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Open Xu Dissertation.Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education THE NATION’S CHILD: CHILDHOOD, CHILDREN’S LITERATURE AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN MODERN CHINA A Dissertation in Curriculum and Instruction and Women‘s Studies by Xu Xu © 2013 Xu Xu Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2013 The dissertation of Xu Xu was reviewed and approved* by the following: Gail M. Boldt Associate Professor of Education Affiliated Faculty of Women‘s Studies Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Daniel D. Hade Associate Professor of Education Jacqueline Reid-Walsh Associate Professor of Education and Women‘s Studies Shuang Shen Assistant Professor of Comparative Literature and Chinese Glendon W. Blume Professor of Education Coordinator of Graduate Programs in Curriculum and Instruction *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii ABSTRACT In the final decades of the nineteenth century China saw profound changes. Militarily defeated by colonial powers and forced to sign a series of unequal treaties ceding parts of its territory, the thousand-year-old Chinese empire, under the rule of the Great Qing, painfully felt that it was going into decline. Under the threat of national extinction, progressive Chinese called for saving China by transforming it into a modern nation. This dissertation suggests that since the last decades of the nineteenth century China‘s modernization has been intricately intertwined with the construction of childhood and children‘s literature. I perceive my dissertation as a genealogy of modern childhood in relation to China‘s nation-building projects from the late nineteenth century to the present. This dissertation traces three paradigmatic shifts in regard to the correlation between the child and nation in modern Chinese history, by identifying the humanistic ―natural‖ child of the Republican period (1912–1949), the revolutionary adult-child of the Maoist period (1949–1976), and the patriotic modern child of the post-socialist period (1976 onward) as three ideal models of Chinese citizenship. While these models represent different dominant discourses about the child in the different historical periods of modern China, the model itself is not a homogeneous concept. That is, the meaning of each child model is unstable, contextualized by historical conditions marked in terms of nationality, gender, class, and age, as well as their intersections and disconnections. Additionally, it is also important to note that the specified historical periods are not distinctive historical eras having clear-cut boundaries. As I attempt to illustrate, the formation of the concept of the child in a so-called new era often builds on ideas of the past, and the past child usually figure prominently in the discourse of the ideal child of iii the present. Furthermore, the modern Chinese child and children‘s literature is never a purely indigenous product, but a hybrid of Western and local discourses. This dissertation thus also attempts to show that the local does not necessarily stand in opposition to the global and is often mediated through the transnational. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….vi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………vii Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1 Chapter 1 ―Save China‖: The Making of the Modern Child………………………………………..15 Chapter 2 Translating Alice: Politics of Childhood Innocence……………………………………..46 Chapter 3 Love That Binds Us All: Feminine Cosmopolitanism in Bing Xin‘s Letters to Young Readers…………………...89 Chapter 4 ―Chairman Mao‘s Child‖: Performing New China in Sparkling Red Star……………..124 Chapter 5 ―The Party‘s Good Daughter‖: Tales of Liu Hulan…………………………………….153 Conclusion Nationalism and Childhood in Contemporary China…………………………………...188 References………………………………………………………………………………198 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Poor peasants‘ battle against landlords…………………………………………………168 Figure 2 Poor peasants expecting urgently the Red Army ………………………………………169 Figure 3 Learning the heroic deeds of Gu Yongtian……………………………………………..169 Figure 4 Gu Yongtian calling on the poor peasants to take action……………………………….171 Figure 5 Liu Hulan‘s farewell to Chairman Mao and the Party………………………………….183 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful for the personal, professional, and institutional support I have received throughout the course of writing this dissertation. I would like to express my deep gratitude to my dissertation advisor Dr. Gail Boldt, whose unwavering belief in my work not only made this dissertation possible but also sustained me through the most difficult time in my academic life. I am also indebted to my mentor Dr. Daniel Hade. It is him who has led me to the fascinating field of children‘s literature and convinced me to follow my heart. I would also like to thank Dr. Jacqueline Reid-Walsh for her helpful suggestions made during the writing of the dissertation. Many thanks go to Dr. Shuang Shen, from whom I have learned a great deal about the topic of cosmopolitanism that has become an important aspect of this dissertation. I am thankful to the publishers for permission to use revised portions of previously published material. Major portions of Chapter 4 were published under the title ―‗Chairman Mao‘s Child‘: Sparkling Red Star and the Construction of Children in the Chinese Cultural Revolution‖ by the Johns Hopkins University Press in Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 36.4 (2011): 381−409. © 2011 Children‘s Literature Association. Parts of Conclusion were published under the title ―Imaginations of the Nation: Childhood and Children‘s Literature in Modern China‖ in Yan Wu, Kerry Mallan, and Roderick McGillis, eds., (Re)imagining the World: Children’s Literature’s Response to Changing Times (New York: Springer, 2013). A Graduate Student Research Grant from the Children‘s Literature Association funded my dissertation research in China. I also own debts to my friends at Penn State. The conversations I had with them about this dissertation made the writing process more enjoyable. My greatest debts are to vii my parents and husband. This dissertation would be impossible without their spiritual comfort and unconditional love. viii Introduction ―Perhaps there are still children who haven‘t eaten men? Save the children . .‖ This is the last part of Lu Xun‘s short story ―A Madman‘s Diary,‖ seen as one of the most influential works in modern Chinese literary history. At the outset, the narrator alleges that the following writing is part of a diary written by a sick young man, a friend of his whom he once wanted to visit. The diary narrates the kinds of incidents that lead the young man to believe that the people around him eat people and are also plotting to eat him. Toward the end of the story, the young man realizes that his own brother actually ate their five-year-old sister and the young man himself was also complicit in eating his sister without knowing. He then comes to the conclusion that his unwitting complicity is an inevitable outcome of the four-thousand-year-old tradition that people eat people. But the young man seems to feel a flicker of hope in children, who might have not eaten anyone. The story was originally published on May 15, 1918 in the flagship journal of the May Fourth movement, New Youth. It was a time when progressive Chinese intellectuals were calling for dismantling Confucianism with the hope to establish a new social and cultural order in China. The cannibalism discovered by the ―mad‖ man metaphorically describes Confucianism‘s oppression and erosion of human nature. Those who ―eat people‖ are actually ―eaten‖ by Confucian morals and unwittingly keep the tradition alive. Worth noting is the implicit paradox suggested by the ending. It is clear that the passionate call to ―save the children‖ targets adults, urging them to rescue children from the oppressive tradition. But if adults themselves are complicit in the tradition, how could they save children? Do adults also need to be saved by children, who are not yet 1 contaminated by the tradition as the ―mad‖ man believes? Then how is this circular rescue possible? And to what end? This dissertation precisely aims to engage with these questions through examining the entangled relationship among the construction of nationhood, childhood, and children‘s literature in modern China. I argue that the figure of the child and children‘s literature play indispensible roles in the nationalist-oriented political and social imaginations of modern China. Sharon Stephens makes a connection between childhood and nationhood when she argues that constituting either childhood or nationalism ―takes considerable ‗imaginative ideological labor‘‖ (5). More specifically, just as modern constructions of childhood are ―neither natural nor inevitable reflections of biological dimensions of sex and age,‖ national identity does not ―develop naturally or inevitably out of pre-existing commonalities of territory, language, religion, customs or world-views‖ (Stephens 6). Discussing the French Revolution‘s engendering of a new republic, Ala Alryyes argues that ―the child became a symbol of the new citizen. The citizen was to be a child of nature and a child of the state.‖ Children came to ―express the new beginning that is a centerpiece of the ideology of nationalist movements‖ (74; emphasis original). Like a growing child, an emerging nation is in an early stage of development. Thus, by analogy, children have become one of the most potent symbols of newly founded nation-
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