(without A Chronology / History of Electronic and Computer Music and Related Events 1900 - 2014 frames)

Last updated 5 January 2013

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a subject of 'Chronology' gets my attention.

© Copyright 2008-2014* Paul Doornbusch.

This is a somewhat extended and updated version based on the same item originally published in The Oxford Handbook of Computer Music late in 2009. When attempting such a chronology or timeline, even one such as this which mostly ignores the commercial music world, it quickly becomes apparent that there is so much activity that it will necessarily be incomplete. It is impossible to list all of the events which have taken place in any locale or time. Given these limitations, perhaps this is still of some limited use as some sort of chronological overview of computer music research and related events, and I welcome suggestions for updates.

This concentrates on electronic and computer music and includes fewer details of commercial music than a more comprehensive chronology might. Please see the references for a more detailed treatment of events (note 1).

Year Selected Significant Musical Main Technological Events Electronic / Computer Events Music Events

< Cylinder and disk recordings 1900 are common, as is the telephone.

Moving pictures exist, but not with sound.

1906 First public performances of J. L. Baird creates the first Thaddeus Cahill's working (electromechanical) Dynamophone, also known as television. the Telharmonium (developed in 1897). Frank Conrad makes the first radio broadcast of audio.

Lee De Forest develops the Triode (thermionic valve) or Audion tube, the first vacuum tube, which brought with it electronic amplification.

Sigmund Freud's theories of the unconscious and psychoanalysis gain recognition.

Albert Einstein publishes the Special Theory of Relativity.

Magnetic wire recorders, invented in the 1890s by Valdemar Poulsen, are common but not of high sound quality.

The first optical film sound systems emerge.

Max Planck's quantum theory gains acceptance (published in 1900).

Victor Talking Machine Company releases the (popular) Victrola gramophone and Enrico Caruso is recorded.

1907 Bakelite is invented. Ferruccio Busoni publishes Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music, influencing his students Percy Grainger, Luigi Russolo and Edgard Varèse.

1909 Disk records, invented and Futurism movement founded produced by Emile Berliner by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. become the more popular format than Edison's cylinder records.

AT&T announces a national telephone system plan.

George O. Squire patents 1911 "Wired Wireless", transmitting music over wires or cable, his company achieved success from the early 1920s transmitting music into business (and elevators) and changed its name to Muzak in the 1930s.

1912 Titanic sinks, and through Morse code becomes the first real-time global news event.

1913 Ford assembly line produces The Art of Noises (futurist the Model T. manifesto) by Luigi Russolo is published. Kinetophone is introduced, to attempt synchronisation of film with a cylinder record. 1914 Luigi Russolo and Filippo Panama Canal opens. Tommaso Marinetti give the first concert of Futurist music, World War I starts (ends in complete with 'intonarumori' 1918). (acoustic noise generators) in Milan.

1917 Edwin Armstrong and Lee De Lev Termen (Léon Theremin) Forest separately invent an starts developing the electronic oscillator with the Aetherophone (later Audio tube. Theremin), the first electronic instrument with a unique performance technique.

1920 Stephan Wolpe uses eight Albert Einstein becomes gramophones at different famous for correctly predicting speeds in a Dada performance. the bending of light by the sun in his General Theory of Relativity of 1916.

1922 Darius Milhaud experiments with record manipulation to create music.

1924 Ottorino Respighi composes Rice and Kellog, of General Lev Termen (Léon Theremin) Pini di Roma (for large Electric, develop the modern completes the Aetherophone orchestra and gramophone). "dynamic" or "moving-coil" (later named the Theremin). loudspeaker, although George Antheil composes mechanical and other electrical Ballet Mécanique (premiered speaker systems existed 1926) in Paris, with the earlier. filmmaker and artist Fernand Léger (for player pianos, airplane propellers, percussion and electric bells - with the mechanised instruments providing the "ballet").

1928 Fritz Walter Bischoff composes First recordings made René Bertrand developes the Hallo! Hier Welle Erdball! specifically for radio broadcast. Dynaphone, a dial operated (optical film playback) using vacuum tube oscillator optical recording facilities. Magnetic tape recorder instrument. developed by Fritz Pfleumer in Germany, it used iron oxide on Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch paper tape. experiment with electronically generated sounds at the First Neuman microphone, the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin CMV3 “bottle” condenser which took an early decision to microphone. facilitate a research program in the manipulation of Harry Nyquist develops analog phonograph records. signal sampling theory. Quantum physics replaces Maurice Martenot builds the Newtonian physics at the Ondes Martenot (first called atomic scale. the Ondes Musicales).

Synchronized sound (often from disks) with films is now common.

1929 Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch British Broadcasting compose three recorded Corporation (BBC) starts studies titled broadcasting. Grammophonmusik, but they have been lost. Edwin Hubble discovers galaxies and red shift, Arseny Mikhaylovich Avraamov confirming expanding-universe and Yevgeny Sholpo draw theory. directly onto optical film using an ink pen to synthesize The phonograph (cylinder) sounds. division of the Thomas Edison company closes and Victor Talking Machine Company is purchased by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA).

The stock market crashes, causing the great depression.

1930 G. V. Alexandroff composes A Friedrich Trautwein completes Sentinemtal Romance (optical the Trautonium. film playback) using optical recording facilities.

Walter Ruttman composes Weekend (optical film playback) using optical recording facilities.

1931 Jack Ellit composes Alan Blumlein receives a Léon Theremin completes the Journey #1 (for optical film patent for 'stereo' sound Rhythmicon for Henry Cowell playback) using optical recording and reproduction. who commissioned it - a recording facilities. machine to play musical Columbia introduce the first rhythms with the same Rouben Mamoulian’s film 'long playing' record, a 12 inch relationships as the overtone Jeckyll and Hyde uses disk with a rotation of 33 1/3 series. electroacoustic montage RPM. moments in the soundtrack. Empire State building opens. Edgard Varèse composes Ionisation (for percussion). First radio telescope built by Bell Labs. Dziga Vertov composes Enthusiasm (optical film playback) using optical recording facilities. 1932 Clara Rockmore performs on Bell Labs records in stereo Yevgeny Alexandrovitch the Theremin in concerts using a special disk cutter built Sholpo develops the worldwide. with two, stacked, turntables Variophone, using sound and disks keyed with another waves drawn onto transparent hole near the centre to 35mm film to control the maintain synchronization. generation of sounds via photo-electric cells. First magnetic tape recorders developed by Allegemeine Bauhaus artists László Moholy- Elektrizitats Gesellschaft (AEG) Nagy, Oskar Fischinger and in Germany, called the Paul Arma experiment with Magnetophon, but modifying the physical performance was poorer than contents of the wire recorders of the day. record grooves.

1933 The film King Kong uses EMI, using Blumlein's stereo Edgard Varèse writes to both manipulated recorded sounds patents, cut a stereophonic the Guggenhaim foundation for dramatic effect. master disk with both channels and Bell Labs attempting, in one groove at 90 degrees unsuccessfully, to secure apart. funding for an electronic music studio.

1934 Laurens Hammond develops the Hammond Electric Organ.

1936 Percy Grainger and Edgard Varèse separately experiment with record manipulation to create music.

Edgard Varèse publishes his manifesto, The Liberation of Sound.

1937 War of the Worlds (radio First radio telescope dish Harald Bode creates the drama) was directed by Orson antenna built by amateur polyphonic Warbo Formant Welles and deceives its astronomer Grote Reber. Organ in Berlin. audience that a Martian invasion had begun. John Cage writes the essay The Future of Music: CREDO Olivier Messiaen composes predicting the electronic Fete des Belles Eaux (for future. Ondes Martenot), composed for the Paris International Carlos Chávez publishes Exhibition, the famous piece Toward a New Music, one of from the suite is Oraison. the first books to speak of electronic music.

Yvgeny Murzin starts designing the ANS Synthesizer in Moscow, to use optical waveforms to synthesize sound.

1938 Johanna Beyer composes Konrad Zuse completes the Z1, Harald Bode creates the Music of the Spheres (for a mechanical binary Melodium, a monophonic touch three electric glissando programmable calculator, first sensitive keyboard instrument. instruments or strings and binary calculator. triangle). Percy Grainger publishes his 'free music' statement, predicting music without fixed scales and rhythms.

1939 John Cage performs Imaginary World War II starts. Landscape No 1, the first performance to include live electronics (turntables & test- tone records).

1940 Fantasia film released by Walt Pilot tone tape and film Edgard Varèse writes a letter Disney Productions with a form synchronisation is developed in to Hollywood studios of stereo surround sound Germany. suggesting they set-up an named 'Fantasound', using Optical Sound Studio. three source tracks, a sophisticated, pilot-tone automated, mixing and panning system, and 5 to 54 speakers for cinema playback.

1943 High-quality, stereo, magnetic tape recorder developed. (note 2)

The Colossos, first programmable electronic calculator, is used in England to break the ENIGMA code.

1944 Halim El-Dabh composes Grainger-Cross Free Music Ta'abir al-Zaar (for wire Machine (graphical, optical recorder), there is now an control of synthesis) excerpt available titled Wire developed by Percy Grainger Recorder Piece. and Burnett Cross, using eight oscillators and synchronizing equipment in conjunction with photo-sensitive graph paper to turn drawn lines into sound.

1945 German, high-quality, tape recorder technology spreads to the USA and Europe as the USA takes German tape recorder patents as part of war booty.

World War II ends and the atomic bomb is developed and used.

1946 ENIAC, the USA's first Raymond Scott develops a electronic programmable large-scale electronic (analog) calculator, is completed. synthesizer and electro- mechanical sequencer machine in New York, and receives a patent for an electronic 'orchestra machine'.

1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain Hugh Le Caine begins and William Shockley develop developing the Electronic the solid-state transistor at Sackbut electronic instrument. Bell Labs.

1948 Pierre Schaeffer creates Étude Manchester Mark 1 (Baby) - Pierre Schaeffer establishes aux Chemins de Fer, the first the first stored-programme Club d'Essai (RTF). piece of musique concrète, computer - runs its first presented in a radio concert in program and is commercialized Music for Magnetic Tape October with his other pieces as the Ferranti Mark I. project created by Louis and Étude aux Piano (I & II), Étude Bebe Baron in New York. aux Tourniquets, and Étude Harry Chamberlin builds tape- Norman McLaren painstakingly aux Casseroles (all for analog playback instrument, a draws optical waveforms on disk playback). precursor of the modern sampler. film soundtracks.

Long Playing records become the standard consumer music format.

Claude E. Shannon founds information theory with the publication of 'A Mathematical Theory of Communication'.

1951 Louis and Bebe Barron Tape recorders become Columbia Tape Music Studio compose Heavenly Menagerie available in the US through started by Otto Leuning and (for tape). Army Surplus Stores (Ampex). Vladamir Ussachevsky at Columbia University, New York. John Cage starts working on UNIVAC I released, the first Williams Mix (for multi-channel general purpose computer - CSIRAC (0.0005 MIPS note 3) tape) and composes Imaginary designed to handle both plays in real-time some Landscape #4 (for twelve numeric and textual standard, popular, tunes of the radios). information. day - the first computer to play music. (note 4) Bernard Herrmann uses Whirlwind, the first real-time theremins as the main 'computer', is built by the Ferranti Mark1 computer plays instrument in the orchestral Massachusetts Institute of music (popular melodies) and score for the film The Day the Technology (MIT) for the US is recorded by the BBC in Earth Stood Still. Air Defence System. Manchester-the oldest surviving recording of a Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre computer playing music. Henry compose Symphonie pour un homme seul (for Percy Grainger develops the multiple unsynchronized analog Kangaroo Pouch Machine for disks), played back with 'free music'. spatialization via the 'potentiometre d'space'. Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrète (GRMC) Vladimir Ussachevsky founded at the RTF, Paris composes Transposition, (France), and develops the Reverberation, Experiment, Phonogène for directly Composition, and Underwater manipulating sounds on analog Valse. tape.

Jikken Kobo (Experimental Workshop) founded in Tokyo by Joji Yuasa, Toru Takemitsu, and other composers and artists.

WDR (Westdeutscher Rundfunk - West German Radio) Studio für Elektronische Musik founded by Herbert Eimert, Robert Beyer and Werner Meyer-Eppler in Köln, Germany.

1952 John Cage completes Williams ILLIAC I computer is built at GRM creates the a three-head Mix (for unsynchronized multi- the University of Illinois. tape recorder permitting the channel tape) and composes synchronization of three 4'33". Optical fiber results from tapes, the first synchronized experiments by physicist polyphonic multitrack Herbert Eimert and Robert Narinder Singh Kapany in the playback. Beyer compose Klangstudie I USA. (for tape). Pierre Schaeffer publishes two Transistor radios first texts; À la recherche d'une Herbert Eimert composes demonstrated. musique concrète (In search of Klangstudie II (for tape). a concrete music) and L'objet musical (The musical object). Karel Goeyvaerts composes Nummer 4 met dode tonen Vladimir Ussachevsky presents (for tape). an electronic music concert, with five of his experimental Otto Luening composes compositions at the Museum Fantasy in Space. of Modern Art (New York). Olivier Messiaen composes Timbres Durees at GRM.

Karlheinz Stockhausen composes Etude.

Vladimir Ussachevsky composes Sonic Contours. 1953 Herbert Eimert composes IBM 701 shipped (its 1st large Composer-Tron (analog Struktur 8 (for tape). computer based on vacuum synthesizer with graphic tubes), and its first magnetic control) developed by Osmond Pierre Henry composes Voile tape device. Kendall for the Marconi d'Orphée (for tape). Company in Canada. Les Paul commissions Ampex Karel Goeyvaerts composes to build an eight-track tape The GRM organizes a festival Nummer 5 met zuivere tonen recorder. of mostly electronic music, the (for tape, at the WDR Studio First Ten Days of Experimental für Elektronische Musik). James D. Watson and Francis Music, at UNESCO, Paris. Crick publish a paper that Karlheinz Stockhausen correctly described the Melochord completed by composes Studie I (for tape). double-helix model of DNA Harald Bode, for the WDR Köln structure. studio, it was used by Werner Meyer-Eppler and Herbert Eimert among others (it appears on Ligeti's Glissandi in 1957).

Phonogène (chromatic version and sliding version) is developed at the GRM and the morphophone tape-based multiple delay machine is started.

1954 Mauricio Kagel uses sounds IBM 704 (0.0064 MIPS) NHK electronic music studio and tape as part of his introduced with the first IBM established in Tokyo, Japan by sonorization for an industrial operating system. Toshio Mayuzumi. exhibition in Mendoza. IBM completes the Karlheinz Stockhausen specification for the first high- composes Studie II (for tape). level computer language, FORTRAN (FORmula Edgard Varèse composes TRANslation). Déserts (for wind, percussion and tape) and it is premiered a year later, creating a scandal.

1955 Hugh Le Caine composes Ampex releases the first David Caplin and Dietrich Prinz Dripsody (for tape) using a commercial eight-track tape program a Ferranti Mark1* to recording of a single drip of recorder. start investigating the water as the only sound generation of musical source. Hugh Le Caine builds the structures by programming it Special Purpose Tape to perform Mozart's Gottfried Michael Koenig Recorder, a multi-tape Musikalisches Würfelspiel. composes Klangfiguren I (for playback instrument, a tape). precursor of the sampler, it Columbia University Electronic had six tapes which could be Music Center established by Toshiro Mayuzumi composes synchronized for playback, Otto Luening and Vladimir Music for Sine Waves by later expanded to ten, and a Ussachevsky. Proportion of Prime Numbers, large DC motor for almost Music for Modulated Waves by instantaneous speed changes. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Proportion of Prime Numbers, Isaacson start work on the and Invention for Square Illiac Suite - first computer Waves and Sawtooth Waves composition experiments. (all for tape). RCA Mark I Synthesizer Iannis Xenakis premieres developed by Harry Olson and Metastaseis (for orchestra). Herbert Belar at RCA Princeton labs. Iannis Xenakis publishes The Crisis of Serial Music, criticizing Studio di Fonologia Musicale of serial composition. the RAI in Milan is founded by Luciano Berio and Bruno Maderna.

Tempophon or 'Springer machine' released in Germany, a tape machine add-on allowing independent time and pitch changes on analog tape via a rotating head block and electro-mechanical sound granulation.

1956 Louis and Bebe Barron produce Ampex releases the first The Centre for Electronic Music Forbidden Planet (tape, for commercial videocassette is established at the Philips film) and the film of the same recorder. Research Laboratories. name is released, the first with an all-electronic soundtrack.

Gottfried Michael Koenig composes Klangfiguren II (for tape).

Karlheinz Stockhausen completes Gesang der Jünglinge (for five-track tape, with one track unsynchronized, later reduced to four synchronized tracks), combining concrete and electronic musical elements.

Push Button Bertha, a popular song resulting from a program written for a Datatron computer by Martin L. Klein and Douglas Bolitho of the Burroughs Corporation, airs on the television program Adventure Tomorrow of KABC- TV Los Angeles.

1957 Bülent Arel composes Music EMT release the Model 140 ANS Synthesizer is completed for String Quartet and Plate Reverb device, the first in Moscow by Yvgeny Murzin, Oscillator (for string quartet commercial plate reverb. using optical reading of sine and electronics). IBM introduces the first waves on 5 glass discs to compiler for FORTRAN. provide 1/6 semitone pitch Kid Baltan (Dick Raaijmakers) resolution over 10 octaves. composes Song of the Second Sputnik 1, the first Earth Moon (for tape). satellite is launched. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson complete the Illiac György Ligeti composes Suite. Glissandi (for tape). Max Mathews writes MUSIC I - Gottfried Michael Koenig the first computer sound composes Essay (for tape). synthesis program, using pre- determined digitally Karlheinz Stockhausen synthesized waveforms and a premieres Gruppen (for three 'digital-to-sound' convertor - orchestras). first musical use of a DAC. Iannis Xenakis premieres RCA Mark II Synthesizer Pithoprakta (for orchestra). developed (with digital control of analog synthesis) by Harry Olson and Herbert Belar at RCA Princeton labs, originally to electronically generate popular music.

Taller Experimental de Sonido (Experimental Sound Workshop) established at the Catholic University in Santiago, Chile.

Warsaw Polish Radio establishes the Experimental Studio.

1958 José Vicente Asuar composes Digital Equipment Corporation BBC Radiophonic Workshop Variaciones Espectrales (for (DEC) founded. founded by Daphne Oram and tape). Desmond Briscoe. Mostly First integrated circuits famous for the electronic Luciano Berio composes developed at Texas sounds in television shows Thema-omaggio a Joyce (for Instruments. such as Doctor Who. tape) and Sequenza I (for flute). LISP language developed by Cooperative Studio for James McCarthy. Electronic Music is privately John Cage composes Fontana established at Ann Arbor, Stereo records introduced. Mix (for tape). Michigan, by Robert Ashley and Gordon Mumma. Luc Ferrari composes Étude aux sons tendus (for tape). Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center founded from the György Ligeti composes Tape Music Studio at Columbia Artikulation (for tape). University. Louis De Meester composes Estudio de Fonología Musical of Incantations (for stereo tape). the University of Buenos Aires Philips Pavilion opens in founded by Francisco Kröpfl. Brussels with Edgard Varèse's Poème électronique and Iannis Groupe de Recherches Xenakis's Concrèt PH (both for Musicales (GRM) forms from tape), incorporating the previous GRMC at RTF, synchronized playback of Paris. images and dynamic spatialization of three-track Studio Für Elektronische Musik sound over 425 louspeakers founded in Munich by Siemens via sprocketed tape. AG.

Toru Takemitsu composes University of Illinois Electronic Dialogue (for tape). Music Studio founded.

Vladimir Ussachevsky José Vicente Asuar founds the composes Linear Contrasts Electronic Music Studio in (for tape). Chile.

Iannis Xenakis composes Analogiques A (for string ensemble).

1959 Halim El-Dabh composes Leiyla Motorola produces the two- Columbia-Princeton Electronic and the Poet (for tape) at the way, fully transistorized mobile Music Center receives the RCA Columbia-Princeton EMC. radio. Mark II Synthesizer.

Tom Dissevelt composes Computer companies start Daphne Oram at the BBC Drifting and Vibration (for delivering transistorized Radiophonic Workshop creates tape). computers, the 'second 'Oramics', which uses drawings generation' machines. on ten 35mm sprocketed clear Mauricio Kagel completes films to control synthesis Transición II (for piano, parameters vie photo-electric percussion and two tape cells. recorders). East German Radio and Francisco Kröpfl composes Television (RFZ) starts Ejercicio de texturas and experimenting with electronic Ejercicio con Impulsos (both music and sound production, in for tape). East Berlin, German Democratic Republic (GDR - Dick Raaijmakers composes East Germany). Tweeklank (for tape). Experimental Music by Lejaren Iannis Xenakis completes Hiller and Leonard Isaacson Analogiques A & B (for four- published, the first book channel tape and string presenting an application of ensemble), the first granular scientific method to music. synthesis study. Raymond Scott develops the Electronium, a large-scale electronic (analog) composition machine which is 'guided' rather than played, and the Clavivox, a keyboard instrument with adjustable portamento using a beat- frequency-oscillator arrangement like the theremin. Siemens Synthesizer developed by Helmut Klein and W.Schaaf in Munich, similar to the RCA Synthesizer, it was a modular composition and synthesis system that generated musical sequences and synthesized and recorded the results.

University of Toronto Electronic Studios founded.

Wurlitzer releases the Side Man, the first commercial electronic 'drum machine'.

1960 Bülent Arel composes Stereo AT&T announces its MUSIC III completed by Max Electronic Music No. 1 (for Dataphone, the first Mathews, the first modular tape) using the RCA commercial modem. unit-generator music synthesis Synthesizer. language. IBM 7090 ships (fully Luciano Berio completes transistorized mainframe). Studio voor elektronische Visage (for tape) and Momenti muziek (STEM) is founded in (for four-track tape). First weather satellite Utrecht University with the gift launched. of the Philips studio. John Cage completes Cartridge Music (for phono cartridges University of Toronto with foreign objects replacing Electronic Studios opened. the 'stylus' and small sounds amplified contact microphones).

Anestis Logothetis completes Fantasmata (for stereo tape) at the Institut für Elektroakustik der Musikhochschule Wien (assisted by Helmut Gottwald).

Andrzej Markowski composes the sound for the film The Silent Star at the Experimental Music Studio in Warsaw.

Luigi Nono composes Omaggio a Emilio Vedova (for four-track tape).

Raymond Scott composes an electronic soundtrack for a Vicks Medicated Cough Drops television commercial.

Karlheinz Stockhausen completes Kontakte (two versions; for electronic sounds and sound projection - the first true quadraphonic work, and for electronic sounds, piano and percussion).

Vladimir Ussachevsky composes Wireless Fantasy (for tape).

1961 Bülent Arel composes Music The first industrial robot, Harald Bode develops for a Sacred Service Postlude UNIMATE, began work at frequency shifters and ring (for tape). General Motors. modulators for the Columbia- Princeton Electronic Music Merce Cunningham premieres Edward Lorenz discovers a Center. Aeon (ballet) with music by simple mathematical system John Cage. with chaotic behaviour and Experimental Music Studio publishes it in 1963, leading to founded at the Norway Roman Haubenstock-Ramati the new mathematics of chaos Broadcasting Commission completes Liaison (for stereo theory which is widely (Norsk Rikskringkasting - NRK) tape) at the Institut für applicable. in Oslo. Elektroakustik der Musikhochschule Wien Israel Center for Electronic (assisted by Helmut Gottwald). Music opens at the Hebrew University, founded by Joseph György Ligeti's Atmosphères is Tal. premiered (for orchestra). Max Mathews and Joan Miller Ivo Malec composes Reflets use physical-modelling (for tape). synthesis in MUSIC IV to create Daisy Bell (a.k.a. Bicycle built Max Mathews composes The for two) vocal synthesis on an Second Law (for computer IBM 704 (vocal tract physical synthesized tape), a study model by Bell Labs researchers using pitched and unpitched John Kelly and Carol noises for the first time. Lochbaum). James Tenney composes Ramon Sender, Terry Riley and Analogue #1: Noise Study (for Pauline Oliveros, create an tape) using computer improvised electronic music synthesized noise and 'studio' in the attic of the San Collage No.1 (Blue Suede) (for Francisco Conservatory of tape) by sampling and Music and begin a series of manipulating a famous Elvis concerts called Sonics. Presley recording. James Tenney, a recognized Horacio Vaggiano composes composer, joins Bell Labs to Ensayo sobre mezcla de work with Max Mathews. sonidos, Cemeronia and Cantata I (for tape).

1962 Friedrich Cerha composes Bell Labs mass produce Electronic Music Studio Spiegel V (for stereo tape and transistors and professional developed by Erkki Kurenniemi orchestra) at the Institut für amplifiers. for The Institute of Musicology Elektroakustik der at the University of Helsinki. Musikhochschule Wien. Students at MIT develop the Institut voor Psychoakoestiek first interactive computer en Elektronische Muziek (IPEM) Gottfried Michael Koenig game, SpaceWar. opens in Ghent (Belgium), composes Terminus 1 (for under the directorship of Louis tape). De Meester.

Luigi Nono composes Djamila Laboratory of the Centro Boupachá (for soloists and Latinoamericano de Altos orchestra). Estudios Musicales (CLAEM) of the Di Tella Institute, Nam June Paik's composes Argentina, is founded by Fluxusobjekt (for fixed tape Alberto Ginastera. and hand-controlled tape playback head). The San Francisco Tape Music Center is founded by Morton James Tenney composes Four Subotnick, Ramon Sender and Stochastic Studies (for others from the Sonics group. computer-synthesized tape). Studio für künstliche Klang and Iannis Xenakis completes the Labor für Akustisch- ST series of works (for string Musikalische Grenzprobleme quartet, ensemble and (laboratory for problems at orchestra) using his stochastic the acoustics / music composition computer interface) established in East programme and also Berlin, German Democratic completes Bohor (for eight- Republic (GDR - East Germany) track tape). via the RFZ (East German Radio).

James Tenney writes the PLF2 program (used to write Four Stochastic Studies, Ergodos and other works).

Iannis Xenakis completes his Stochastic Music Program on an IBM 7090, resulting in the ST series of pieces.

1963 Friedrich Cerha composes Und Compact Cassette (analog Harald Bode developes new Du (for stereo tape) at the tape format) introduced by designs for his frequency Institut für Elektroakustik der Philips. shifter and ring modulator, to Musikhochschule Wien. be made under licence to R.A.Moog Co. Delia Derbyshire creates the theme for the BBC television Donald Buchla creates modular show Doctor Who (for tape), analog synthesizers for the from composer Ron Grainer's San Francisco Tape Music notes. Center.

Louis De Meester composes The GRM develops the Ringvariaties for piano (for 'universal' phonogène, an piano and electronic sounds). update of the earlier phonogènes allowing Pierre Henry composes independent time and pitch Variations pour Une Porte et Un Soupir (for stereo tape). changes on analog tape through the use of the Toru Takemitsu composes Arc tempophon (Springer machine) (for piano, orchestra and add-on for tape recorders. electronic sounds). IPEM (Institut vor Psychoakoestiek en Elektronische Muziek) founded as a joint venture between the Belgian Radio and Television broadcasting company (BRT) and Ghent University, in Ghent, Belgium.

Subharchord, an elecronic keyboard instrument making sound by mixing sub- harmonics, developed in East Berlin, German Democratic Republic (GDR - East Germany).

Max Mathews introduces MUSIC IV.

Robert Moog and Herbert Deutsch start developing an analog synthesizer.

1964 Milton Babbitt completes ASCII standard introduced. John Chowning and David Philomel (for soprano and Poole start working with Music tape), serializing all elements BASIC (Beginners All-purpose IV at Stanford University on an of the composition, and Symbolic Instruction Code) IBM 7090. Ensembles for Synthesizer (for computer language is tape). developed at Dartmouth Gottfried Michael Koenig takes College. over STEM in Utrecht (with Ílhan Mimaroğlu composes Le Frank de Vries) giving it a new Tombeau d'Edgar A. Poe (for Cosmic microwave background direction, and writes Project 1, tape) using a recording of (CMB) radiation is discovered for aleatoric serial Mallarmé's poem as the source by radio astronomers Arno composition. and Bowery Bum (for tape). Penzias and Robert Wilson. McGill University Electronic Luigi Nono composes La First computer mouse is Music Studio (EMS) founded in fabbrica illuminata (for voice prototyped after being Montreal by Itsvan Anhalt. and tape). invented the previous year by Douglas Engelbart. Stockholm Dick Raaijmakers composes Elektronmusikstudion (EMS) is Canon I and Canon II (for IBM introduces the founded. tape), the beginning of his System/360. important series of 5Canons exploring how different ways of repeating a single electrical impulse may be used to develop musical structure.

Giacinto Scelsi composes String Quartet No.4 (for string quartet and electronics).

La Monte Young completes A Well Tuned Piano (for just- intuned solo piano).

Karlheinz Stockhausen composes Mikrophonie I (for amplified and live-electronic processed tam-tam).

1965 Mario Davidovsky composes First computer art exhibition, Institute of Electronic Music is Electronic Study No. 3, In at the Technische Hochschule founded in Graz, Austria by Memoriam Edgar Varèse (for in Stuttgart. Heinz Hönig. tape). Control Data release the MUSIC IV B developed at Milan Knizak creates Destroyed CD6600, the first Princeton University, making it Music by manipulating supercomputer. easier to use by composers phonograph records through rather than scientists, and this scratching, breaking or cutting J. W. Cooley of IBM and John becomes MUSIC IV BF when re- and reassembling them, W. Tukey of Princeton publish written in FORTRAN for the putting holes in them and so a paper reinventing the fast IBM System/360. on. Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm and describing how Robert Moog's company Alvin Lucier composes Music to perform it conveniently on a releases its first commercial for Solo Performer (for live computer. voltage-controlled modular electronics) the first live analog synthesizer. electronics piece to use DEC PDP-8 released. amplifed alpha brainwaves. Dolby A noise reduction Ílhan Mimaroğlu composes system introduced. Agony and Görsel Çalışma (both for tape).

Pauline Oliveros composes Bye Bye Butterfly (for tape).

Steve Reich composes It's Gonna Rain (for tape),

Karlheinz Stockhausen composes Solo (for melody instrument and variable electronic tape feedback loop).

1966 Dave Behrman completes E-mail applications arrive for Alea Studio in Madrid Wave Train (piano resonance users on closed, proprietary, established by Luis de Pablo with feedback). networks. (closed in 1977).

Luciano Berio completes François Bayle becomes Sequenza III (for female voice). director of the GRM.

Herbert Brün composes Non Center for Electronic and Sequitier VI (for tape). Computer Music (CECM) established in Paris and at Luigi Nono completes A floresta é jovem e cheja de Indiana University, by Iannis vida (for soprano, three Xenakis. recitants, clarinet, copper plates and eight-track tape). François Coupigny prototypes the 'Coupigny' synthesizer and Karlheinz Stockhausen the Studio 54 mixing desk at completes Hymnen (for four- GRM, Paris - final versions are track tape). developed over the next few years, completed in 1969. Iannis Xenakis completes Terretektorh (for large Electronic Music Studio orchestra spread out in founded at Victoria University space). in Wellington (NZ) by Douglas Lilburn. Seok Hee Kang comoposes Wonsaegui Hyangyeon (The Estudio de Fonología Musical of Festival of Colors, for tape) at Instituto Nacional de Cultura y the Korean Broadcasting Bellas Artes (INCIBA) founded Station. in Venezuela.

Gottfried Michael Koenig writes Project 2 computer composition program, allowing greater control over the composition process.

Musica Elettronica Viva (MEV), a live-electroacoustic (free) improvisation group, formed in Rome, Italy.

1967 The Grateful Dead release A timecode system, originally Hugh Le Caine builds the Serial Anthem of the Sun and Frank developed to track missiles, is Sound Structure Generator Zappa and the Mothers of adapted for videotape to (SSSG), a complex analog Invention release Uncle Meat identify individual frames of sequencer (using square both rcords make extensive video - becoming the SMPTE waves) for serial music, use of electronic manipulation. (Society of Motion Picture and delivered to McGill University in Television Engineers) standard, 1970/71. Leon Kirschner composes used to synchronise tape String Quartet No. 3, the first recorders and also video and John Chowning accidentally piece with electronics to win film playback, replacing discovers frequency the Pulitzer Prize. multiple previous proprietary modulation (FM) synthesis systems and still in use. when experimenting with Jan W. Morthenson completes extreme vibrato effects in Neutron Star (for tape from MUSIC-V. computer generated sounds). Electronic Music Studio Gordon Mumma composes founded at the Royal College Hornpipe (for french horn with of Music, London by Tristram reed mouthpiece and Cary. electronic feedback and processing) incorporating The San Francisco Tape Music electronic responses to the Center moves to the Mills amplified resonances of the College Center of performance hall. Contemporary Music.

Bernard Parmegiani composes STEM at Utrecht University Capture éphémère (for tape). changes its name to the Institute of Sonology. Dick Raaijmakers composes Canon V (for tape), completing STEIM is formed in Amsterdam. the Canon series.

Morton Subotnick composes Silver Apples of the Moon (title from a Yeats poem), the first large-scale work commissioned specifically for the LP record (Nonesuch).

Iannis Xenakis completes Polytope de Montréal (for four small orchestras and light installation for Expo 67).

1968 Robert Ashley completes TEAC introduces the Simul- Can, an experimantal Purposeful Lady Slow Sync 4-Tracks recorder, the electroacoustic free Afternoon (for tape). first consumer multi-track tape improvisation group, formed in deck. Cologn, Germany. John Cage and Lejaren Hiller compose HPSCHD (for up to Estudio de Música Electrónica seven harpsichords and up to de Barcelona established by fifty-one tapes). Andrés Lewin-Richter.

Wendy Carlos releases Leonardo Journal of the Arts, Switched on Bach (record). Science and Technology first published. Luigi Nono composes Contrappunto dialettico alla MUSIC V released and written mente (for tape). in FORTRAN so it is ported to many different computers. Spectraphonia (sound and light show) takes places in Jean-Claude Risset at Bell Labs Montréal, using a light-organ creates a catalog of sound accompaniment for Berio's synthesis with MUSIC V Sinfonia, especially recorded instruments. for 12-channel playback. Lejaren Hiller joins the Karlheinz Stockhausen Computer Music Studios in the completes Stimmung (for six University at Buffalo (The amplified vocalists). State University of New York).

David Tudor composes Rainforest I (for amplified mechanically-transformed sounds of small objects) as a sound-score for Merce Cunningham.

Vladimir Ussachevsky composes Computer Piece No. 1 (for tape). 1969 Luciano Berio composes First ARPANET (Advanced Don Buchla releases Sinfonia (for eight amplified Research Projects Agency commercial modular analog voices and orchestra). Network) links between the synthesizers. University of California at Los Lars-Gunnar Bodin completes Angeles, University of CEMS (Coordinated Electronic Toccata (for tape). California at Santa Barbara, Music Studio) System installed University of Utah and also in the Electronic Music Studio John Cage and Lejaren Hiller including the (private) at the State University of New compose HPSCHD (for seven Stanford Research Institute - York at Albany. harpsichords, fifty-two tape the beginnings of the internet. recorders playing random Electronic Music Studio computer-generated 'tunes' in First model of the DEC PDP-15 established at The University fifty-two different tuning family of computers is of Adelaide, Australia. systems, fifty-two film released. projectors and sixty-four slide Salvatore Martirano begins projectors). Digital tape recording development of his Sal-Mar experiments begin. Construction, a 24-channel Mario Davidovsky composes analog/digital real-time Synchronisms No. 5 (for Neil Armstrong becomes the performance synthesizer, at percussion and tape). first person to walk on the the University of Illinois. Moon. Luc Ferrari composes Music Max Mathews and F. Richard Promenade (for four-channel RS232 serial communication Moore build the GROOVE tape) from manipulated field standard developed. synthesizer, the first digital recordings, originally as a control of analog synthesis. sound installation for four Unix developed by Ken unsynchronized tape Thompson and Dennis Ritchie Peter Zinovieff forms recorders. at Bell Labs. Electronic Music Studios (London) Ltd., and his Toshi Ichiyanagi composes activities include using a PDP-8 Tokyo 1.9.6.9 (for tape). to control analog synthesis in MUSYS (ver. I-III by Peter Gottfried Michael Koenig Grogono) composition composes Funktion Blau, software and releasing the Funktion Indigo, Funktion VCS3 (Putney) analog Violett, Funktion Grau (for synthesizer using a pin matrix tape). instead of patch cords and a joystick for real-time control. Bruno Maderna composes Quadrivium (for percussion quartet and orchestra).

Iannis Xenakis composes Kraanerg (dance work for orchestra and four-track tape).

1970 Bülent Arel composes Stereo ARPANET expands with more Digital Music Instrument - Electronic Music No. 2 (for connected locations. Associative memory (DIMI-A), tape). and others, developed by Erkki First of the DEC PDP-11 family Kurenniemi for the Electronic César Bolaños composes released. Music Studio at the University Sialoecibi (for piano and one of Helsinki, allowing realtime The first version of the UNIX reciter-mime-actor), and control through touch, operating system runs on a Canción sin palabras (for piano brainwave and visual gestures. with two performers and DEC PDP-7. tape). Lejaren Hiller and Pierre Ruiz Lexicon releases the Delta T- research and develop general Mario Davidovsky composes 101 the first digital delay unit. physical modeling synthesis. Synchronisms No. 6 (for piano and tape) and is awarded the First Random Access Memory Electronic Music Lab Pulitzer Prize for it in 1971. (RAM) integrated circuit established at Mexico's released by Intel. National Conservatory of Charles Dodge completes Music. Earth's Magnetic Field (for tape) mapping magnetic field Institut de Recherche et data into musical parameters. Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) Hans Werner Henze composes is founded and planning Violin Concerto No. 2 (for started. orchestra and tape, using MUSYS). Princeton 'Underground Laboratory' Electronic Music Kraftwerk emerge as the first Studio established by Godfrey fully electronic pop band. Winham and Ken Steiglitz.

Alvin Lucier completes I Am Sitting in a Room (for tape).

Charles Wuorinen composes Times Encomium (for tape) the first Pulitzer Prize winner for an entirely electronic work.

Kurt Wiggen completes Resa (for tape).

Iannis Xenakis completes Hibiki-Hana-Ma (for twelve- track tape).

1971 Harrison Birtwistle composes C computer language is Electroacoustic Studios Chronometer (for tape, using developed by Brian Kernighan founded at Concordia MUSYS). and Dennis Ritchie of Bell University, Montréal, by Kevin Laboratories. Austin. Emmanuel Ghent completes Phosphones (for tape, on DEC PDP-11/45 released Electronic Music Studio at the GROOVE). (0.76 MIPS). Academy of Music and Dance in Jerusalem founded by Tzvi Hans Werner Henze composes Denon demonstrates 18-bit Avni. Glass Music (for tape, using PCM (pulse code modulation) MUSYS). digital stereo recording with a FM synthesis developed to video recorder. synthesize musical instrument alcides lanza composes sounds by John Chowning. plectros III (for piano and First microprocessor is synthesized sounds). developed, the Intel 4004. SSP (sound synthesis program) designed by Karlheinz Stockhausen Gottfried Michael Koenig for completes Mantra (for two real-time digital instruction pianists, sine wave generators, synthesis. ring-modulators and tape). University of Natal, Durban, Richard Teitelbaum creates South Africa Electronic Music Alpha Bean Lima Brain Studio opens. involving the transmission of brain waves by telephone to Barry Vercoe rewrites MUSIC control jumping beans. 360 (a derivative of MUSIC IV) to port it to the PDP-11 at Iannis Xenakis completes MIT, and improves it, creating Persèpolis (for 8-track tape). MUSIC 11.

1972 Françoise Bayle completes ARPANET widely introduced. Centre d'Etudes de L'Expérience Acoustique (for Mathematiques et tape), the first piece to use First e-mail is sent and an open Automatiques Musicales the 123 software. e-mail application (CEMAMu), is founded near demonstrated. Paris by Iannis Xenakis. John Chowning completes Turenas (for four-channel IBM introduces the 8-inch Centro de Investigaciones en tape) using FM synthesis and floppy disk. Communication Massiva, Artes doppler effects in the y Technologia (CICMAT) Intel 8008 introduced, first spatilaization. established in Buenos Aires commercial 8-bit from CLAEM studio. Charles Dodge completes microprocessor. Speech Songs (for computer Composers Inside Electronics Philips demonstrates an optical synthesized tape). collective founded by John videodisc system. Driscoll, Ralph Jones, Martin DJ Kool Herc, at parties in New Technics release the first Kalve, and David Tudor for the York, develops a turntable direct-drive turntable, the SL- composition and performance technique to extend rhythmic 1200, which later becomes of electronic and electro- parts of a recorded song and the industry standard for disc acoustic music. establishes the musical jockeys. foundations of hip-hop. EMS 1, a music and synthesis specification language running Pink Floyd releases The Dark on a PDP-15, is completed at Side of the Moon (LP record), the Stockholm EMS. making extensive use of synthesizers, and with short Herbert Brün starts work on musique concrète interludes the SAWDUST stochastic between songs. synthesis software.

György Ligeti composes Salvatore Martirano completes Double Concerto (for flute, the 'Sal-Mar Construction', oboe and orchestra). featuring 291 lighted touch- sensitive switches which are Kurt Wiggen completes used by the performer to Sommarmorgon (for tape). create a complex of musical sounds, distributed to 24 Iannis Xenakis completes separate speakers. Polytope de Cluny (for eight- track tape with a computer- Barry Truax develops POD4 controlled light show), and it and POD5 (fixed waveform opens in Paris. synthesis) for the PDP-15 at the Institute of Sonology.

1973 Paul Lansky composes mild Ethernet and the Alto Electro-Acoustic Music Studio und leise (for tape). workstation computer established at the Cracow developed at Xerox Palo Alto Academy of Music. David Tudor creates Research Center (PARC). Rainforest IV (for spatially Estudio de Fonología Musical of mixed live sounds of First ARPANET international Instituto Nacional de Cultura y suspended sculptures and connection (to Europe). Bellas Artes (INCIBA) re- found objects). established in Venezuela. First mobile phone call made. Gmebaphone (tape music Part of UNIX is rewritten in the spatialization system) created C language. at GMEB, Bourges, France.

IMPAC, a a realtime digital audio control environment using joystick, keyboard and digitizer tablet, is developed at the Stockholm EMS by Michael Hinton.

Stan Templaars and W. Kaegi develop VOSIM synthesis at Sonology.

Barry Truax develops POD6 for real-time monophonic digital FM synthesis.

MIT Electronic Music Studios (EMS) established, to become part of MIT Media Lab in 1985.

STEIM focuses on electronic music performance with the arrival of Michel Waiswisz.

1974 Pauline Oliveros completes, Intel releases its 2 MHz 8080 Acousmonium (tape music Sonic Meditations (for voices CPU chip (0.6 MIPS). spatialization system) created and other sounds). by Françoise Bayle at GRM, Mellotron is built, first Paris. Giacinto Scelsi composes Aitsi commercial instrument (for electronically prepared 'sampler' with a keyboard Ambisonics (spatial audio piano). playing loops of analog tape. reproduction) developed by Michael Gerzon, Peter Fellgett First International Computer TCP (network Protocol) and Duanne Cooper. Music Conference (ICMC), proposed as common network Michigan, USA. transport, first use of the word Electronic Music Studio at the 'Internet'. Rubin Academy of Music at Tel-Aviv University established X.25 networking common in by Yizhak Sadai. U.K. universities. Estudio de Música Electrónica Xerox PARC designs a de Barcelona becomes Phonos computer with a mouse. Studio, Barcelona established by J.M.Mestres Quadreny, L.Callejo, A.Lewin-Richter and G.Brncic.

Curtis Roads implements granular synthesis using MUSIC V.

Yamaha licenses frequency modulation synthesis from John Chowning.

1975 Milton Babbit completes Altair 8800 microcomputer Automated Synthesis Phonemena (version for released, first mass-produced Programs (ASP), a kind of soprano and tape). microcomputer and computer instruction synthesis, started kit. by Paul Berg at the Institute of Paul Berg composes Sonology. Merriweather's Guide to Plants EMT releases the first digital and People (for tape, using reverb unit. Center for Computer Research ASP). in Music and Acoustics Mitchell Feigenbaum discovers (CCRMA) founded at Stanford Luciano Berio completes a new mathematical constant University by John Chowning, Chants parallèle (for tape). (approx. 4.67...), related to James A. Moorer, John Grey period-doubling bifurcations and Loren Rush. Annea Lockwood composes and it plays an important part World Rhythms (for tape with in chaos theory. Electronic Music and Video real-time spatialization). Studios established at La Homebrew Computer Club Trobe University, Melbourne, Ílhan Mimaroğlu completes formed in San Francisco. Australia by Warren Burt. Tract (tape). Benoît Mandelbrot publishes Syter 1 (synthèse en temps Bernard Parmegiani completes 'Les Objets Fractals, Forme, réel - real time synthesis) real- De Natura Sonorum (for tape). Hasard et Dimension' time DSP system development describing the theory of Larry Polansky composes Four started at the GRM by Jean- fractals. Voice Canon #2 (for tape). François Allouis. Micro-Soft (later Microsoft) Princeton 'Underground founded. Laboratory' becomes the Winham Sound Laboratory. MOS Technology (later Commodore) KIM-1 Synclavier prototype of microcomputer released. (0.2 working all-digital synthesizer. MIPS) Michel Waiswisz develops the Cracklebox synthesizer.

1976 Luciano Berio composes Coro Apple Computer Company Dave Behrman uses a KIM-1 in (for forty voices and founded. performance of On the Other orchestra). Ocean at Mills College. Cray 1 released, the first Herbert Brün composes Dust commercial supercomupter Paul Berg develops the PILE (for computer-generated (64-bit and 150 MIPS). synthesis language for real- tape). time instruction synthesis on a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-15 at the Institute of Brian Ferneyhough completes introduces the DEC VAX Sonology. Time and Motion Study II (for 11/780, a popular amplified cello, tape delay minicomputer (0.5-1 MIPS). Fairlight CMI prototype, Quasar system, and modulators). M8 built by Tony Furse, Viking I and II land on Mars and working. Philip Glass premieres Einstein send back the first images. at the Beach (a multimedia Giuseppe Di Giugno develops opera for ensemble, chorus VHS videotape system the 4A synthesizer at IRCAM. and soloists). developed. Jim Horton uses a KIM-1 in Bruce Pennycook composes if performance at the carillons grew wings (for tape). Exploratorium in San Francisco.

Steve Reich composes Music Roland release the System- for 18 Musicians (for ensemble 700 modular analog and four female voices). synthesizer, Japan’s first commercial modular Denis Smalley composes synthesizer system. Darkness After Time's Colours (for tape). Laurie Spiegel creates the VAMPIRE system for real-time Barry Vercoe composes video and sound composition. Synapse (for viola and computer).

Iannis Xenakis composes Psappha (for solo percussion).

1977 Françoise Bayle premieres Apple II released, using a 6502 Laurie Anderson creates the Crystal (for tape), the first CPU at 1MHz (0.23 MIPS). Tape Bow Violin instrument, piece to use the SYTEM using magnetic tape in place prototype. BSD Unix released. of hair on a violin bow.

Luc Ferrari completes Presque Commodore PET The Computer Music Journal is Rien N°2 (for tape). microcomputer released. first published in Menlo Park, California. Francisco Kröpfl composes Solid State Logic release the Nocturno and Scherzo (both SL 4000, the first commercial Digital control of analog studio for tape). automated music mixing at the Institute of Sonology. console. György Ligeti composes Le IRCAM is opened. Grand Macabre (opera). Soundstream Digital Recording System released, the first George Lewis plays with an Gareth Loy composes Nekyia commercial digital recording improvising KIM-1 at Mills (for four-track tape, rendered system. College. on the Samson Box) Space Shuttle 'Enterprise' first Roland release the MC-8 Alvin Lucier completes Music test flight. MicroComposer, the first 8 on a Long Thin Wire (for channel, digital amplified wire and Tandy announces the TRS-80 microprocessor-controlled, electromagnetic excitor). microcomputer. control-voltage sequencer, with FSK (frequency shift Larry Polansky composes Four keying) tape synchronization. Voice Canon #3 (for computer synthesized tape). Peter Samson completes the Systems Concepts Digital Trevor Wishart completes Red Synthesizer (a.k.a. Samson Bird: A Political Prisoner’s Box), a MUSIC IV Dream (for tape). implementation in hardware controlled by a PDP10, for David Wessel composes CCRMA at Stanford. Anthony (for tape). Iannis Xenakis, at CEMAMu, Iannis Xenakis completes La develops functioning UPIC. Legende d'Eer. (for synchronized seven-track tape). 1978 Paul Berg composes I Never Atari 800 microcomputer William Buxton has the SSSP Knew You Cared (for tape) released, using a 6502 CPU at software on a PDP-11 using the PILE instruction 1.8MHz (0.4 MIPS). controlling sixteen digital systhesis program. oscillators. 5.25-inch floppy disks become Brian Eno creates Music for an industry standard. Electronic Music Studio Airports, an ambient music founded at Seoul National installation. Stereo PCM audio adaptors for University by Sung Ho Hwang, VCR tape recorders but there is no official Kraftwerk release The Man- introduced. program. Machine and use robotic mannequins on stage. TCP splits into TCP/IP, and Di Giugno completes the 4C allows for the creation of UDP synthesizer. Paul Lansky composes Six (User Datagram Protocol), a Fantasies on a Poem by network protocol designed for Jean-François Allouis and Thomas Campion (for low delay and useful for others at GRM start developing computer synthesized tape). streamed data. the Studio 123 sound transformation software Iva Malec completes Triola Ou programs for a PDP-11/60. Symphonie Pour Moi-Même (for tape) at GRM. League of Automatic Music Composers formed by Jim Luigi Nono composes Con Luigi Horton, John Bischoff and Rich Dallapiccola (for percussion Gold. and electronics). MOUSE composition and Tamas Ungvary composes synthesis control software for Axionell II (for tape). microcomputers is developed from MUSYS by Peter Grogono. Iannis Xenakis completes Mycenae-Alpha (for tape) first Synclavier enters production. piece composed completely on the UPIC, and opens Le Diatope in Paris with La Legende d'Eer (1977) synchronized to a computer- controlled laser light show.

1979 Robert Ashley completes CompuServe offers electronic The International Computer Automatic Writing (for tape). mail to personal computer Music Association (ICMA) is users. founded by Thom Blum, Curtis Françoise Bayle composes Eros Roads and John Strawn. Bleu (for tape), the first piece Motorola 68000 to use the 123 software. microprocessor introduced (1 Fairlight CMI I released. MIPS at 8MHz). John Cage composes Merzbow starts the Lowest Roaratorio (for electronic Music and Arts record label to tapes, speaker and Irish folk release his music on cassette. musicians). F.Richard Moore founds the Iannis Xenakis completes Computer Audio Research Lab Pleides (for six percussionists). at the University of California at San Diego, and also develops the software CMUSIC.

Sony releases the TPS-L2 "Walkman" portable cassette player, the first mass-market portable music player.

TASCAM Portastudio is released, bringing multi-track (4-channel) recording on cassettes to the mass-market.

1980 Clarence Barlow completes EMT release the first FOF formant synthesis, and Çogluotobüsisletmesi, commercial digital hard-disk the CHANT program developed (versions for piano, and audio recorder. at IRCAM by Xavier Rodet, computer rendition). Yves Potard and Jean-Baptiste Multitrack digital tape Barrière. Charles Dodge composes Any recorders introduced. Resemblance Is Purely The Computer Music Journal Coincidental (for piano and Sinclair ZX80 microcomputer moves to the MIT Press, tape). released. legitimizing computer music research. Trevor Wishart completes TCP/IP accepted as superior Anticredos (for six amplified network protocol for the Sequential Drum gesture voices and percussion). Internet. controller is developed at IRCAM by Max Mathews. Technics 1200 turntable released and becomes the Dean Wallraff releases the standard DJ turntable. DMX-1000 Digital Signal Processor, a micro- programmable DSP system witrh DAC.

1981 Larry Austin composes 3.5-inch floppy disks released Estúdio da Glória established in Canadian Coastlines: Canonic by Sony. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Fractals for Musicians and Computer Band (for IBM PC introduced, using an Gabinete de Música Electrónica instruments and tape). Intel 8088 CPU at 4.77MHz de Cuenca established in (0.33 MIPS). Cuenca, Spain, with a Synthi Pierre Boulez premieres 100. Répons (for ensemble and live First computer optical storage electronics). disk system introduced by Giuseppe Di Giugno completes Philips. the 4X synthesizer. Herbert Brün composes i toLD You so! (for computer- Pacman computer game MTV (music television) is generated tape). released. launched.

Nicolas Collins composes First normal launch of the Yamaha GS1 and GS2 digital Second State (for Space Shuttle, 'Columbia' flies synthesizers released. microcomputer controlled an orbital test flight. feedback).

David Rosenboom completes Departure (for SATB voices).

MTV starts on commercial television. 1982 Nicolas Collins composes Is Acorn BBC Micro computer Birmingham ElectroAcoustic She/He Really Going Out With released. Sound Theatre (BEAST, tape Him/Her/Them (for circuits, music spatialization system) is radios, prepared tapes and Bell Labs at Murray Hill created. computer-controlled mixer). publishes a paper discussing touch-screen based computer E-mu Emulator commercial David Jaffe composes Silicon interfaces. sampler synthesizer released. Valley Breakdown (for computer generated sound) Commodore 64 computer HMSL (Hierarchical Music using an early version of released (0.25 MIPS). Specification Language) music Karplus-Strong synthesis on programming language First CD released. the Samson Box. released by Phil Burk, Larry Polansky and David Benoît Mandelbrot publishes Gottfried Michael Koenig Rosenboom (for an S-100 'The Fractal Geometry of composes 3 ASKO Pieces (for computer controlling a Buchla Nature', developing the theory small orchestra). synthesizer). of fractal geometry more fully. Annea Lockwood composes A Laboratorio de Investigación y Sony releases the PCM-F1, a Sound Map of the Hudson Producción Musical (LIPM) consumer adaptor for VCRs for River (for tape). established in Buenos Aires high-quality (CD-quality) from the CICMAT studio. Iva Malec composes Week-end stereo digital recording. (for tape) James A. Moorer completes Space Shuttle flies its first the Audio Signal Processer mission. Philippe Manoury composes (a.k.a. SoundDroid) at Zeitlauf (for choir, 14 Sun Microsystems founded and Lucasfilm Droid Works, which instruments and electronics). releases the SUN 1 was used for sound production on films such as Return of the Luigi Nono composes Donde workstation (0.5 MIPS). Jedi and the Lucasfilm THX estas hermano? (for two University of Toronto develops audio logo in 1984. sopranos, mezzo-soprano and the first finger pressure multi- contralto) and Quando stanno touch display. morendo (for female voices, cello, bass flute and live electronics).

Dennis Smalley composes Vortex (for tape).

1983 Jean-Baptiste Barrière ARPANET converts to TCP/IP MIDI 1.0 specification released. composes Chréode (for protocol - the modern Internet computer-generated tape). backbone is created. First MIDI synthesizers appear.

François Bayle composes Le ARPANET splits into MILNET Kevin Karplus and Alex Strong, Sommeil d'Euclide (for tape). (for military communications) along with David Jaffe and and ARPANET (for civilian Julius O. Smith, develop an Luigi Nono composes Omaggio applications). efficient physical modeling a György Kurtág (for contralto, algorithm for plucked string flute, clarinet, tuba and live Fiber-optic cable is used for synthesis. electronics) and Guai ai gelidi long-distance audio mostri (for two voices, transmission. Yamaha releases DX7 FM ensemble, and live synthesizer-first mass-market electronics). First CD players released all-digital synthesizer, with worldwide. MIDI. Roger Reynolds completes Archipelago (for large IBM PC/XT released (0.25 ensemble and eight-channel MIPS). computer-generated tape). Silicon Graphics Incorporated (SGI) release the IRIS 1000 Jean-Claude Risset composes graphics workstation. L'autre Face (for soprano and tape).

Karlheinz Stockhausen completes Samstag Aus Licht (opera).

Tamas Ungvary composes Gypsy Children's Giant Dance with Ili Fourier. (for ensemble and computer sounds).

1984 Clarence Barlow composes Im Apple Macintosh released Roger Dannenberg and Barry Januar am Nil (for chamber (68000 processor, 0.7 MIPS). Vercoe demonstrate automatic orchestra), simulating vowel accompaniment at the ICMC. sounds. Bell Labs engineers a multi- touch screen that can GRM completes the Syter 3 Luciano Berio composes manipulate images with more real-time DSP system. Sequenza X (for trumpet and than one hand. piano resonance) and Orpheo II Paul Lansky develops CMIX. (opera for voice, orchestras, CD-ROM computer storage Platypus workstation plug-in and tapes). introduced. DSP card completed. Paul Lansky composes Idle William Gibson's Neuromancer Roland release the MPU-401 Chatter (for computer- novel is published. MIDI processing unit and synthesized tape). Sony introduces the first interface - an 'intelligent' MIDI Mesias Maiguashca composes portable CD player. interface with FSK sync for Fmelodies II (for ensemble and tape. TCP/IP starts spreading to tape). Europe. Steinberg GmbH is founded Luigi Nono composes A Pierre and releases Pro-16 multitrack (for contrabass flute, MIDI sequencer. contrabass clarinet and Yamaha releases the CX5M electronics) and Guai ai Gelidi Music Computer (Z80 based), Mostri (for ensemble, voices with built-in FM synthesis and live electronics). modules and composition Bernard Parmegiani composes software. La Creation Du Monde (for Michel Waisvisz develops The tape). Hands controller. Jean Claud Risset composes MIDIForth MIDI composition Sud (for tape). software released. Yasunao Tone begins Waseda University (Tokyo) performing with ‘wounded’ CDs designs Wabot-2, a piano through the application of playing robot that reads perforated Scotch tape. scores.

1985 Lars-Gunnar Bodin composes Atari 520ST released (0.5 Les Ateliers UPIC is founded in Anima (for female voice and MIPS). Paris by Iannis Xenakis, with tape). pedagogy and musical creation Denis Lorrain composes … Commodore Amiga 1000 as its primary aims, promoting Black It Stood As Night (for computer released (0.5 MIPS). the research of CEMAMu, tape). especially the UPIC System, Digital mixing consoles are and to teach professionals and Salvatore Martirano composes released. amateurs alike to use the UPIC. Sampler: Everything Goes When the Whistle Blows (for Microsoft releases Windows Electronic music labs violin and yahaSALmaMAC). 1.0. established at the Escuela Superior de Música del NeXT computer company Luigi Nono completes Instituto Nacionlal de Bellas founded. Prometeo (for multiple Artes (INBA) and at Centro orchestras, two conductors, Independiente de Investigacion narrators, spatially placed y Multimedia (CIIM), Mexico. groups of instrumental and vocal soloists, and live Ensoniq Mirage sampler electronic sound distribution). released, first generally affordable sampling keyboard Pauline Oliveros composes instrument. Wanderer (for accordion orchestra). The HUB (interactive, networked, computer Jean-Claude Risset composes improvisation group) formed. Sud (for four-track tape). Kyma environment released for David Rosenboom completes Platypus. Zones of Influence (for percussion and electronics). George Lewis starts work on Voyager for Macintosh. Kaija Saariaho completes Jardin Secret I (for tape). Laboratorio de Música Electrónica de la Escuela Guridi Giacinto Scelsi composes Vitoria established in Vitoria, String Quartet No.5 from Aitsi Spain, designed by Eduardo (for string quartet and Bautista. electronics). MacMix created at IRCAM by Denis Smalley composes Adrian Freed to graphically Clarinet Threads (for amplified edit sound on a Macintosh clarinet tape). connected to a VAX 11/780.

Horacio Vaggione completes MIT Media Lab is founded. Thema (for amplified bass saxophone and computer- John Oswald uses the term generated tape). 'plunderphonics' in an essay titled 'Plunderphonics, or Audio Piracy as a Compositional Prerogative'.

Sound Designer software released first for the Emulator II.

Laurie Spiegel develops Music Mouse.

Barry Vercoe reimplements MUSIC 11 as Csound at MIT. 1986 Richard Karpen composes CDs outsell LP records. Akai S900 sampler released Eclipse (for computer-created and becomes a mass-market sound). Dolby SR noise reduction sampling module. system introduced. Gottfried Michael Koenig Clarence Barlow creates composes Beitrag (for R-DAT (digital audio tape) Autobusk, algorithmic orchestra). specification released and composition software for the machines released in Japan. Atari ST. Bernard Parmegiani composes Exercisme 3 (for tape), the First RISC (reduced instruction CMU MIDI Toolkit programming first major piece with the set computing) computers library released by Roger Syter 3 system. introduced by IBM and MIPS Dannenberg of Carnegie Mellon Technologies. University. Larry Polansky composes Four Voice Canon #6 (for computer, Music Box MIDI algorithmic samples and baritone composition software released. saxophone) and B'rey'sheet (for voice and interactive Nicolas Collins creates computer). Trombone Propelled Electronics, trombone-based Trevor Wishart completes DSP controller. Vox 5 (for tape). Composers Desktop Project (CDP) started with porting CMUSIC to an Atari ST.

The Computer and Electronic Music Studio founded in Beijing by Yuanlin Chen.

Electroacoustic Music Studios established at the Escola Superior de Música of Lisbon (ESML) by Antonio de Sousa Dias.

FURT electronic music duo forms.

Miller Puckette develops a non- graphical program (precursor of Max) at IRCAM to control the 4X synthesizer.

Institute of Sonology moves from Utrecht University to the Royal Conservatory of The Hague, Netherlands.

MacMix program released (first DAW), allowing a Macintosh to graphically edit sound using external DSP hardware named Dyaxis II.

Music Kit music and DSP programming library released by NeXT Computer. SoundEdit released for the Macintosh by MacroMind, the first audio timeline editor (4 tracks maximum) with waveform display.

Soviet Computer Music Centre established in Moscow.

David Zicarelli develops M.

1987 John Adams premieres Nixon in Apple Macintosh II released C-Lab Creator MIDI sequencer China (opera). (68020 processor, 2.6 MIPS). released for Atari.

Robert Ashley completes Intel 80386 computers George Lewis completes el/Aficionado (opera for solo released (2+ MIPS). Voyager software for voices, chorus, solo piano and interactive improvisation. electronics). Consumer DAT decks released. HMSL music programming Richard Karpen composes Motorola 68030 language becomes widely Il Nome (for soprano and microprocessor released (11 available on common computer-created sound). MIPS at 33 MHz). computers.

Gottfried Michael Koenig Sun Microsystems releases the Laboratorio de Informática y composes String quartet Sun-4/260 (first SPARC Electrónica Musical del Centro 1987. system - 10 MIPS) para la Difusión de la Música Contemporánea (LIEM-CDMC) Thierry Lancino completes created by Tomás Marco and Aloni (for contralto, boys Adolfo Núñez at Centro Reina choir, ensemble, and Sofía, Madrid. electronics). Max Mathews develops the Philippe Manoury composes Radio Baton controller. Jupiter (for solo flute and real- time electronics), the first Roland releases the D50 piece to use score following. synthesizer, the first affordable unit to combine Luigi Nono composes Post- digital sample playback with prae-ludium no. 1 'per Donau digital (subtractive) synthesis. (for tuba and live electronics).

Bruce Pennycook composes Praescio III (for extended harpsichord, computer and MIDI synthesizers).

David Rosenboom completes Systems of Judgement (for computer music systems and various instruments).

Carla Scaletti composes sunSurgeAutomata (for tape, realized using the Platypus digital signal processor) Denis Smalley composes Wind Chimes (for tape).

Alejandro Viñao composes Toccata del Maga. (for ensemble, samples and real- time electronics).

1988 John Cage composes Europera ARPANET and 10% of its Finale music notation software (opera; for singers, orchestra, computers are partly disabled is first released. and tape). by the first worm 'virus', which flooded the network and Korg M1 released, first music Mario Davidovsky composes computers. workstation. Synchronisms No. 9 (for violin and tape). CD sales are greater than LP Michael Laursen creates record sales for the first time. PatchWork at IRCAM. Francisco Kröpfl composes Metrópolis - Buenos Aires (for Digidesign Sound Tools I audio Pauline Oliveros founds the tape). accelerator DSP card for Apple Deep Listening Band. Macintosh released. Philippe Manoury composes Salvatore Martirano completes Pluton (for midi piano and NeXT workstation introduced the 'yahaSALmaMAC' (the electronics), the first piece to (15 mips). successor to the 'Sal-Mar use Max. Construction'), combining a Macintosh computer, 25 Salvatore Martirano composes synthesizers, MIDI keyboard FOUR NOT TWO (for the and violin, and Sound and yahaSALmaMAC, Zeta Violin Logic (SAL) software and DX7 Keyboard). developed by Martirano for live improvisation. Kaija Saariaho composes Petals (for cello with live electronics) Miller Puckette develops and Stilleben (for tape). Patcher (later called Max) at IRCAM to control the 4X Horacio Vaggione composes synthesizer. Sçir (for bass flute and tape). SensorLab (sensor to MIDI Iannis Xenakis composes interface) development starts Taurhiphanie (for tape, using at STEIM and occasional UPIC computer generated prototypes released. sounds). Wave Field Synthesis (spatial audio reproduction) theory developed at the University of Delft.

1989 François Bayle composes Intel i486 computers released Center for New Music and Mimaméta (for tape). (8.7 MIPS). Audio Technologies (CNMAT) founded at the University of Francis Dhomont composes Digidesign Audiomedia I DSP California at Berkeley. Novars (for tape) using both and audio I/O card for Apple the Syter 3 and 123 software. Macintosh released. Common Music software environment released by Rick Luigi Nono completes La Taube. Lontananza Nostalgica Utopica Futura. (for solo violin, eight Digidesign Turbosynth and tapes and ten music stands). Sound Tools (DAW) released.

John Oswald releases the Electroacoustic Music Studios Plunderphonic EP record to the established at the Escola press and radio but it is never Superior de Música of Porto offered for sale after threats (ESML). by record companies. Electronic Music program Carla Scaletti composes Trinity founded at Seoul National (for voice and live processing) University by Sung Ho Hwang, with Kyma running on the in the previously established Platypus, premiered at the studios. 1989 ICMC at Ohio State University. Steinberg releases Cubase 1.0 graphical MIDI sequencer for Marco Stroppa composes Atari. Traiettoria (for piano and computer-generated tape). C-Lab Notator MIDI notation and sequencer released. Horacio Vaggione composes Ash (for tape) using the Opcode Max released. Syter 3 system. Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie (ZKM) is founded in Karlsruhe.

1990 Ricardo Dal Farra composes Apple IIfx released (10 MIPS). Don Buchla develops the Interacciones (for real-time Thunder controller. interactive computer Windows 3.0 released, first generated sounds and commercially successful Cubase 1.0 sequencer released images). version. for Macintosh.

Paul Lansky composes Night Sony introduces the writeable ICEM (Institute for Computer Traffic (for computer- CD. Music and Electronic Media) generated tape). founded at the Folkwang Dolby proposes five-channel University, Germany. Cort Lippe composes Music for surround sound for home Harp and Tape. cinema. IRCAM ISPW released with MaxFTS. Bruce Pennycook composes MPEG-1 Audio Layer III (MP3) Praescio IV (for clarinet and becomes a standard. Graphical Kyma software live computer-controlled MIDI released for updated DSP electronics). hardware called Capybara.

Takayuki Rai composes Sparkle Flute playing anthropomorphic (for bass clarinet and tape). robot project started at Waseda University.

Laboratory for Analysis and Synthesis of Image and Sound (OASIS) founded at the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG) in Brazil.

Laboratorio Colombiano de Música Electrónica Jacqueline Nova, first founded in the Universidad Autónoma de Manizales, Colombia.

1991 Nicolas Collins creates Broken Alesis ADAT introduced, the Buchla develops the Lightning Light (for string quartet and first consumer digital multi- controller. modified, skipping, CD track recorder. players). FORMULA (Forth music Apple releases the QuickTime language) released. Karel Goeyvaerts composes multimedia format and the Aquarius (for instrumental influential PowerBook series of Gabinete de Electroacústica ensemble). laptop computers. para la Música de Arte (GEMA) founded at the University of Ake Parmerud creates Les First World Wide Web software Chile. objets obscures (for tape) at released by CERN GRM. (Organisation Européenne pour GRM Tools first developed for la Recherche Nucléaire), HTTP realtime DSP with Sound Dick Raaijmakers composes protocol developed. Designer II hardware. Der Leiermann (for tape and hand Linux project started. Laetitia Sonami develops first spooled tape player). Lady's Glove. Mac OS 7 released. Agostino Di Scipio composes Leonardo Music Journal first Plex (for contrabass and four- MIPS Computer Systems published by MIT Press. channel tape). introduces the first 64-bit microprocessor, the R4000 Iannis Xenakis completes Iannis Xenakis completes RISC chip. GENDYN program for dynamic GENDY3 (for tape, created stochastic synthesis. solely with dynamic stochastic Python computer language Pro Tools 1 DAW released. synthesis). released by Guido van Rossum. SGI Indigo workstation Steinberg releases Cubase introduced. Audio DAW software.

Sony MiniDisk released. SoundHack DSP sound manipulation software released Pierre Wellner publishes a by Tom Erbe. paper on a multi-touch “Digital Desk”, which uses multi-finger Symbolic Composer and pinching gestures. (algorithmic composition software) introduced.

1992 Mario Davidovsky composes Apple introduces the AC Toolbox (algorithmic Synchronisms No. 10 (for Quicktime media technology. composition software) guitar and electronic sounds). introduced by Paul Berg. Digidesign Audiomedia II DSP alcides lanza composes vôo and audio I/O card for Apple CIME - Research Center for (for actress-singer, Macintosh released. Electroacoustic Music founded electroacoustic sounds and at the University of Aveiro, DSP). First PowerPC processor (601) Aveiro Portugual, by Joao released. Pedro Oliveira. Bob Ostertag composes All the Rage (for sting quartet and IBM releases their first Reed Ghazala publishes articles sounds, transcribed from riot ThinkPad laptop computer. on ‘circuit bending’ in the recordings). journal Experimental Musical C-Lab programmers form Instruments. Kaija Saariaho composes Emagic. Amers (for ensemble and live Laboratório de Música e electronics). Windows 3.1 released. Tecnologia (LaMuT) established in Rio de Janeiro, Marco Stroppa composes In Digital Compact Cassette Brazil. cielo, in terra, in mare (a (digital tape format) radiophonic opera). introduced by Philips and Lemur DSP sound manipulation Matsushita. software released. Horacio Vaggione composes Kitab (for bass clarinet, piano, Work begins on RTP (Real Time SensorLab (sensor to MIDI contrabass and computer Protocol) network protocol interface) released by STEIM. processed and controlled developed for media sounds). streaming.

1993 Karlheinz Essl creates Lexikon- First graphical Web browser Emagic Notator Logic MIDI Sonate (an interactive real- application released, Mosaic sequencer and DAW released time composition environment (later to become Netscape for the Macintosh with for musical composition and Navigator). Digidesign hardware. live performance). Windows NT released. The Center for Electroacoustic Cort Lippe composes Music for Music of China founded in Sextet and ISPW (for flute, Beijing by Zhang Xiaofu. bass clarinet, trombone, violin, cello, piano and computer). Leonardo Electronic Almanac journal first published by MIT Daniel Teruggi composes Press. Sphaera (for tape) and Instants d'hiver (for tape). Norwegian Network for Technology, Acoustics and Laptop Music and Noise Music Music (NoTAM) is founded. emerges from the combination of available technology and Sensorband forms. application of the tools and Sibelius music notation aesthetic of computer music software is first released (for to more popular ends. Acorn computers).

Yamaha releases VL1 and VP1 digital physical modelling synthesizers.

1994 Autechre releases Anti-EP an Apple switches to PowerPC Emagic releases Logic 4 with EP record where the third processors. Audiowerk interface making track, Flutter, is composed not DAW software possible to repeat in such a way as to DVD disks and players without additional DSP avoid the then-recent UK anti- introduced. hardware. rave legislation. Linux 1.0 released. IRCAM introduces AudioSculpt Philippe Manoury completes En DSP sound manipulation Netscape Navigator Web écho (for soprano and live software. browser released. electronics), using score Princeton Sound Kitchen following with phoneme and First modern Web search formed from the 1970s formant detection. engine appears, WebCrawler. Winham Lab. Ake Parmerud completes First WWW conference and SSEYO release the Koan Grains of Voices (for tape). WWW becoming common. program for generative music Bruce Pennycook composes Sun Microsystems releases creation. Praescio VII (for piano and Java 1.0a computer language. computer sounds). Yamaha introduces the first Larry Polansky composes Four consumer digital mixer. Voice Canon #9 (for tape, using HMSL, Csound and SoundHack).

Takayuki Rai composes Kinetic Figuration (for MIDI piano, synthesizer, and computer).

Kaija Saariaho composes Six Japanese Gardens (for percussion and electronics).

David Tudor creates Soundings: Ocean Diary for Merce Cuningham (live electronic sounds for ballet).

Trevor Wishart completes Tongues of Fire (for tape).

Iannis Xenakis completes S.709 (for tape, created solely with dynamic stochastic synthesis).

1995 Roger Dannenberg composes ARPANET renamed as Internet. Bar Ilan University Computer Nitely News (for ensemble, Music Laboratory founded in electronics and computer Intel Pentium Pro computers Israel. animation), the first piece with released (400 MIPS). real-time computer-generated Clavia Nord Lead synthesizer Internet becomes widely music notation. released, using physical available. modeling to digitally reproduce Donnacha Dennehy composes analog synthesis. Mac OS 7.5 released. Metropolis Mutabilis (for tape Cynthia (a graphical interface with optional video). Nagra introduces a 'solid- to Csound) released. state' audio recorder. Jean Piché composes The LiSa (live sampling) software Dangerous Kitchen (for voice RealAudio is released by released by STEIM. and interactive computer RealNetworks, the first system). successful internet audio MISO STUDIO, founded in strraming system. Curtis Roads completes Clang- Lisbon, Portugal, by Miguel Azguime. Tint (for fixed media), using Windows 95 released. convolution via Soundhack and RTCmix developed from CMIX edited wth MacMix. by Brad Garton (Columbia David Rosenboom completes University) and Dave Topper On Being Invisible II (for (University of Virginia). soloist, brainwaves and computer-assisted electronic music system). Carla Scaletti composes Public Organ (interactive Internet installation) with Kyma running on the Capybara premiered at the 1995 ICMC at Banff.

1996 Ricardo Dal Farra composes First experimental recordings Don Buchla develops Lightning Tierra y Sol (for tape). made with 24 bits and 96kHz II controller. AD and DA converters. Mille Plateaux releases In Cecilia (a graphical companion Memoriam Gilles Deleuze. RTP (Real Time Protocol) to Csound, developed from network protocol for media Cynthia) released. streaming is forst published. Native Instruments releases SGI O2 workstation introduced. Generator version 0.96 (synthesis software).

Organised Sound Journal is first published by Cambridge University Press.

PatchWork (algorithmic composition software) introduced.

Princeton Sound Lab is formed.

Steinberg release VST plug-in software.

SuperCollider released by James McCartney.

Synthesis Toolkit (STK) software library released by Perry Cook.

1997 Richard Barrett composes Apple Macintosh G3 released Auto-Tune DAW plug-in Opening of the Mouth (for two (600 MIPS). released by Antares Audio vocalists, instrumentalists and Technologies, bringing real- electronics). Mac OS 8 released. time pitch manipulation (correction) DSP to DVD-Audio (high resolution Convolution Brothers perform commercial music production. Gandy Bridge (live computer digital audio) standard processing of voice and introduced. AudioMulch released. sounds) at the ICMC in Greece. Cloud Generator granular Gottfried Michael Koenig synthesis software released by composes Per Flauti (for two John Alexander and Curtis flutes). Roads.

Maurice Methot and Hector Coda Music Technology LaPlante start streaming releases Vivace, the first algorithmically generated commercial computer- music live on the internet with accompaniment system. The Algorithmic Stream. Csound becomes real-time on Takayuki Rai composes Impulse PC hardware. (for percussion and computer). GRM Tools released as VST Kees Tazelaar completes plug-ins, for realtime DSP in Depths of Field (for eight- software. channel fixed media). Image/ine (image processing Yasunao Tone creates Solo for and MIDI) software released by Wounded CD by damaging and STEIM. manipulating CDs causing them to skip and distort. JSyn, Java sound library, released by Phil Burk.

Max/MSP released by David Zicarelli.

Nyquist music and synthesis programming environment released by Roger Dannenberg of Carnegie Mellon University.

Open Sound Control (OSC) released.

Pure Data released by Miller Puckette.

Steinberg release VST and ASIO as open standards.

Daniel Teruggi succedes François Bayle as director of the GRM.

1998 Georg Hajdu composes Der Intel releases the Pentium II jMusic, sound library for Java, Sprung – Beschreibung einer processor (800 MIPS) released. Oper (opera, for narrator, singers, electronic First portable MP3 players Nanoloop sequencer created instruments, and ensemble). introduced. for the Nintendo Gameboy by Oliver Wittchow. Cort Lippe composes Music for Napster peer-to-peer file- Hi-Hat and Computer (for Hi- sharing software introduced Native Instruments releases Hat and live DSP). for easy sharing of MP3 files Reaktor (synthesis software). over the internet for the first David Rosenboom completes time. OpenMusic (algorithmic Bell Solaris (for piano). composition software) Windows 98 released. introduced. Agostino Di Scipio completes 5 Difference-sensitive Circular Symbolic Sound releases the Interactions significantly expanded (for string quartet and room- Capybara 320. dependent signal processing, commission of CEMAT, Rome).

Atau Tanaka and Kaspar Toeplitz create the Global String installation, an interactive network instument installation with a virtual and real string.

Horacio Vaggione composes Agon (for multichannel tape).

1999 alcides lanza composes ontem Apple Macintosh G4 released Cubase VST 2 released with (for actress-singer, tablas, (825 MIPS). VSTi interface for virtual percussion electroacoustic software instruments and sounds and live DSP). Mac OS 9 released. synthesizer plug-ins.

Curtis Roads completes Half- CD-R drives become standard Dr. Erol Üçer Center for Life (for fixed media). part in PCs. Advanced Studies in Music (MIAM) established in Istanbul. Alejandro Viñao composes DVD-Audio (high resolution Epitafios (for mixed choir and digital audio) standard The Music, Technology and computer). finalized. Innovation (MTI) Research Centre is founded at De Fingerworks produce several Montfort University, UK. multi-touch products including the iGesture Pad and the Pro Tools LE released. TouchStream computer keyboard. Sound Description Interchange Format (SDIF) released, Super Audio CD (SACD) high allowing high-level sound resolution CD format descriptions (for example, introduced by Sony and Philips. spectral, time-domain or sinusoidal) to be interchanged Sony releases commercial between sound applications. hardware convolution (DSP) reverberation processor.

2000 Natasha Barrett composes 1GHz Intel Pentium III CSIRAC music reconstructed Utility of Space (fixed-media, computers released (1,800 from the punched-paper versions for stereo playback MIPS). program tapes at The and ambisonic playback). University of Melbourne, by Windows ME released. Ron Bowles, Paul Doornbusch, Nicolas Collins coordinates Jurij Semkiw and John Spencer. Fiber Jelly for networked computer ensemble, with Haifa University Electronic Justin Bennett, Kaffe Music Studio founded by Arie Matthews, Scanner, Anne Shapira. Wellmer, Zeitblom. Lippold Haken releases the Brian Ferneyhough completes Continuum Fingerboard The Doctrine of Similarity (for controller. voices and ensemble). Les Ateliers UPIC changes its Jem Finer creates the name to CCMIX (Center for the LongPlayer sound installation Composition of Music Iannis to run for a thousand years. Xenakis) under the directorship of Gerard Pape. Jean Piché composes A Cervantes (for saxophone Loris DSP sound manipulation and interactive computer software released. system). Propellerhead Software Daniel Teruggi composes The releases Reason 1.0 virtual Shining Space (for tape). synthesizer / sampler.

2001 Georg Hajdu composes Exit Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) Ableton Live, Version 1 (loop- (for violin and electronics). format introduced by Dolby based sequencer software) Labs and Fraunhofer Institute. released. Improvised Music from Japan released, showing off the Apple iPod released. athenaCL (algorithmic burgeoning Japanese composition software) electronic improvisation scene. Mac OS X (Unix based) introduced by Christopher released. Ariza. Gerard Pape composes The Ecstasy of St. Theresa (for Napster peer-to-peer file- Composers Desktop Project 4 nine voices and live sharing servers are temporarily released with full functionality electronics). shut down after legal and graphical interface. challenges. Jean Piché composes eXpress Curtis Bahn develops the (for fixed-media, three-channel Real-time convolution reverb in SBass controller. video and stereo sound). software becomes possible with the commercial release of Chris Chafe creates the Takayuki Rai composes Lucent Altiverb by AudioEase. 'Network Harp' which uses Aquarelle (for harp and network latency for sound computer). Windows XP released. synthesis.

Benjamin Thigpen composes Electronic Music Studios and balagan (for eight-channel program founded at the fixed media). Korean National University of Art (KNUA) by Sung Ho Hwang Roger Reynolds completes The in Seoul. Angel of Death (for solo piano, chamber orchestra, and six- Electronic Music Unit (studios) channel computer-processed established at The University sound). of Adelaide.

First annual NIME conference, JMSL (Java Music Specification Seattle, Washington, USA. Language) music programming language, based on HMSL, is released.

Korg release the Triton music workstation synthesizer and the KARMA music workstation synthesizer including generative music capabilities.

PulsarSynthesis software released by Alberto de Campo and Curtis Roads.

2002 Paul Doornbusch composes Apple buys Emagic and takes JunXion (Sensor to MIDI) Continuity 3, (for percussion control of Logic DAW software released by STEIM. and computer). software. PWGL (visual music Jean Piché composes Bharat Napster is sold to the the programming environment) (for fixed media, three-channel German media group released by Mikael Laurson, video, and stereo sound). Bertelsmann. Mika Kuuskankare, and Vesa Kaija Saariaho completes From Norilo of the Sibelius Academy, the Grammar of Dreams (for Finland. soprano and mezzo-soprano). Shazam mobile phone-based service is launched to automatically recognise music tracks.

SuperCollider becomes Open Source.

SuperCollider 3 released.

2003 Richard Barrett composes Apple Macintosh G5 released ChucK, a strongly timed audio DARK MATTER (for eighteen (3,100 MIPS). programming language performers and electronics). (software), released by Perry Apple introduces iTunes. Cook and Ge Wang, often used Ricardo Dal Farra completes for live coding. Civilizaciones (for six percussion players and live Reactable multi-touch electronics). instruments development comences at Pompeu Fabra Drew Kraus composes Powder University in Barcelona. (for computer-generated sounds) and Tweety (for flute Sonic Arts Research Centre and computer-generated (SARC) opens in Belfast. sounds).

alcides lanza composes aXents (for chamber ensemble and computer synthesized sounds).

Agostino Di Scipio composes Feedback Study [Audible Ecosystemics n.2] (solo live electronics).

Karlheinz Stockhausen completes the opera cycle Licht.

Kees Tazelaar composes Sternflüstern (for fixed media).

2004 James Dillon completes iPod becomes dominant Apple releases Garageband, Philomela (opera). portable media player and consumer DAW software. iTunes the dominant online Brian Ferneyhough completes music distributor. EmissionControl granular Shadowtime (opera for synthesis software released by soloists, small orchestra, and David Thall. tape). Gluion sensor interface system Ake Parmerud composes La introduced by Sukandar Vie Méchanique (for tape). Kartadinata.

Lemur Multi-touch control surface released by JazzMutant, a multi-touch controller interface for musical applications.

SoundHack Spectral Shapers DSP sound manipulation plug- ins introduced.

Symbolic Sound releases Kyma X sound design software.

2005 Curtis Roads completes POINT Apple acquires Fingerworks Arduino sensor interface LINE CLOUD (for fixed media). and their associated multi- system introduced. touch technology. Agostino Di Scipio completes Impromptu live coding Background Noise Study Mac OS X 10 Server released. software released by Andrew (Audible Ecosystemics n.3) Sorensen. (solo live electronics), commission of DAAD, Berlin). IpSonLab (sensor to OSC interface system) introduced Benjamin Thigpen composes by Lex v. d. Broek at Koninklijk 0.95652173913 (for eight- Conservatorium in the channel fixed media). Netherlands.

Horacio Vaggione completes Princeton Laptop Orchestra Taléas (for recorders and (PLOrk) founded. electroacoustics). Reactable multi-touch instrument released and demonstrated at the ICMC in Barcelona.

SPEAR phase vocoder (DSP) software released.

Symbolic Sound releases Kyma X sound design software.

Zenph studios develop software to transcribe polyphonic piano recordings into high-resolution (XP) MIDI files, allowing re-recordings of famous historical performances with a Yamaha Disklavier Pro.

2006 Natasha Barrett composes Intel Core 2 Duo computers Centro Mexicano para la Música Crack Process (for percussion, released (7,100 MIPS). y Artes Sonoras (CMMAS) trumpet, electric guitar, and established in Morelia, Mexico. computers with real-time Apple switches its computers processing and motion to Intel processors, and Adaptive computer game tracking). includes support for multiple audio techniques become Gerard Pape composes operating systems (Mac OS X, common with the release of Héliophonie I (for eight-track Windows and virtualization). Lara Croft: Tomb Raider tape and video). Legend computer game. Nintendo releases Wii gaming Kaija Saariaho composes Tag console with Wii Remote, The Game of Life Foundation des Jahrs (for mixed choir and which bcomes popular with (Netherlands) develops a 192- electronics). many sensor-interface speaker sound system, the constructors, offering an first portable Wave Field inexpensive wireless computer Synthesis system, exclusively sensor interface. for the presentation of electronic music.

2007 Cort Lippe composes Music for Apple iPhone released, Apple release Logic 8, DAW Snare Drum and Computer (for providing a consumer multi- software, capable of handling Snare Drum and live DSP). touch interface device. 255 audio tracks without additional DSP hardware. Agostino Di Scipio composes Mac OS X 10.5 released. Modes of interference n.3 Cercle pour la Libération du (installation with 3+ e-guitars, Microsoft introduces the Son et de l'Image (CLSI, a 3+ combo amps & computer). Microsoft Surface, a functional laptop orchestra) is formed in multi-touch table-top Paris. computer. Waseda University achieves a Windows Vista released. natural-sounding, flute playing anthropomorphic robot, with vibrato.

2008 Cort Lippe composes Music for Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is DAW software is very Tuba and Computer, premiered completed by the European common, sometimes a January 2009 at ZKM, Organization for Nuclear commodity, as are plug-ins for Karlsruhe Germany. Research (CERN). DSP effects and synthesis.

Gerard Pape composes Multi-core computers are Downloaded music tops the Héliophonie II (for eight common with 3+ GHz Intel Billboard Magazine's Classical computers and video). Xenon processors, such as Chart after it decides to allow Apple's Mac Pro (50,000+ download-only music. Carla Scaletti composes MIPS). SlipStick (for Continuum Keith McMillen Instruments fingerboard and Kyma) running RjDj released, allowing the releases the K-Bow sensor on the Pacarana. execution of Pure Data mechanism for a string patches on the iPhone. player's bow and StringPort string-to-USB 2 controller Spotify is launched as an interface for guitar players, internet streaming music making sensor control of service in Sweden by Spotify synthesis more commercial AB, to provide rights-managed and feasible for standard music streaming for record musicians. companies. Max/MSP 5 released with a TouchOSC released for the greatly improved user iPhone, allowing the simple interface. implementation of custom graphical touch control Stanford Laptop Orchestra systems. founded.

2009 Rand Steiger premieres Computing hardware continues At least 1,000 computer Cryosphere (for orchestra and to break previous performance music studios exist in electronics - live processing limitations, mostly by running universities and institutions using Pd) at Zankel (Carnegie) more CPU cores in parallel. around the world, many Hall, New York. engaged in research. Since Downloaded music accounts most personal studios are also for 35% of all music sales, CDs computer music studios, there making up the other 65%. are hundreds of thousands to millions, worldwide. Mac OS X 10.6 released. AudioMulch 2 released (for Windows 7 released. Mac and PC).

Max for Live released bring the DSP and patching capabilities of Max/MSP to the popular Ableton Live music production environment.

Symbolic Sound release significantly updated hardware, Pacarana, for the graphical Kyma X synthesis system.

2010 Apple iPad released, providing a larger multi-touch interface device at consumer prices.

Downloaded music accounts for 50.7% of music sold in the USA, with physical CD sales accounting for 49.3%.

2011 Mac OS X 10.7 released, Csound for (Ableton) Live merging parts of iOS into more released. mainstream computing. Fairlight CMI iPhone & iPad app Napster finally closes through is released, including the a merger with Rhapsody. complete CMI sound library and an accurate representation of the Page R sequencer.

2012 Higg's boson-like particle (a theorised sub-atomic particle) Fairlight CMI-30A (30th is first claimed to be found at anniversary) is released, a the LHC, along with other new "retro" re-release of the particles. original Fairlight CMI, with the same look and feel but with updated internal hardware.

Keith McMillen Instruments releases the QuNeo touch controller with OSC support. 2013 Higg's boson is confirmed to be observed at the LHC.

It is reported late in 2013 that online digital music sales decrease 5.7 percent (Nielsen SoundScan and Billboard) for the first time, due to more users choosing to listen to music via online streaming services such as Spotify.

2014

Notes:

1. The second column of the list above reflects a (sometimes personal) collection of music that are pieces made (mostly) with the use of a computer, or significant other works (usually including electronics) often of interest to computer music practitioners. It is not a particular filtering or censorship of the available music, the list is limited as there is far too much to include. While some of the pieces may appear to be instrumental in nature, these have (mostly) been composed with algorithmic techniques using computers.

The completeness and inclusiveness of a list such as this is always an issue. While every attempt has been made to make this as inclusive, complete and accurate as possible, there will inevitably be omissions that someone thinks are significant, if for no other reason than a complete list would fill a volume. While it is hoped that all of the significant and important events have been included, any omissions are unfortunate and possibly due to a lack of available documentation, and not the lack of research effort or an attempt at filtering or censorship. (top)

2. Steel band and wire recorders had existed for some time already and German engineers had developed a coated plastic tape for magnetic recording, but it was not very high quality. Although high-frequency AC bias was known of (with patents in the USA, Japan and the UK) and applied to wire recorders, it was in 1941 that the use of high-frequency bias was accidentally discovered by the Germans which gave a dramatic improvement in the quality of magnetic tape recording. The Allies during WWII were surprised by the length of German broadcasts, which sounded as if they were live, as they did not know about the high quality of the new magnetic tape recorders. This technology spread after the war. (top)

3. MIPS (Millions of Instructions Per Second) is a measure of the raw computing power of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer, an indication of how many instructions it can perform in a given time. MIPS is generally regarded as being a very poor measure of computing power (sometimes jokingly called Meaningless Instructions Per Second), as it does not take into account other important factors such as the instruction mix (some instructions take more time than others) and data input and output capabilities. However, for the simplistic use here of giving some indication of the changes in raw computing power over time, it is adequate. There was also a microprocessor manufacturer named MIPS Technologies. (top)

4. CSIRAC played music at least several months before the Ferranti Mark I, and possibly much earlier. Unfortunately, there is no other surviving evidence about the Ferranti music, apart from the BBC recording.

There are various brief, anecdotal, reports of computers playing music in a range of ways at about the same time as CSIRAC. These include an assortment of sound producing mechanisms, incorporating; attaching a speaker to a serial buss or part of the computer, placing radio equipment near the computer and playing sounds through the radio's speaker via radio frequency interference (now part of 'hardware hacking' practice), and programming computers to print on large, electro-mechanical, printing machines such that the rapid printing created tones, among other methods. Unfortunately, there are no surviving recordings of these activities, and so far there is no surviving evidence from the time.

It is important to note that these early attempts at making computers play music did not use a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), or pre-determined synthesis waveforms. The developments initiated by Max Mathews and John Pierce have the distinction of being the first musical use of a DAC, as well as going beyond what was previously the playback of standard or popular melodies, to investigating the very rich musical possibilities offered by the computer. Thus it is Mathews and Pierce, whose work led to the great musical consequences and advances of computer music, who are the rightful fathers of the genre. (top)

References:

Chadabe, Joel. 1997. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Collins, Nick., and Julio d'Escriván. 2007. The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: pp xiv-xxi.

Manning, Peter. 2004. Electronic and Computer Music. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Roads, Curtis. 1996. The Computer Music Tutorial. MIT Press Cambridge, MA, USA.

De Montfort University, ElectroAcoustic Resource Site, http://www.ears.dmu.ac.uk/spip.php

The EMF Institute, The EMF Institute Big Timeline, http://emfinstitute.emf.org/bigtimelines/bigtimeline.html

120 Years of Electronic Music, http://120years.net/nav.html - now only available from the Internet Archive here.

Much information is also available in the following journals:

Computer Music Journal

Leonardo

Leonardo Music Journal

Organised Sound

There are snippets of information in on-line forums, websites and community mailing lists, such as the International Computer Music Association, CEC-Conference, Electronic Music Foundation, Australasian Computer Music Association and so on. (top)

Acknowledgements:

Many colleagues and friends have assisted in this chronology, they include; Christopher Ariza, Kevin Austin, Clarence Barlow, Natasha Barrett, Richard Barrett, Paul Berg, Andrew Brown, Phil Burk, Max Burnet, Warren Burt, Nicolas Collins, Perry Cook, Roger Dannenberg, Nick Didkovsky, Richard Dudas, Tom Erbe, Karlheinz Essl, Ricardo Dal Farra, Kelly Fitz, Adrian Freed, Christian Haines, James Harley, Pär Johansson, Sukandar Kartadinata, Paul Lansky, alcides lanza, Andrés Lewin-Richter, Mats Lindström, Cort Lippe, James A. Moorer, Ake Parmerud, Joao Pedro Paiva de Oliveira, Jean Piché, Larry Polansky, Miller Puckette, Tom Rhea, Curtis Roads, Jo Scherpenisse, Andrew Sorensen, Ken Steiglitz, Kees Tazelaar, Peter Thorne, Matthew Wright, David Zicarelli, and also the editor of The Oxford Handbook of Computer Music; Roger Dean - my gratitude and many thanks to everyone for helping to make this as complete and accurate as possible. (top)

Usage:

The information on this page may be used for any educational or personal purposes whatsoever. Acknowledgement is appreciated. No commercial use is allowed without prior written permission (contact email is at the top of the page). (top)