expectation, Experience, and Environment on Visual Search by Mathias S. Fleck Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Stephen Mitroff, Supervisor ___________________________ Amy Needham ___________________________ David Madden ___________________________ Elizabeth Marsh An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in the Department of Psychology & Neuroscience in the Graduate School of Duke University 2009 Copyright by Mathias S. Fleck 2009 Abstract A pervasive aspect of daily life is searching for a specific target amongst an array of distracting items. Studying such visual searches offers a useful and powerful tool for revealing the underlying aspects of visual attention. Understanding how factors influence accurate target detection serves to both enhance real-world search tasks and inform basic cognitive psychology. The goal of the research presented herein is to examine the effects of expectation, experience, and environment on search behavior. The experiments are conducted in controlled laboratory environments, but are designed to simulate real-world searches, with the express goal of informing the implementation of search tasks in everyday life. First, expectation is explored by manipulating target prevalence and measuring the resultant change in behavior as participants’ biases shift. Second, experience is tested by comparing individuals with and without extensive video game exposure, specifically on their susceptibility to the pressures of rare target search. Lastly, environment is examined by utilizing multiple simultaneous targets. This manipulation has been shown to induce errors in radiology, and here the generality of this effect is explored to establish the various pressures to which it is sensitive. Collectively, these data serve to inform how different influences modulate visual search performance, and the results can directly inform the training, recruitment, and execution of real-world search tasks such as those in radiology, cytology, and airport security. iv Dedication For my parents, Carl and Rosa, and in memory of my grandma, Gaynelle Seals (1924- 2008). v Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 What is visual search? ...................................................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Visual search as an operational measurement of visual attention ....................... 3 1.1.2 Applied search in professional and medicinal applications ................................. 4 1.1.3 Applied search in military and security sectors ...................................................... 6 1.2 Review of visual search in cognitive psychology ........................................................ 7 1.2.1 Measuring search in the laboratory .......................................................................... 7 1.2.2 Feature integration theory .......................................................................................... 8 1.2.3 Parallel and serial processing .................................................................................... 9 1.2.4 A new model: guided search ................................................................................... 10 1.2.3 Guiding attributes ..................................................................................................... 12 1.2.4 Bottom-up and top-down guidance ....................................................................... 13 1.2.5 Memory processes and search history ................................................................... 14 1.3 Current topics in visual search ..................................................................................... 16 1.3.1 Target prevalence and expectation ......................................................................... 16 1.3.1.1 Vigilance studies ................................................................................................ 17 vi 1.3.1.2 Prevalence studies in radiology ....................................................................... 18 1.3.1.3 Prevalence effects in cognitive studies ............................................................ 19 1.3.2 Video game experience ............................................................................................. 20 1.3.2.1 Video game expertise influences attention and perception ......................... 21 1.3.2.2 Video games and real-world tasks .................................................................. 22 1.3.2.3 Possible mechanisms of video game effects ................................................... 22 1.3.3 Extra targets in the search environment ................................................................ 23 1.3.3.1 Radiology and the satisfaction of search effect .............................................. 24 1.3.3.2 Generality of SOS effect? ................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2. Expectation and rare target search ........................................................................ 26 2.1 Methods ........................................................................................................................... 27 2.1.1 Participants and stimuli ............................................................................................ 27 2.1.2 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 29 2.2 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................. 30 2.3 Additional findings in rare target search .................................................................... 37 2.3.1 Speed/accuracy tradeoff or criterion shift? ............................................................ 37 2.3.2 Change in quitting threshold ................................................................................... 40 2.3.3 Correction does not always eliminate the prevalence effect ............................... 42 Chapter 3. Video game experience improves rare target search .......................................... 45 3.1 Methods ........................................................................................................................... 48 3.1.1 Participants and stimuli ............................................................................................ 48 3.1.2 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 50 vii 3.2 Results .............................................................................................................................. 51 3.2.1 Visual search accuracy .............................................................................................. 51 3.2.2 Response times .......................................................................................................... 53 3.2.3 Speed-accuracy tradeoffs.......................................................................................... 54 3.3 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 56 3.3.1 Video gamers excel at rare target visual search .................................................... 56 3.3.2 Role of VGP motivation in enhanced rare search performance.......................... 58 3.3.3 Implications for prior and future video game research ....................................... 59 3.3.4 Conclusions and broader implications ................................................................... 60 Chapter 4. Extra targets in the visual search environment ................................................... 62 4.1 Experiments 1-3: Examining the effect of salience and expectation on SOS .......... 65 4.1.1 Methods ...................................................................................................................... 66 4.1.1.1 Participants and stimuli .................................................................................... 66 4.1.1.2 Procedure ...........................................................................................................
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