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Copyright © 2018 The Hong Kong Institute of Surveyors ISSN 1816-9554

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■■Honorary Editor Emeritus Professor Andrew Y.T. Leung Sr K L Wong Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering The Hong Kong Institute of Surveyors City Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China

■■Chairman and Editor-in-Chief Sr Professor S.M. Lo Sr Professor K.W. Chau Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering Department of Real Estate and Construction City University of Hong Kong The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Sr Professor Esmond C.M. Mok ■■Editor Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics Sr Professor Lawrence W.C. Lai The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Real Estate and Construction Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Professor Graeme Newell School of Business ■■Editorial Assistants University of Western Sydney Dr Mark Hansley Chua Australia Department of Real Estate and Construction The University of Hong Kong Professor L.Y. Shen Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China School of Construction Management and Real Estate The Chongqing University Mr Nixon T.H. Leung People’s Republic of China Department of Real Estate and Construction The University of Hong Kong Sr Dr. Conrad H.W. Tang Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics The Hong Kong Polytechnic University ■■Members Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Sr Dr. M.W. Chan Professor Chris Webster Department of Building and Real Estate Department of Urban Planning and Design The Hong Kong Polytechnic University The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Sr Professor S.O. Cheung Professor Cecilia Y.L. Wong Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering School of Environment, Education and Development City University of Hong Kong The University of Manchester Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China The United Kingdom Dr. Cecilia Chu Dr. Simon Y. Yau Department of Urban Planning and Design Department of Public Policy The University of Hong Kong City University of Hong Kong Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Sr Professor Daniel C.W. Ho Faculty of Design and Environment ■■English editing Technological and Higher Education Institute of Hong Kong Hon Professor Stephen N.G. Davies Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Department of Real Estate and Construction The University of Hong Kong Dr. John P. Lea Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China Faculty of Architecture, Design & Planning The University of Sydney Australia Contents

Editorial Stock & flow of land: Freeing land from rigidities 5-9 for urban development in Hong Kong By Lawrence WC Lai, KW Chau and Lennon HT Choy Policy & Research papers Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong 10-20 By Lawrence WC Lai, KW Chau, Alwin Chan and Lennon HT Choy Finding a Sustainable Solution to 21-39 Chinese Street Shops Development By Virginia K Go Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software 40-57 and Recovering Lost Heritage By Stephen Davies, Anthony KH Leung and Steve H Ching How Will the New Land Sale Rule Affect Developers’ 58-65 Bidding Strategy? A Game Theoretic Approach By Char Leung Field Trip Notes Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997 66-76 By YK Tan, Lawrence WC Lai and Nixon TH Leung Editorial

Stock & flow of land: Freeing land from rigidities for urban development in Hong Kong Lawrence WC Lai, KW Chau & Lennon HT Choy

Land is a stock and housing a flow regulation of the property market, is concept. the decisive step for efficiently and equitably tackling the problem of Hong Mixing up stocks and flows cannot Kong’s housing shortage. properly help address the problem of unaffordable housing prices for It is well-understood that there is Hong Kongers who wish to become indeed a huge stock of unallocated homeowners. government and private land resources in Hong Kong that can be formed and Legitimate public expectations that utilized for long term housing and other the government should increase developments. developable land supply as quickly as possible are, in the final analysis, However, a given plot of land at any a result of a past strategic planning time, however big and simple it is in failures. The age-old government terms of ownership, can only modestly town planning practice of the timely increase the supply of new housing conversion of land stocks into a supply units in the absence of determined and or “flow” of building units to feed the sound forward planning or supportive process has not been sustained. development controls.

Housing supply can increase when Worse still, much privately-owned the government dynamically expands land in the that has land stock over a period of time long been ripe for urban development through forward strategic planning and/ has amazingly remained unplanned or speeding the conversion of stock for non-rural uses and is, in any case, into a flow of housing using suitable constrained for major housing by institutional mechanisms. fragmented and communal ownership, as well as a preference of some New land acquisitions (notably through landowners for hoarding land. reclamation and buying up/leasing land stocks from Hong Kong’s neighbours) All these are forms of rigidity in the and greater efficiency in converting development market. land stocks into a flow of land resources, rather than tighter Pigovian In economics jargon, this is a situation

SBE 5 in which, under current institutional These bonds entitle their holders practices, the transaction costs of to exchange their holdings for a planning and land assembly are comparable plot of new land formed by prohibitively high. the government through reclamation or hillside terracing, for example. Therefore, much “idle” land stock, whose owners take the longer view of Unlike the defunct Letter A/B, this new waiting until prices go up, is prevented land bond would be openly traded in from being used by the public for a public exchange so that transactions housing. would be perfectly competitive and transparent. Fortunately, a mechanism exists that does not necessitate a major departure Furthermore, whereas any Letter A/ from the existing administrative B was issued when land was resumed prerogative over land of the government within a government layout, the as the landlord. proposed bond could be obtained by any landowner who surrendered his/her It can, to borrow a Chinese strategic land even if there is no layout. planning concept, “use distant water to put out a near fire” in order to hasten Besides, the bond’s value would not the flow of land stock into the hands of be calculated at the time of the land’s homebuyers without compromising the surrender, but by the number of years economic freedom of those landowners until 2047. who prefer to “stick to their holdings.” Such a bond can give homebuyers The “water” is the land (which might a new purchasing option. Instead of well be in presently remote and hence scrambling for limited housing units “distant” areas) freely released by the now, they could purchase a bond or landowner, and the “near fire” is the bonds. current and valid public demand for a rapid increase in well-planned housing The bonds’ fluctuating exchange prices in the absence of any committed major would provide the government with land production programme. information on the amount of land to be produced (or “borrowed” from China), The idea is for the government to which is not limited to reclamation commandeer private land plots beyond Victoria Harbour. anywhere in Hong Kong fit for planned housing development, but especially Predicated on the concept of land in the New Territories, and pay their exchange, the proposed scheme avoids owners internationally tradable land the ill effects of land resumption (as bonds. invoked in government-led urban renewal). For land resumption violates SBE 6 the private property rights expressly resources to be utilized by the highest protected by the Basic Law and can value users, thus attaining greater result in costly litigation. economic efficiency.

The issue of land bonds could assure A complex city with a complicated the general public that the government property rights structure for land is fearlessly determined to tackle Hong requires a transaction cost-reducing, Kong’s land supply problem. institutional innovation in the development market for achieving This could produce an instant sustainable economic development. stabilizing effect on property prices and should be conducive to the stable long- The land bond proposed here can be a term development of the SAR. workable innovation in this regard for Hong Kong. It should also break the deadlock in land transactions posed by various forms 28 July 2018 of rigidity in assembling collectively- owned farmland for development.

For now, the disposal of Tso or Tong land in the New Territories requires the consent of a significant majority of the beneficiaries of any village clan.

This has prevented land from being committed to higher value uses.

Exchanging Tso and Tong land for land bonds should be a better alternative than land resumption.

The property rights of comprehensive development in the future are assigned to landowners holding fragmented and scattered parcels.

Arguably, the trading of land bonds is a transaction reduction method in the inter-temporal Coasian bargaining process.

An associated lower transaction cost process will release invaluable land SBE 7 Freeing entitlements to land from to meet Imminent Needs its existing spatial confines

Government opens Landowners surrender up and makes plans their title deeds for new land through lawyers T1 to Tn T1 One of the Imminent needs

sources of

new land Government

Government assembles builds public land and issues land housing/ bonds to landowners HOS, T2 provides

suitable land for open Government offers storage and

land for sale agriculture, Landowners sell their etc. T2 to Tn land bonds in open market T1 to Tn

T3 to Tn

Land bond holders tender for Government land and use it for development T4 to Tn

Appendix - Flow Chart

SBE 8 REFERENCES Land Readjustment in Hong Kong,” Surveying and Built Environment, 27, Chau KW (2018), Hong Kong Letters, 10-20. RTHK, 7 July 2018. Ronald Coase Centre for Property Chau KW, Choy HTL, and Lai LWC Rights Research (2018), Further (2018), “A Proposed Framework of Discussions on Tapping into the Developer Obligations to Unleash Potential of Private Land, Discussion Land Supply in Hong Kong - Land Paper, Task Force on Land Supply, Readjustment,” Ronald Coase Hong Kong Special Administrative Centre for Property Rights Research, Region Government, February. University of Hong Kong. Also in Demetrio Muñoz/Erwin van de Krabben eds. Public Infrastructure, Private Finance: Developer Obligations and Responsibilities, Routledge, Abingdon.

Lai LWC (2019 forthcoming), “A Fable and Dialogue on Taking the Property of Another under Constitutional Capitalism: Hong Kong,” in C.13, in Frances Plimmer and William McCluskey eds. Handbook of Contemporary Issues in Expropriation, 1st ed. Routledge: Abingdon. (ISBN: 978-1138811607).

Lai LWC and Chua MH (2018), “Zoning and Private Property Rights in Land: Static and Dynamic Boundary Delineation,” Habitat International, 75, 105-113

Lai LWC, Chau KW and Cheung PACW (2018), Urban Renewal and Redevelopment: Social Justice and Property Rights with Reference to Hong Kong’s Constitutional Capitalism, Cities, 74, 240-248.

Lai LWC, Chau KW, Chan A and Choy HTL (2018), “Two Dialogues on SBE 9 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

Lawrence WC Lai*, KW Chau**, Alwin Chan*** and Lennon HT Choy****

ABSTRACT

This essay begins with two imaginary dialogues that shed light on the transaction costs of using communal land for urban housing development in Hong Kong according to modern layouts. The dialogues are followed by an account of the historical and institutional background for the present need for land readjustment. This policy is explained as a means to reduce the costs of implementing layouts often hindered by objections from minority owners. Finally, the developer’s scope of obligations and their rationales are elucidated, followed by a justification of the policy.

KEYWORDS

Land readjustment, Letter A/B, DD lots, Tso/Tong land, developer

DIALOGUE 1

Standing near the summit of the tallest mountain of Hong Kong, an economy under formal constitutional capitalism, a planner, A, has a conversation with his friend B.

* Professor, Department of Real Estate and Construction, University of Hong Kong Email: [email protected] ** Chair Professor and Head, Department of Real Estate and Construction, University of Hong Kong, Email: [email protected] *** Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Hong Kong, Email: [email protected] **** Associate Professor, Department of Real Estate and Construction, University of Hong Kong, Email: [email protected] SBE 10 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 10-20 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

A: “What can you see down there in you would know that most of the that direction?” unsightly, seemingly almost random activity you see is in fact “planned” B: “I see a mess!” use either because the sites conform to “existing use”, or because A: “What kind of mess do you see?” they are operating with planning permission.” B: “I can see a sea of scrapped vehicles and machines, workshops B: “Nonsense, that is not proper town and sheds.” planning.”

A: “Do you think they are proper A: “Perhaps better to say, improper economic activities?” countryside planning.”

B: “I suppose so!” B: “Yes, indeed. I wonder why the land has not been used for housing A: “So, you see a mess of to meet public demand. What a economically proper things.” waste!” B: “Well they could be more orderly.” A: “Do you think it is very easy to use A: “What do you mean by orderly?” the land for housing?”

B: “I mean that the sites could be B: “Why not? This is a plain and better planned.” the environment is good. Once government relaxes zoning A: “So, why do you think they are not controls, things should go fine well planned? especially since there is a strong public demand for more affordable B: “Well, there is no environmental or housing. I know developers have green buffer and the activities really hoarded much of the land down look messy.” there.”

A: “Good. However, do you know why A: “For sure they hold a lot of land. they look so messy?” They publish the amount of land holdings in the New Territories in B: “I suppose that is the nature of their annual reports. But do you brownfields! Often they are illegal. know why they cannot easily start We must step up enforcement and development now?” pass better laws.” B: “I don’t suppose it is harder for A: “You think we don’t have enough large developers to get planning laws? If you do some research, approvals or for them to agree to the lease modification premium!” SBE 11 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

A: “I won’t comment on that. acquired.” However, you may not know that it is now harder for developers to buy B: “Would you please elaborate on the up all the land parcels they need for second point? I thought it was just a project.” a matter of money!”

B: “They cannot buy all the required A: “Not that long ago, government land? This is a new thing to me. would still approve the transfer of The government started to build land under communal ownership, new towns in the New Territories such as a “Tso” and “Tong”, when in the 1950s and developers have it was ascertained that the majority participated in the process right of the male members of a clan from the start.” consented to the sale. Now, for reasons not publicly known, there A: “Times have changed!” is a tendency to grant approvals only on condition that there is B: “I don’t understand. Apart from nearly unanimous consent. planning, our development approval system is now basically B: “Now I see, this new policy has the same as in the early 1980s.” rendered the transfer of land belonging to a clan to outsiders A: “The heart of the matter is not so exceedingly difficult. After many much planning as land tenure.” generations of male descendants, the village ties and unity amongst B: “Please come to the point.” such clans may be weak. I would imagine it would be difficult to A: “Two major changes. First, Hong obtain majority or unanimous Kong has got rid of a voluntary consent.” land exchange mechanism that, via land sales, released private A: “Exactly! On the assumption that agricultural land owned by village the ancestors would wish clan land communities to government for to remain forever in the hands planned urban development. I of the clan, government dare not am talking about when the land change the ownership. Moreover, was required for development there are court judgments and in a government layout, then the academic research on traditional land owner surrendered land to Chinese customary law, which the government in exchange for a conclude that such land cannot be transferrable “I owe you” document sold to a third party unless all clan known as a Letter B. Second, the members agree. The government’s land under ancestral (communal) recent change in policy appears ownership cannot now be easily to reflect this risk. Under the New SBE 12 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 10-20 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Territories Ordinance (Cap 97) the Resumption Ordinance (Cap 124), manager(s) of Tso and Tong is(are) the government can take back land allowed to deal with the land as if as long it is for a ‘public purpose’ he(they) is(are) the actual owner. and for just compensation. It may However, any sale of land requires be in defiance of the Convention the approval of the District Office of Peking for the government to (of the Home Affairs Department). be able to resume such land under As I heard, to grant approval the the Lands Resumption Ordinance District Office’s practice is to except for military or related require consent from 80% or more purposes.2 But if it can or does do of the clan members! so, then the transfer of communal land according to a unanimous rule B: “I see the government is very means the government is assuming concerned about the good people, the role of the real landlord and or should I say the “indigenous disregarding the “true” wishes of villagers” of the New Territories. I the clan ancestor.” can appreciate there being a need to protect the clan members from A: “Well, whatever the actual dishonest managers, but is this rationale, what has happened is too much? These clan members that the manager of the communal are “co-owners” of their land, land must have nearly unanimous and if they do not protect their consent to transfer ownership of own interests, why should the land to outsiders. Where he doesn’t, government try so hard to protect which is now in most cases, the their property for them?” most accessible communal land parcels have become what people A: “That is an interesting observation! call “brownfields” as the second The law and policy seem to be very tilted towards the indigenous villagers of the New Territories.” 2 Winfat Enterprises (HK) Co Ltd v AG [1984] HKLR 32: Court of Appeal held breach of Peking Convention not something capable B: “It is also worth noting, unlike of redress in ordinary courts and right to in the imperial era, the NT enforce is with UK and China. One problem land owners today are lessees1. with resumption of NT land is whether it is a legitimate ‘public purpose’ if government The ultimate land owner is the allows developers to build luxury houses on government. Under the Lands land resumed. In light of s.19 of the Lands Resumption Ordinance and Fok Lai Ying v Governor in Council [1997] HKLRD 810, it is 1 This is glossing the Imperial Chinese Empire’s difficult to have a judicial review of a decision distinction between the holders of “land to resume land. It is more of a problem of bones”, who were sort of tenants of the perception and how, if they resume land in the Emperor, and those who merely held rights to New Territories (a lot owned by developers), “land skins” as sub-tenants, who paid rent to there will be legal challenges regardless of the bone right holders. legal merit and therefore lengthy delays. SBE 13 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

best option. That is the mess below meaning in keeping the land the mount.” because once it is sold, it is gone forever. What is the use of money B: “Resumption should be the last after all?” resort, as it involves infringement of private property rights and C: “You are so stubborn! The land is it would undoubtedly give the no longer arable as we now have impression of the government no clean water, no labour and colluding with developers. It defies no market for commercial crop common sense to resume land for farming. It’s now been concreted ‘public interest’ when it eventually over! Pig farming has been banned becomes private development of by government and poultry farming luxury homes.” is risky. Land in the next village has been all built up” A: “I agree!” D: “Aquaculture may be viable. Have B: “Perhaps land exchange is the only you forgotten about our fung shui? way out…” Whilst so many clans in the New Territories have abandoned their A: “That is perfect if such “exchange” land, our clan has stayed on the is not deemed a transfer.” land. As our village head said, our village fung shui must be excellent. B: “But an exchange is better than Can you not see that our ancestors compulsory acquisition or sale if want us to keep the land?” we grant that the intention is to keep the same quantum of land in C: “I think they want us to be happy. the village.” Us holding onto under-utilized land would not have been their true A: “Good idea. Let’s go downhill intention.” before sunset.” D: “You may only be happy with more DIALOGUE 2 money, I am happy with seeing our own land here. I do not need the Three young villagers C, D and E are money.” chatting in a tea house in the rural New C: “Well, I respect your preference but Territories. most brothers want the money for C: “Why won’t you agree to sell the their dreams!” “tong” land?” D: “I just want that our land stays D: “This is our land! Though money whole and isn’t eaten away bit by is attractive, there is a special bit.” SBE 14 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 10-20 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

C: “Now, brother, what if the buyer Dialogue 1 and C, D and E in Dialogue gives us a bigger piece of land in 2 all agree that it is workable, though the vicinity served by a road in the term “land readjustment” is not exchange for our existing stock used. of land, would you consider accepting?” Land readjustment has a long history and has been put to practice in many D: “It is hard to believe that this can countries including Japan, Korea and be done! I won’t believe it until India. In Hong Kong, this approach is a I see the land and government special way of executing a “transfer of underwrites that.” development rights” (TDR) within the existing land administrative framework. E: “Excuse me, I object! The The Demarcation District (DD) lots exchange means we are moving our under agricultural use in the New ancestor’s legacy.” Territories are invariably irregular in shape, size and level. They are hence D: “Well, getting the exact same piece individually and even collectively unfit of land may not be possible but not only for urban development but what about a better and bigger also modern agricultural purposes. In piece in lieu of cash? Government the Hong Kong case for example, they has re-sited many villages to frustrate land conversion from open places inside new towns with storage spaces to urban development good planned layouts. I think land unless all neighbours cooperate in exchange on favourable terms can agreeing to a joint development scheme solve many problems and we are in the form of a master layout plan not losing any quantum of land that (MLP), the institutional setting for can be shared by our clan or by Dialogue 1. Such cooperation is often other owners. However, we need a missing especially when urban land supportive government policy.” values are expected to rise. The lack of cooperation can be due to missing LAND BOUNDARIES AND owners; sentimental attachment to URBAN DEVELOPMENT ON land; or simply holding out, as hinted DEMARCATION DISTRICT in Dialogue 2. Holding out is now (DD) LOTS IN THE NEW particularly problematic for land held TERRITORIES under ancestral ownership by a Tso or Tong. The two dialogues help us better The historical setting for the above understand the applicability of “land situation can be traced back to 1898 readjustment” to help release resources when the New Territories, today Hong under communal land tenure under a Kong’s largest “land bank”, were leased common law legal system. A and B in to Britain by China as part of colonial SBE 15 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

Hong Kong under the British common called New Kowloon, where urban law system. At about the same time development was contemplated Japan annexed . very early. The approach was for the government to purchase the DD In the nineteenth century, the lots from villagers followed by the morphology of land ownership for laying out and formation of the land farmland in China and Japan, like other into saleable leasehold lots for urban countries in Asia, was similar. Plots development. of farm land were irregular in shape, size and level with lots of communal When the then Governor of Hong holdings. Meiji Japan soon introduced Kong, Murray Maclehose, boldly land readjustment to transform her launched a ten-year housing traditional land pattern to a modern programme in 1972, which relied on rectilinear one and original land building massive new towns each to owners obtained re-delineated land in accommodate 0.5 million people in proportion to the amount of land they the New Territories, agricultural land originally held, net a contribution to lots were efficiently acquired by the the state for public facilities like roads government under a voluntary land and other uses. Japan soon applied this surrender mechanism system by way policy to colonial Taiwan, treating it as of what was called a “Letter A”. This an agricultural and mining base in their system was commenced as early as empire. In Mainland China, soon after 1960 under which villagers and Tso or 1949, all rural land was collectivized Tong managers could surrender their and old cadastral boundaries became private or communal holdings to the history. Interestingly, Hong Kong was government in exchange for a tradable the only place where the traditional certificate that entitled them to a cash Chinese form of rural land patterns has value or an exchange for urban land on survived political upheavals and shaped sale by government in proportion to the land uses and politics up to now. lands they gave up. This system enabled the colonial government to save trouble For the New Territories, the first and money in compulsory acquisition thing the colonial administration did of land and gave villagers a source of quickly after 1898 was a cadastral income or windfall gains during the survey with the recording of the lot cold war period. When government had boundaries, owners and land uses no choice but to resume land within a on maps for various DDs. However, layout, Letters B were issued in lieu of unlike Japan and Japanese controlled cash compensation (Crown Lands & Taiwan after 1895, the British colonial Survey Office, 1977). This also worked government did not modernize the rural well as a way for government to lay land ownership pattern of the New out New Territories land for urban Territories except for the land mass development. It was a system devised to the immediate north of Kowloon, SBE 16 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 10-20 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 to facilitate the speedy acquisition of Letters could be exchanged, by such private land for public projects, which means as reclamation or terracing the avoided payments of cash compensation hills. Under the Sino-British Agreement, and/or lengthy arguments over the level the issue of both Letters A and B of compensation (Nissim 2016). was discontinued, probably because of fears of a backlog of unredeemed With hindsight, the system of Letters certificates beyond the land production A and B was an excellent way for the capacity of the government. With government, as a landlord, to gather hindsight, this fear was excessive. All leased land for higher value uses after extant Letters A/B were satisfactorily modernising its layout. It had the redeemed before 30 June 1997 by cash advantage of government not having to or exchange for land. Both types of pay any money upfront to villagers. It Letter were for the sale of private and was an efficient way for developers to communal agricultural land. Disposal buy entitlements to land that they could of communal land under Letters B was produce in the future. The villages always approved by the District Office got a liquid personal asset that could according to a majority rule: once the and can be sold to any developer, who Tso or Tong manager got the consent became in effect the creditor for the of the majority of male clan members, government (which did not want to the District Office would also consent pay out cash compensation) with the to the disposal of the ancestral land to economic obligation to wait for suitable outsiders. land - which hopefully government might sell in exchange for those letters There are about 4000 Tso and 2,000 they held. As a result the developer Tong in the New Territories, controlling became the government’s creditor. roughly 6,000 acres of land (Nissim, However in becoming so the developer 2016). One problem now is that the also assumed the risks entailed in layout of New Territories land falls on both waiting for suitable land to be the shoulder of developers, who have available and in hoping that when that no similar tools like Letters B to acquire happened, government would accept Tso or Tong land, i.e., the available their accumulated Letters A and B in policy instruments are not effective exchange. In return for this risk bearing (Van de Krabben and Needham 2008). function, the developer had no fear of Letters B may provide an alternative a rise in land values as the entitlement (if not better) incentive for Tso or Tong can be used to bid for a fixed amount of land owners to sell their land. land. One possible proposal to facilitate On the other hand, the system of land readjustment is this: a developer Letters A and B placed a burden on the who intends to implement an MLP government to produce new urban land approved by the Town Planning Board under Crown control, for which the but who cannot assemble all DD lots SBE 17 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

in a planned area may apply to the This proposal, which should satisfy C government land administration with and D (perhaps even E), is however still a “Land Adjustment Plan”. In such a subject to the majority or unanimous plan each owner of hitherto communal approval for the land sale of the Tso land, for which there is no unanimous or Tong. As elucidated by the Court consent to transfer ownership, is given of Appeal in Man Ping Nam (as the regularized sites, say twice as big as Manager of the Man Sham Chung the original lot or lots, either in-situ or Wui) v Man Tim Lup CACV 39/2010, in other locations in the MLP already 13/12/2010, whether majority or acquired by the developer, with road unanimous approval is required access provided by the developer. is not a simple matter even where In addition, private land within the there are straightforward, uniform MLP area already acquired by the rules for the respective Tso, Tong or developer is dedicated to government Wui (association). Where land is for for homeownership scheme or ancestral worship, it may very well public housing. Upon acceptance by require unanimous approval. Where government, the ownership issue of the land is not for ancestral worship, it may master layout plan is deemed settled be sold by majority consent. However, and the lot boundaries on the land as many clan members live abroad and readjustment plan become the de jure may be untraceable, the government’s boundaries of the relevant DD and are practice is that the District Office needs registered at the Land Registry. to be satisfied that there is 80% consent from the members. As alluded to in This broad-brush approach respects Dialogue 1 above, section 15 of the private property rights of all land New Territories Ordinance (Cap 97) owners without frustrating good, provides the means for Tsos and Tongs comprehensively planned projects to dispose of their land (or interests in approved by the Town Planning the same) through their manager(s). Board. It saves the transaction costs Revisiting the District Office’s practice of the compulsory sale of private of 80% consent would be welcomed land, resumption of private land by and conducive to sale of land in the government, litigation among parties, New Territories. and of surrenders and re-grants of land on a piecemeal basis. This land readjustment process helps release a large quantum of land, currently arrested by minority land interests, for housing and other suitably planned urban, suburban and rural uses in the interest of parties involved, achieving a win-win-win outcome. SBE 18 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 10-20 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

SCOPE AND RATIONALE stakeholders, i.e. the general public, FOR DEVELOPERS’ owners and developers. OBLIGATIONS The policy should be acceptable In our proposal, the developer has the to the public as it is development social obligation to survey all cadastral according to MLPs approved by the boundaries, acquire most of the private Town Planning Board in a statutory lots, identify minority owners and planning process in which the public devise a sound master layout plan for can inspect the proposal, air opinions a DD with sites for minority owners to and raise objections as usual under the choose as a matter of land readjustment. Town Planning Ordinance (Cap 131, as In the layout, the developer also has amended in 2006). the obligation to specify sites and It would not involve highly contentious even build housing for the Housing issues of re-entry, compulsory Department as part of a “Public Private acquisition or resumption of private Partnership” scheme, as a quid pro land by government. No expropriation quo for government provision of road of land rights in terms of area or value access and other public utilities. is involved and the minority land The government as landlord should owners actually derive benefits from enable this land readjustment by betterment of their land due not only approving the master layout plan and to doubling the size of their holdings deeming it also the basis for a land but also gaining vehicular access and exchange that does not amount to a other infrastructural services. Their sale of communal property, merely an right to put a certain amount of land adjustment to it. under agriculture is unfettered and no forced demolition of buildings is For government as landlord and land involved. The development process can manager acting for the public, the above be streamlined, saving developers time proposal would be desirable, from an costs of statutory appeals, litigation or efficiency and equity angle, to facilitate paying those who are holding out with cooperation, in bothersome MLP cases, their tiny land parcels, and saving the by adopting a policy of positively public time costs of waiting for new enabling the transfer of property rights housing supply. based on land readjustment within the same DD. This proposal will be most The past experience in Letters A/B was feasible within the existing government not all positive. Nissim (2016) notes administrative framework. There would that New Territories Land Owners were thus be neither any need for legislation caught up on a wave of speculative nor major government spending, whilst prices for Letters B. The four major the process will be acceptable to key property developers at the material time SBE 19 Two Dialogues on Land Readjustment in Hong Kong

also had a very definite advantage in Winfat Enterprises (HK) Co Ltd v AG the trading of Letters B. Nonetheless, [1984] HKLR 32 market conditions at present are different from the past. Also, with past experience the government would be in a better position to overcome and/or manage these challenges.

REFERENCES

Chau KW, Choy HTL, and Lai LWC (2018), “A Proposed Framework of Developer Obligations to Unleash Land Supply in Hong Kong - Land Readjustment,” Ronald Coase Centre for Property Rights Research, University of Hong Kong. Also in Demetrio Muñoz/Erwin van de Krabben eds. Public Infrastructure, Private Finance: Developer Obligations and Responsibilities, Routledge, Abingdon.

Crown Lands and Survey Office (1977), A Simple Guide to Crown Land Transactions. Hong Kong, Government Printer.

Nissim R (2016), Land Administration and Practice in Hong Kong, 4th ed. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press.

LIST OF CASES

Fok Lai Ying v Governor in Council [1997] HKLRD 810

Man Ping Nam (as the Manager of the Man Sham Chung Wui) v Man Tim Lup CACV 39/2010,13/12/2010.

SBE 20 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

Virginia K Go*

ABSTRACT

With the help of two case studies this paper presents a humanistic and arguably sustainable approach to heritage conservation in face of government-led urban redevelopment that has affected family owned street shops in Hong Kong. The cases studied show an odd disparity of heritage conservation and redevelopment criteria. In one case, such redevelopment displaced street shops, their families and business to produce high-end commercial/residential buildings despite public protest. In another case, similar street shops were spared after a locally made film publicized the street. Both places should be considered heritage sites because of the existence of at least three generations of family owned street shops. A humanist approach predicated on the principles of subsidiarity and solidarity rooted in respect for the human person, as informed by the integral approach of Aguirre (2013), is offered. This approach should provide a more internally consistent way towards heritage conservation in redevelopment (i.e., a win-win scenario informed by the model of Yu et al (2000)) that does not insist on an all or nothing choice.

KEYWORDS

Street shops redevelopment, human person, integral approach to economic development, Yu’s model of sustainability, solidarity, subsidiarity

* Doctoral candidate, Department of Real Estate and Construction, University of Hong Kong, Email: [email protected]

SBE 21 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

INTRODUCTION THE VALUE & THEORETICAL CONTEXT With the help of two case studies, this paper presents a humanistic and Aguirre (2013) presented an approach hence sustainable approach to heritage that considers man in his entirety. It conservation in face of government-led holds that it is insufficient to postulate urban redevelopment that has affected the human person as self-interested, family owned street shops in Hong with no concern other than obtaining Kong. Since 1988, to tackle urban his material end, although there is no decay and find some solutions to its denying that he might act to achieve housing crisis, and instead of a piece- what he thinks is best for him. meal approach that started since the 1960s (Adams and Hastings 2001), the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs lists, in Hong Kong Government has launched a pyramid form, the different needs of a more structured urban renewal an individual, or the different facets of policy through the establishment of humanity, i.e. the physical, emotional, the Land Development Corporation environmental, sociocultural, (LDC). It has regarded the areas intellectual and spiritual dimensions. where low-rise buildings are located Maslow theorized that man has to meet as having redevelopment potential, his physical needs first before he is able both in terms of economic gains and to pursue other, higher needs. suitable remedies for housing scarcity. However, the legitimate owners or Yet, at the same time, it is a common occupants of these low-rise buildings experience that the human person can are stakeholders in these family-owned choose to act and work for the good of street shops. his family, his community or even that of his nation over and above his own To reach a win-win scenario, this paper needs. offers a more internally consistent heritage conservation policy in It has been proven empirically that redevelopment. It is predicated on the a person may be willing to forego principles of solidarity and subsidiarity material satisfaction for the sake rooted in respect for the human person, of achieving a higher need such as and as informed by an “integral friendship or good relationships, care of approach on economics development” others, or self-recognition; or for higher (Aguirre 2013), as tuned by Yu et al’s principles such as making a morally (2000) model of sustainability. right decision in spite of the sacrifices that it might entail.

In other words, humans are complex beings for whom happiness can lie outside the person and can be shared SBE 22 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 with others. His spiritual and emotional and cooperatives, it has never been needs and his rights are just as applied in the assessment of heritage essential, or even more important, than conservation projects. his material needs. Therefore, it is not sufficient to view humans in terms of The model of Yu et al is about the economic gains or decisions. There is possibility that innovation enabled by more to consider in humans aside from appropriate entitlements may avoid a their material needs. tradeoff between two beneficial but resource consuming activities. The These premises lead us to a view model was applied to planning studies that solving any societal issues by Lai and Lorne (2006) and Lai, such as street shop conservation Davies and Lorne (2016). and/or redevelopment requires the consideration of the proper understanding of the human person and TWO CASE STUDIES its impact on him and the community. This two cases explained here are Pioneered by Aguirre and promoted controversial. They are igniters for as a graduate program in the Catholic the author to participate in the on- University of America, the approach going debate and seek a solution to was used by her to assess the success the dilemma. These cases show an odd and impact of programs in various disparity of heritage conservation and countries: Guatemala’s educational redevelopment criteria. In one case, programs such as: Civic Values in such redevelopment displaced street Nqatoqi (Aguirre 2013), Enlace shops, their families and business (Aguirre, Cruz Zuniga and Papakosta to produce high-end commercial/ 2013), Aprendamos Juntas (Aguirre and residential buildings in spite of public Cruz Zuniga, 2015), and Banana Farms protest. In another case, similar Cooperative (Aguirre and Vasquez, street shops were spared after a film 2015); Haiti’s World Vision Saving publicized the street. Both places could Groups (Cruz Zuniga and Felizor be considered heritage sites because 2014); Nigeria’s Training of secondary the shops had existed for more than 3 school teachers (Cruz Zuniga, Kamto generations in Hong Kong, which has and Mahmoud 2015); the Dominican only a brief urban history of about 176 Republic’s “Café con Leche” Program years, prior to government’s decision to (Cruz Zuniga 2015) among others. redevelop them. The cases are detailed One of the aims of evaluation was below, followed by an appraisal. to determine the improvement in the quality of life of the participants, their Case 1 families and the community. While Lee Tung Street or Wedding Card the Integral Approach has been used Street gained prominence in the 1970s in different fields such as education SBE 23 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

when the printing of wedding cards with a special focus on Lee Tung Street and related items like calendars, laisee (Siu 2008). The event was intended pockets, etc. by family-owned printing to provide an avenue for personal shop operators started to prosper experiences and histories (Siu 2008) (Wissink 2015; Tieben and Govada that could be visualized and heard by 2011). However, its history can be the public with the aid of photographic traced further back to the 1950s when and visual technology. Residents of the the British Government sanctioned all streets were present to give witness to printing shops to move to this street as Lee Tung Street. a way of control against illegal printing activity (Chen and Szeto, 2015, p. 451, Despite all these efforts, the note 20). redevelopment project went ahead as planned, adopting a ‘wedding’ theme in Despite the special identity of the recognition of the identity of the street place, thriving businesses and a lively and the promise to shop owners of a neighbourhood, the Hong Kong priority allocation. Demolition works Government began the redevelopment were completed in December 2007. project of this street, coded H15 Project, in 1998. To provide a good Shop spaces in the new redevelopment mix between redevelopment and the project were offered to the previous protection of local businesses and residents at market rates and without culture, the H15 Concern Group, guarantee of renewal. As a contribution composed of local residents, academics to heritage conservation, three pre-war and heritage conservation experts, shop house buildings classified as Grade and a long standing NGO “St. James II were preserved. In total, the affected Settlement”, submitted the “Dumbbell population was 1,613, comprising 647 Proposal” to the Town Planning property interests in 52 buildings. Board. The proposal had three main goals namely: “real” compensation Completed in 2015 and now renamed based on a “seven-year rule”; the Lee Tung Avenue, the street is replete option of a “flat-for-flat” and “shop- with high-end modern restaurants, for-shop” arrangement; and, finally, boutiques, pubs and gated residential the preservation of Lee Tung Street complexes. The ‘wedding’ theme is (Chen and Szeto 2015; Wissink 2015; currently reflected in an atmosphere Ng 2011). This was rejected twice on of festivity, two representations of an grounds of insufficient documentation engaged couple at the beginning and and on technical grounds. end of the street, and a few wedding- related shops. The H15 Group also joined hands with another NGO, The Community Of the former street shop owners, only Museum Project (CMP), in organizing two were able to return namely: H2 the Street as Museum Event in 2005, Cards located at the ground level, and SBE 24 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Sun Kai Tat in the basement. In a spontaneous interview, the owner of Sun Kai Tat laments the bygone days of Lee Tung Street when a HK$4,000 shop would have been twice the size of what he is renting now at five times the rent. Customers came streaming in without much publicity. Business was definitely more lucrative than the present times. He faces an estimate of 30% to 40% loss in income. The redevelopment has also cost the loss of relationships among friends, neighbours, colleagues and even clients. With this panorama, previous wedding card shop owners have relocated to more affordable locations, or they are doing online business.

No major restructuring of the outdated street pattern was made as can be seen from extracts of survey maps in 1996 and 2018 shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. (a) Lee Tung Street 1996, (b) Lee Tung Street 2018 Case 2 Wing Lee Street

Like Lee Tung Street, the buildings in the neighbourhood can be traced to the 1950s. Its residents were mostly Chinese workers who lived away from the Central Business District in Hong Kong. Later they also became engaged in the printing industry. Figure 2 is an extract of a survey map that shows this street.

Figure 2. Wing Lee Street 2018 SBE 25 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

Wing Lee Street is located in Sheung as some hoped for fair compensation Wan and is one of the remaining streets from the , the where a series of post-war “tong laus” quasi-government body replacing LDC (Tang houses) is located. What is (Ley and Teo 2014). referred to as “tong lau” here is actually a common misnomer used in the media The total affected population was to describe what was used to be called said to be 288, in 12 buildings (URA “yeung lau” (European houses), i.e., website). Some properties already built in reinforced concrete and with bought out by the Hong Kong water closets1. Settlers in these “tong Government currently house a few non- lau” buildings designed by architects government organizations to “enhance A.H. Basto and N. H. Fok, were mostly the community sense of the area” (URA Chinese workers who lived away from website). Other owners lost interest Central, the “Capital for the British” and their properties remain in the same (Yeung 2010). decrepit condition. It was a lose-lose outcome. Wing Lee Street was the setting of a local film, “Echoes of the Rainbow”, The street is currently undergoing the winner of the Crystal Bear Award renovation work. With an empty street at the Berlin Film Festival in 2011. and the lack of community life as Under the plan entitled G7 Centre occupancy rate is low, sustainability is of the original H19 Redevelopment certainly an issue. Project, only 3 out of the 12 tenement buildings were to be preserved. Because Appraisal of calls for its preservation coming Shops in both places were worthy of from the Hong Kong community conservation because of the unique including the film director Alex Law characteristics of the environment and producer Mabel Cheung (Pan and attributed to the community living Ryan 2013), the project was halted for there. From media reports, we can the full preservation of the 12 tenement see that the Hong Kong community buildings. The award and the movie cherishes this as a fact, as part of their publicity brought to light the scarcity cultural identity. The developers of Lee of districts where a 1960s setting could Tung Street likewise acknowledge its be filmed. Both director and producer distinctive contribution in their choice considered filming in Malaysia because of the new name. Though not officially of the dearth of a 1960s location. made heritage by designation in the Despite the decision favouring full traditional sense of the word, they conservation, the residents of Wing qualify as heritage by appropriation Lee Street expressed disappointment (Tweed and Sutherland 2009) for the recognition given by Hong Kong public 1 The author owed this point to her supervisor to these streets and shops. Professor Lawrence W. C. Lai. SBE 26 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

It seems case 2 was preserved merely A cost-sharing scheme to foster public- because there was international private partnerships was used in Hong media coverage of the place and by Kong in the 1990s in the 7,600 sq. m. inference it was a vector of cultural Hanoi Road Redevelopment Project, prestige for Hong Kong. Case 1 did popularly known as Four Streets, as not enjoy a similar profile. Faced it covered Hanoi Road, Mody Road, with the uncompromising options Bristol Avenue and Cornwall Avenue of either preserving historical or in the Tsimshatsui district (Li 2012). architecturally meritorious buildings, or Its aim was to foster engagement of of keeping the generations of families existing property owners as cost- so that their community endures, or sharing or non-cost sharing participants of redevelopment, it seems the last in the redevelopment project. On a pro- necessarily implies the destruction of rata basis to their property holding, cost the other two. sharing participants gave additional capital outlay for the differential An emerging fact about both cases redevelopment costs. This is on top of is that the public is favouring their own property value. The scheme conservation without rejecting en was considered unsuccessful, as it bloc the redevelopment proposal. A faced uncertainties over fairness, cost win-win outcome that satisfies both variation and risks (Li 2012). The redevelopment needs and heritage scheme was a good attempt to provide conservation seemed possible but the a solution based on property owners’ chance was lost in both cases. One engagement. However, Li concludes was complete demolition and the other that, based on the case study of Four preservation without renewing its Streets, the humans involved have to strength. be viewed as “money-oriented” (Li 2012, p. 524), or homines oeconomici. AN INTEGRAL APPROACH The implied incentive was to offer the TO A WIN-WIN OUTCOME residents economic gain. We join him BETWEEN HERITAGE in questioning whether “the financial CONSERVATION AND incentives for individual property URBAN REDEVELOPMENT owners to participate (sic) owners in the redevelopment are the only pull factor in this partnership” (Li 2012, There is therefore a need to find a p. 524). In short, what is the real way to win-win (no trade off), and consideration that motivates humanity. thus sustainable, outcome that takes Most of us experience that humans are into account the aspirations of all willing to forego financial advantage stakeholders. In recent years, there have for what would be for them an integral been calls for a stronger community improvement to their being better inclusion in redevelopment projects. persons, or even a better community. SBE 27 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

As a contribution to heritage The Brundtland Commission conservation that is sustainable, this defined sustainable development as section offers a humanist approach “development that meets the needs of predicated on the principles of the present without compromising the subsidiarity and solidarity rooted ability of future generations to meet in respect for the human person, as their own needs” (Brundtland 1987 informed by the integral approach of chapter 2). This definition highlights Aguirre (2013), which can be combined some important concepts: with the idea of Yu et al (2000) about sustainable development through a) The needs of two generations: innovation enabled by the granting present and future. Both needs have to stakeholders of some entitlement to be met and have to be addressed. rights. These rights we argue should include the rights of the stakeholders in b) The underlying reality that resources a government urban renewal project in to attend to these needs are limited. shaping the project outcome. There cannot be a solution that sacrifices one generation for the other. The approach should provide a more internally consistent way to heritage This definition is not enough as it is conservation in redevelopment vague in terms of translating it into informed by the model of Yu et al action. Given that there are constraints (2000) that shows that innovation of time, needs and resources in can convert a trade off into a win-win sustainability, this paper adopts Yu solution. et al’s model of sustainability (2000) that speaks of transformation, rather The components of this approach are as of a certain economic outcome. follows. A sustainable development that is possible through the transformation The integral approach of Aguirre (2013) of negative into positive externality and Yu et al’s model of sustainability through technology and innovation is (2000) likely compatible with inclusivity of the different sectors of the community. The issue of sustainability has been a recurring theme in these recent years. The present generation is faced with It can mean different things to different the burdensome issues of aging people. In reality, something can be and the obsolescence of buildings understood as sustainable only after a deemed to be unlivable – no lifts period of time has passed. It is a test for an ageing population, no central of time. At times new redevelopment management for maintenance and projects promise immediate profitability service repairs. Though these are but financial and economic crises are not dangerous buildings under the the yardstick of sustainability. Buildings Ordinance, profits may not be SBE 28 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 maximized because of the low-rise, sub- outcome – whether success or failure standard buildings. It is easier to resort – of this economic process for the to demolition because otherwise they main reason that human beings are incur a high cost of renovation. Often sociable by nature. These social viewed as a negative externality, these aspects, including the networks and old buildings or streets are nonetheless the relationships one has created inhabited by communities that cannot over time, are attributes of “social and should not be ignored. capital” (Coleman 1988, Woolcock 2001). Jacobs (1961, p. 138) long The inclusion of family owned street defended these networks forged by the shops in redevelopment projects can community as irreplaceable, and the be an innovation to achieve a win- income deriving from the disappearance win outcome combining conservation of this social capital as indefinitely lost. with redevelopment, depending on the architectural solution, in Yu et al’s Principles of subsidiarity and solidarity model. Technological innovations are in themselves no guarantee of Given that in the perspective of sustainability, if the stakeholders remain an integral approach to economics enclosed in their own self-interest. (Aguirre 2013), with humans as the Yu et al’s model accepts stakeholder economic agents, it is proposed that participation and it also calls for “a some fundamental principles founded change in the mindset” of all involved on the human person are the key to to achieve an outcome that does not sustainable economics. The Principles veto the interest of a legitimate party. of Solidarity and Subsidiarity, rooted on the dignity of the human person and Aguirre’s Integral Approach to incorporated into the governance of the Economic Development European Union (EU), as explained in the papal encyclical Caritas in Veritate Aguirre focuses on the person as the (Benedict 2009), are significant to “economic agent who generates and the discussion. To receive this, it is is served by the economic activity” essential to recall that the rational and (Aguirre 2013), respecting their dignity social nature of the human person. as human beings who have bodily and spiritual needs, together with their Pope Benedict XVI, in his encyclical families and social responsibilities. Caritas in Veritate on the Integral Human Development on Charity and She explains that sustainable Truth, addressed the socio-economic development is the result of several issues of our ailing society because economic processes, i.e., economic, of a lack of right perspective on and social and political (Aguirre 2013). consideration of the Human Person. Social needs and relationships are Though this is an ecclesiastical indisputably factors in the eventual document and as such it may be taken as SBE 29 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

utopic or moralistic by some who react this arises mutual care and concern to Christian ethics, it covers various within the community, a safety net to issues of globalization, economy, shelter the community, the families, and unemployment, technology, human the individual in times of crises. life among others that are certainly relevant today. One needs to put aside Solidarity is a social virtue necessary some preconceived notions in favour to create a more humane society. It or against Christian thoughts, and think entails every person, as a member of the through the message presented to people community and as an economic agent, of good will. The essential message to be concerned with the other. This is of the encyclical is that for authentic shown by mutual interaction, affection development to exist in society, it must and friendliness among people that “promote the good of every man and will eliminate any divisive prejudices of the whole man” (CV2009, 18). He (Cheung and Ma 2011). This requires the went on to say that “man is the source, recognition and respect for every person the focus and the aim of all economic together with his rights and duties. and social life” (CV2009, 25), and therefore that the “primary capital to The principle of subsidiarity be safeguarded and valued is man, the complements the above. It is a concept human person in his or her integrity” that can be found in economic, religious (CV2009, 25). As individual persons and and European political realms. This communities may have different interests concept is adhered to by the European perceived as a good to themselves, they Union as provided in the Maastricht must work out a common good that can Treaty of 1992. The European Union benefit the community. recognizes the competences of individual member countries and as A human person is a being with such, their contribution for building intelligence and will and is bound to a better relationship. It states that act for and with a reason to attain his “decisions are taken as closely as needs. Humanity has a natural capacity possible to the citizen…; the principle for social interaction. No human is whereby the EU does not take action completely self-sufficient. Nor does (except in the areas that fall within its he develop on his own. He naturally exclusive competence), unless it is more enters into a social bond with others effective than action taken at national, to satisfy his needs. And these bonds regional or local level” (European construct a community that grows Union website). further in solidarity, through mutual help, contributions, and camaraderie. The notion of subsidiarity can also The stronger the sense of solidarity is, be found in organizational ideas the stronger will their determination be of empowerment, delegation, when in pursuit of a common goal. From decentralization and people-orientation SBE 30 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

(Murray 1995) in our present-day cases of failure after allowing the society, when individuals clamour for appropriate unit to act. This principle greater participation and involvement has been adopted in various areas such in all areas of both the private and as business (Melé and Mammoser the public sphere. Business firms are 2011) and tourism (Zahra 2011). referred to as a “human community” or a “community of persons” (Melé and These two complementary principles Mammoser 2011), where individual act as checks and balances. One exists persons learn to share and are given together and better with the other. responsibility with others to achieve Otherwise, there will easily be cases a common end. And this comes of abuse of power. Solidarity identifies with getting them involved within one with the community concerned. their competency. In doing so, the Subsidiarity, in turn, regulates the contribution of each member of the extent and power of a government in team is recognized and this helps him excessive solidarity that can lead to develop his potential to a higher degree. authoritarianism.

Subsidiarity regulates the involvement How preservation of shops may be of a higher authority making sure that incorporated into an urban renewal they do not usurp what the lowest project appropriate unit can do. This is different from the current concepts of delegation, The two cases above are summed empowerment or decentralization up as follows. On the one hand, the mentioned earlier, though these Government faces a demand for new may reflect some characteristics of office and housing space, and views the development and economic potential the principle. They simply imply a 2 right vested in the individual, while in low rise buildings. Needless to subsidiarity is inherent to the dignity of say, there has been a growing change man because of his right to work. This of building standards in terms of principle, embedded in EU governance, acceptable public and private hygiene, facilitates his right to self-actualization livability such as lifts, air circulation, through work. Among the hoped for lighting of public areas), fire safety, benefits of subsidiarity are a greater maintainability, traffic management, sense of belonging and a stronger sense among others. And on the other, these of ownership that, in the case of a low-rise buildings are legitimately community, can contribute to creating 2 a sense of identity with a place. Once This is not to deny the factors of changing standards of acceptable public and private this is achieved, it further contributes to hygiene, livability (e.g. lifts, air circulation, good economic outcomes. It does not, lighting of public areas), fire safety, however, denote that the government maintainability, traffic management, etc. These reasons do not justify expropriation that is is free from the problem, but that its problematic under the Basic Law. See Lai et al interference will be only needed in (2018) and Lai (2019 forthcoming). SBE 31 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

occupied by generations of family- crucial. It starts with the Government owned street shops and are viewed recognizing the legitimate rights of as their cultural heritage by the these traditional street shop owners and community. consequently, they must be respected. These rights are to be granted and Yu et al’s model allows for the positive fitted within the framework of a new and sustainable outcome through redevelopment plan. It can include resource entitlements and innovation, re-allotting spaces for these street- leading onto technological changes, shops in the high-rise architectural but without being explicit on the building designs by developers. Some anthropological approach to achieve architectural innovations may add it. The integral approach offered by in the erection of tower blocks on a Aguirre provides the crucial component podium that hovers above these street of the approach: the consideration of shops embrace part or whole of an old the social nature of the human person building organically in a new one as in to be further guided by the principles the case of many basilicas in Europe, of solidarity and subsidiarity rooted in or provides spaces at street level amidst his dignity as a human person. Urban tall buildings. In doing so, a blend of renewal and family-owned street the old with the new, preserving its shops should not be seen as forces of culture and bolstering economic growth inevitable opposition, but as an organic is present. Cultural heritage fostered whole. Solidarity calls for a change of by the family-owned street shop mindset on the part of stakeholders, owners can retain for the new street the soliciting their mutual cooperation. irreplaceable character that was already existent in the old street. A diagram By stakeholders, we mean the different found in Figure 3 sheds some light on interested parties in the redevelopment/ this humanistic approach. conservation of traditional street shops, including street shop owners, property developers, non-governmental organizations, academics, the public and naturally, the Government. When this is achieved, a natural and logical consequence would be the willingness of the stakeholders to engage in cooperative and creative negotiations based on trust and respect.

Subsidiarity calls for architectural and institutional solutions in addressing this dilemma. The role of the Government as policy setter and enforcer is SBE 32 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Figure 3. Diagram of an integral approach on economic development (informed by Aguirre)

Without being explicit to its use of the a quasi-government initiative to integral or humanistic approach, the involve the young people in the case of Dihua Street in Taipei, Taiwan revival of the area. A good number is commendable when viewed in the of traditional shops continue to exist. light of this approach, despite some controversy (Tan and Waley 2006): b) Aguirre’s integral approach centering on the human person is observable. a) Yu’s approach of sustainable The contribution and welfare of development deals with the the old community, of the human transformation of negative person, was not overlooked, but was externality through innovation. in fact a motor of regenerating the Dihua Street in the Dadaocheng area area. is known for historical buildings and the sale of dried products and cloth. c) Solidarity is a salient feature of the Old dilapidated buildings have redevelopment project. Though it been restored through innovative may have some tinge of political techniques. Besides, there is also motive in enhancing Taiwan’s an innovative aspect of including identity, which can be a reason for its Urban Regeneration Stations (URS), solidarity, all stakeholders, namely SBE 33 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

the Government, NGOs, shop a lose-lose situation and that must be owners, families and the concerned based on the principles founded on the public, worked together through human person as a social being, i.e., that public meetings and negotiation. In of solidarity and subsidiarity informed such a big project involving many by the integral approach for economic people, it is not surprising that some development combined with Yu et al’s shop owners preferred to do what model. It is an area deserving of further they could in their private property. discussion as it has potential impact on The process of negotiation bespeaks cultural heritage and redevelopment of the principle. policies.

d) Subsidiarity is obvious with the Solidarity and Subsidiarity are not respect for and therefore, retention new concepts. The United Nations of these traditional shops. Original was formed to avoid repeating the storeowners of these dried products experiences of the World War II. and cloths had the option to remain Nations held hands in a spirit of or be transferred to another location. solidarity, which is something one can discern notwithstanding presence of The principles of solidarity and of forces of realpolitik. The same can be subsidiarity are principles of the spirit said of the EU. The proliferation of for conservation and redevelopment many non-governmental organizations policies for which all stakeholders is to this author also a witness to the should abide. It is not all or nothing, spirit of solidarity among people i.e., redevelopment vs. heritage working towards the betterment of conservation, with one losing out over humanity. While subsidiarity is an the other. A win-win solution is feasible integral principle of the EU included in when the principles mentioned are the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 (Guitián accepted. 2010; European Union 1992), the Catholic Church has already used it th CONCLUSION since the 19 century and revived it in Caritas in Veritate (Benedict 2009) to tackle the ensuing social problems This paper, with the aid of two real (Guitián 2010). world examples, seeks to bring into the limelight the contribution and the This is an appeal to revive and plight of the community affected by implement these fundamental principles government redevelopment policies if in protecting family-owned street shops they are not grounded on the principles in Hong Kong and elsewhere. Plans to of solidarity and subsidiarity. ensure that the urban fabric does not vanish into a lost narrative of “once The two examples expose the need for upon a time” should be available. In an approach that avoids a win-lose or some cases, redevelopment is a must SBE 34 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 21-39 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

(Tam 2007) for a real and serious lack It is, therefore, worth studying how the of necessary facilities and safety of an principles of solidarity and subsidiarity area. In fact, it is crucial and necessary discussed above are to be translated especially when an area becomes un- within conservation and renewal inhabitable or unsafe. But it is arguably process. Hong Kong and its officials best done with social inclusion of the may need to do some soul searching affected people of the community (Ng to establish an authentic, humanistic, 2002, 2014) whose contribution is sustainable approach of heritage significant to cultural heritage. conservation-cum-urban renewal. If this could be implemented, perhaps Though this paper may be considered it could abate surging housing costs visionary in nature, traditional street without causing social resentment shops can be retained as viable against “collusion between officials and businesses, given security of tenure capitalists”, a common charge against against easy expropriation, in actual developers in gaining from urban practice if the principles of solidarity renewal projects, that are increasingly and subsidiarity are followed. This difficult for low-income families to principle necessitates that respect is due bear. And ultimately, retaining the and should be given to the community family-owned street shops in new whose contribution to the society is their redeveloped areas may become a trade. While temporary reallocation defining characteristic for Hong Kong, is necessary as redevelopment is making it not just a world city but a underway, the intention of returning the unique city. community to their original habitat is an act of solidarity and somehow promotes the sustainability of the unique trade of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the community. The manuscript of this paper, as part The more important contribution of this of a doctoral thesis being written, humanistic approach in the discussion was published in Heritage 2018 – of conservation cum redevelopment Proceedings of the 6th International policy is the shift of focus, from the Conference on Heritage and Sustainable buildings to the human persons in the Development 10th Anniversary Edition, community. It is the human persons that Volume 1, e-ISBN: 978-84-338-6261-7, create the buildings and the culture. June 2018, Granada, Spain. The author Preserving the buildings is simply is thankful to her supervisor Professor retaining a legacy, but preserving the Lawrence W.C. Lai and two anonymous human persons of that community is referees for their useful advice on this preserving the creators of legacy and work. culture, of heritage.

SBE 35 Finding a Sustainable Solution to Chinese Street Shops Development

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SBE 39 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

Stephen Davies*, Anthony KH Leung**, Steve H Ching**

ABSTRACT

The finding of a ‘lost’ photograph in a British collection in the spring of 2017 led to the recovery of the actual appearance of China’s first purpose designed and built pagoda lighthouse on Xiyu in the Penghu Islands. Work on the photograph using modern architectural CAD software enabled a virtual reconstruction of the Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse. It also led to an evaluation of the dimensions of the structure, which in turn created a basis for understanding the values of the traditional chi (尺) used in the building’s construction. The discovery of further photographs and more data in 2018 has clarified the date of the older structure and enabled earlier research to be taken further. Parts of the old structure are now known to have outlasted the demolition of the pagoda. The date of the first photograph has been revised. The new photograph showing what remained ensures that where the old pagoda lighthouse stood can now be located exactly in relation to the present Yuwengdao Lighthouse compound, correcting mistaken earlier inferences. The new finding also suggests possibilities for fruitful on-site archaeological work. A second new photograph, identified later in 2017, has also given a strong indication of the identity of the photographer, highly likely to have been the noted Hong Kong based Chinese entrepreneur and ‘photographic artist’ Lai A Fong ( 賴阿芳 ).

KEYWORDS

Pagoda lighthouse, CAD software, photographs, Taiwan, Xiyu, Penghu, Wai’an, chi, Lai A Fong

• Department of Real Estate and Construction, Faculty of Architecture, University of Hong Kong ** Run Run Shaw Library, City University of Hong Kong SBE 40 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

INTRODUCTION

In early 2017, researching for the City University of Hong Kong’s Lighthouse Heritage Research Connections (LHRC) investigation of the Yuwengdao Lighthouse (1875) in the Penghu Islands, the lead author discovered a hitherto ‘lost’, or at least unknown photograph of the preceding, indigenous Imperial Chinese lighthouse long known to have existed, but about which Figure 1. The Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse almost no detail was known (Figure 1). (courtesy Royal Geographical Society, The discovery of the photograph, which image P043108) showed immediately what possibly a 1778, and certainly an 1828, purpose- this article an abbreviated summary of designed Chinese lighthouse looked the original research will be presented like, was in itself a significant example along with important updates. The first of the recovery of lost heritage. is the discovery of a new photograph However, working together using that has enabled us to identify two state of the art architectural design additional and important bits of data. software and archival research, the One is that one building of the old authors were able to go beyond merely structure survived the demolition of the knowing for the first time since it was pagoda lighthouse in 1875 and stood th demolished in 1875 and folk memory until sometime in the early 20 century. died out, what the Pagoda Lighthouse Accordingly, thanks to that survival, on the Penghu Islands’ Xiyu Island we can now revise our original estimate looked like. They were able to establish of the original position of the Pagoda to within fairly tight tolerances its Lighthouse based on earlier conjectures. dimensions, highlight aspects of the Now, thanks to the new photographic traditional Chinese building techniques evidence, we can place the old pagoda employed, clarify historical data from light and its accompanying buildings contemporary Chinese sources, identify exactly where they would originally the design provenance of significant have stood. Second, we have been parts of the structure, pinpoint exactly able with some confidence to identify its orientation and where it had stood who took the ‘lost’ photograph of the and revise mistaken earlier estimates as pagoda lighthouse, which provides th to the date the photograph was taken. a most satisfying link to 19 century Hong Kong and in doing so, along A full analysis and description of with more recent archival information this exercise has appeared elsewhere sourced in Taiwan and Japan, revised (Leung, Davies and Ching 2018). In SBE 41 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

our conclusions as to when in 1875 the in the Penghu Islands, was discovered photograph of the old pagoda light was by the lead author in the image taken. archives of the London based Royal Geographical Society. This revealed a remarkable building, quite unlike the THE ANALYSIS SO FAR only contemporary depiction, which is of a very conventional, traditional In early 2017 a long lost, indeed pagoda that appeared in a presentation, effectively unknown photograph of the ink-painting map given to Jiang Pagoda Lighthouse that had been built Yuanshu, the Taiwan Prefect who had on the south-western tip of Xiyu Island the 1778 light constructed (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Presentation scroll to Jiang Yuanshu, 1778, (courtesy of National Palace Museum, Taipei)1

1 Map of Penghu’s West Island Lighthouse, Diagram Showing the Reconstruction of Various Structures in the Prefecture of Taiwan [重修台郡各建築圖說: 澎湖西嶼浮圖圖]. Retrieved 9.6.2018 from, 順風相送: 院藏清代海洋史特展 [Voyage with the Tailwind: Qing Archival and Cartographical Materials on Maritime History in the National Palace Museum], https://theme.npm.edu.tw/exh102/ tailwind/en/ch02.html SBE 42 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

With the aid of Chinese materials in charge. It has to be said that Steere’s contemporary with the lighthouse, general descriptions, now we have the including carved commemorative steles photograph, are so ill-observed and from 1778, 1779 and 1828 still extant inaccurate that it is far from clear what, in Wai’an Village, Xiyu, and using the if anything, of his material should be photograph of the lighthouse, we were taken as credible (Steere 1938).3 successfully able to identify a number of still existing relics long locally We were aware, however, that because believed to have come from the pagoda, severe typhoon damage in 1823 had but without any evidence as to exactly required the pagoda to be extensively where on or in the structure they had and expensively repaired, taking it out come from. We could also provisionally of action until 1828 when it was relit, identify the elements of the structure the apparent mismatch between what in the photograph though with some we saw in the photograph and in the unresolved and perhaps unresolvable small, very conventional depiction on questions. Jiang Yuanshu’s presentation scroll could indicate that the pre-typhoon The commentary on Jiang Yuanshu’s and post-typhoon buildings had been memorial scroll states clearly that a different. However, in contemporary Tian Hou temple was built “in front of” Chinese sources descriptions of the pagoda.2 We have taken this to mean the building of the pagoda in 1778 that the very traditional Xiyu village identified (Amoy) granite as dwelling style building on the south the main construction material. Even frontage of the pagoda, with its small the most cursory glance at the newly courtyard inside a double-doored gate in discovered photograph showed that front of a main hall between two small the main pagoda and its plinth used wing buildings, was most probably massive granite stones, suggesting the Tian Hou temple as well as being continuity rather than change. In short, the lodgings of the temple monks. The the appearance of the Xiyu Pagoda latter are said to have been responsible Lighthouse of 1823 we considered to for the light under the supervision of be a fairly reliable guide to how it will the army garrison. Some doubt as to have appeared when it had first been whether this remained always the case built some fifty years previously. comes from the narrative of a visit to Taiwan by the American scientist Joseph Beal Steere in 1873-74, in which 3 he specifically states that the temple Steere’s itinerary used to be available on a University of Michigan website, but is was in the pagoda, not in the building no longer accessible. A copy can be found in front, and indicates that a monk was at https://docplayer.net/49562425-The- university-of-michigan-beal-steere-expedition- itinerary-and-chronology-of-joseph-beal- steere-s-first-expedition.html, accessed 2 Ibid. 21.8.2018. SBE 43 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

In our previous article (Leung, Davies and Ching 2018), we created a virtual reconstruction of the lighthouse using CAD software (Figure 3) along with an actual printed 3D model (Figure 4). These proved essential tools for further analysis. They enabled us by analysis of the image and its shadows to provisionally date the photograph to late spring 1875 (on which more below). Figure 4. The 3D printed model

Using the photographic and shadow analysis, along with contemporary nineteenth century navigational sources, we were also able to identify the orientation of the lighthouse – it faced south (Figure 6). As noted, we could narrow down to fairly close tolerances its dimensions (Figure 3b) and roughly identify where it must have stood (Figure 6). The dimensions of a height of 15.13m, a square podium 10.3m on the side, a walled set of annexes stretching north-to-south including the podium of 23.337m and a total footprint of the whole of 260.97 m2, enabled us to analyse the dimensions given in traditional units of measure in contemporary Chinese sources. This enabled us to come up with some conjectures relating to the probable traditional measurement system used in the building’s construction and how that was applied in practice. The practice Figure 3a. The virtual reconstruction seems to have entailed thoughtful using Revit CAD software, 3b. The flexibility in achieving fortunate (Chiou modelled dimensions & Krishnamurti, 1995) dimensions for the finished structure as can be seen with respect to the height of the podium on which the pagoda was erected (Figure 5). SBE 44 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Figure 5. The podium, the luban chi and its equivalent metric values for stonecutters’ and stonemasons’ chi

Analysis of the photograph and virtual model argued that the Xiyu Pagoda lighthouse had been built using stones cut to a traditional stonecutter’s chi (traditional foot, 尺 ) of around 0.27 m. It also argued that the stonemasons who built the pagoda used a chi, which included a layer of mortar, of around 0.28 m. These are an interesting departure from the commonly accepted value of a Figure 6. The orientation of the Xiyu Pagoda Qing Dynasty chi of 0.305m, Lighthouse and the early dating of the and confirm the variability of photograph to April 1875. such traditional measures by trade and region common in traditional China, as was the case indeed in most traditional societies.

SBE 45 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

Although the astronomical calendar However, it seems widely accepted that, in the Revit software that we used whenever it first occurred, this use of when shadow matching has given an the pagodas was a secondary function. incredibly precise time and day for the None of the earlier pagodas seems to image (17.4.1875, 1100 hrs.) we were far have been intended from the outset from attaching great significance to the to act as a sea mark or to function precision and, as we shall see, now have as a permanent, primary function some doubts. We had considered a time lighthouse in the Mediterranean and bracket from some time at the end of by derivation western sense of the April through until late May or possibly term, as exemplified by the Egyptian even early June to be a reasonable Pharos of 280BCE. They were built conclusion, but for reasons to do with and served other purposes, most often our more recent research, we are now religious. It would seem that once their inclined towards a significantly later date. usefulness to mariners in this role had been appreciated, so their guardians supplemented the daytime, visual CONTEXTUALISING usefulness of their pagodas with the THE XIYU PAGODA displaying of lights at night on the LIGHTHOUSE occasions, like the expected return of a fishing fleet, when such a beacon could It has long been known both that assist the inbound mariners to identify Chinese navigators had used pagodas as their haven. Examples are also known sea marks including, at night, showing in and Wenzhou on the lights from them to guide mariners. coast, and Anqing and Wuhu (Anhui) This practice can be dated back at least on the Yangzi River. Such pagodas are, to the (618-907 CE) in their appearance and construction when, somewhat unreliably, the Guang significantly different from the image Ta ( 光塔) mosque minaret is said to th in the newly discovered photograph, have been built in in the 7 which we took to be indicative of the century and the Mao Ta Pagoda near structure that had been erected in 1778. today’s Shanghai in the 9th century (Lipman 1997: 25; Steinhardt 2008).4 the Mao Ta Pagoda seems to rest rather heavily 4 As with much similar historical data in China, on a 17th century compilation, the Jiangnan exactly what was where and exactly when is Tongzhi (江南通誌 Vol.45, p.15), which not actually known to any degree of evidential specifies the Tang Dynasty and identifies the security. The Guang Ta minaret is claimed by builder as the monk Ru Hai (如海), see also most to be of an unknown date. Lipman (1997: Si Ku Quan Shu, Wenyuange Edition (四庫全 25) makes the point that there are no entirely 書, 文淵閣). Other sources date the structure reliable records of any permanent mosque to 874CE. However, all are rather vague as to buildings in China until the Song Dynasty. exactly why it was built, and how, when and However the present structure may date from for whom a light was displayed. There seems the Ming Dynasty, when there is a record of the to be no hard, quantified, 9th century data. No original – of unknown date but probably Song source produces what to a modern historian Dynasty – having been destroyed (Steinhardt would be acceptable as clear and unequivocal SBE 2008: 335). Our knowledge of the history of evidence. 46 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

The Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse has long Once we had discovered the been known to Chinese historians and is photograph, we could see that the Xiyu commemorated in Penghu by the carved Pagoda showed interesting ‘family steles created both on the occasion of resemblances’ to the lighthouses that the original light being built, and of the had been being built in the western repair to the light 1823-28. It has also world since the original Pharos in long been known to world navigational Alexandria. That is, it was a tapered literature, being described by western tower with the light placed on top in mariners as a usable sea mark within a a glazed lantern in such a way as to generation of it being built (Broughton shine over 360o. What tended to support 1804). But it does seem to have been our belief that the Xiyu Pagoda was a new departure in China’s approach unique, therefore, was that in general to aids to navigation when it replaced the structure we were looking at did what seems to have been an earlier, not show equally strong affinities to seventeenth century fortification. In our China’s indigenous pagoda designs, earlier paper (Leung, Davies and Ching including those reported as having 2018), therefore, we had argued that been lit. None of these has an all-round the Pagoda Light in Xiyu was unique lantern as its top storey: the hallmark of in being an example of a lighthouse, the normal meaning of ‘lighthouse’ and, designed and built as such from the if in a different way, characteristic also outset. of all the pre-western impact traditional Japanese lighthouses the earliest of which dates back to the 12-13th century (Figure 7).

Since we were unaware of any other, similar examples, and the literature we consulted did not mention any, we concluded that for reasons we could not unravel, Jiang Yuanshu and those who helped in Penghu took an unusual and unique step, with their new Pagoda Lighthouse, in coming up with a singular design. Possible sources might have been, in addition to Japan, some sort of knowledge of western lighthouses culled perhaps from Dutch or Portuguese sources, though that can only be conjecture. However, Figure 7. Sumiyoshi lighthouse, whatever the provenance of a light th Funimachi near Nagoya, 12-13 tower with an all-round lantern on top, century, restored 49th Showa (1975) SBE 47 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

we suggest that the design was perhaps NEW EVIDENCE ON THE also developed from the indigenous TRUE LOCATION OF XIYU Fujian tradition of the Shita ( 石塔 , PAGODA LIGHTHOUSE stone tower – Figure 8), known to have been used as navigational marks, to The most interesting new data was which the old pagoda image showed a turned up in 2018 in Penghu by the family resemblance. However, we have third author. It was not related to the been unable to find any unequivocal earlier, Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse but and reliable evidence as to the design was devoted to the modern, Yuwengdao provenance of the lighthouse. Lighthouse that replaced it, erected in 1875 by the Chief Engineer of the Marine Department of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs, David Marr Henderson (1840-1923). Specifically, the images dealt with the Yuwengdao lighthouse once it had been taken over by the Japanese authorities following the annexation of Taiwan (Formosa) in 1895, on through the period during which the light was under Japanese administration, and then to the early days of its return to the Republic of China.

In our original analysis of the photograph of the Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse in the context of the modern lighthouse compound, we were struck by three walls – which enclosed a pen where the 19th and early 20th century staff kept their chickens and pigs. The walls were out of the broad alignment of the rest of the compound being orientated north-to-south rather than, as the modern compound is, more south-

south-west to north-north-east. Local anecdote suggested that they had been Figure 8. The Shita in the nearby part of the original pagoda lighthouse Xiyu village of Nei’an ( 內垵 ) and the and, working on that assumption, we Wentai Pagoda, Jinmen ( 金門 ). located the old lighthouse as shown in Figure 9, presuming that the SBE 48 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 northernmost wall of the enclosure was whether the photograph was taken by a surviving part of the original pagoda the photographer. lighthouse, most probably the front or back wall of the larger, east-west hall of the Tin Hau temple-cum-guardians’ accommodation.

Figure 10. Photograph of the period of Japanese administration, pre-1909

Rather later the first author was visited with one of those sudden putting of two and two together that comes from Figure 9. The presumed location of the something drifting out of focus and, old Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse structures thus, able to enter another frame of on the original analysis reference that does not predetermine what one thinks one is looking at In the images of the period of Japanese (Tversky and Kahneman 1981). administration, one in particular was Suddenly what was in the image was discussed by us because it showed that not a hitherto unknown but evidently at some stage there was a traditional temporary, whitewashed traditional Xiyu style village house structure in the Penghu village house but an extremely compound and there was speculation familiar structure. as to when it was built, why and when it was demolished, since there In Figure 10 the whitewashed village is no evidence of it remaining in the house structure is in the foreground compound today (Figure 10). The third with someone, probably male and author’s research uncovered that the wearing a short coat and breeches that photograph was published in a book reach just below the knees, so possibly in 1932 by an expatriate Japanese a soldier, leaning back against what will photographer living in Makong (the have been its west wall. Behind is the main town of the Penghu Islands) from 1875, cast iron light tower with other c.1910.5 It is not known at present Japanese figures lining the exterior walkway. As the third author noted,

5 For the image see https://penghu.info/ OB2D029D0ECC52519FA5 accessed his book, personal information to Steve Ching 21.8.2016. For the Japanese photographer and by a Penghu historian. SBE 49 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

the tower was painted black. We know pagoda lighthouse complex. that during the administration of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Further analysis suggested that the odd it had been painted black and that this alignment of the animal enclosure did was the state of affairs on the Japanese not result from it being the last relic takeover in 1895 (Chinese Government of a wall from the original buildings, 1875). There is data in Japan that as we had initially supposed. Rather it indicates that in 1908 the light was was a new wall built as part of the new still black (Japanese Navy 1908). Data compound. But it had to be aligned from Taiwan government archives has the way it was, curiously out of true an announcement of 18th November with the alignment of the compound 1909 to the effect that the colour had enclosure walls, and placed where changed, which is confirmed by a hand it was because at least some of the amendment to the archive copy of the original buildings still stood and there 1909 Admiralty List of Lights in the was a need for space to be left for an United Kingdom Hydrographic Office access path to run between the wall and Archives.6 So the new photograph dates the southern façade of the old building from after 1895 and before the autumn with its doorway. Thus, rather than any of 1909. old local Fujian village house that for some reason or another had been built To the left rear is the original lighthouse in the compound of the new lighthouse, keeper’s building that still stands today what we were seeing was what was left with, behind it, the original flagstaff of the southern annexes of the original flying a very large Japanese flag. On building. It is possible to match the the right of the picture is the west-to- two north-to-south wings, the gateway east aligned north wall of the animal to the small courtyard and the east- enclosure or pen with the access gate in to-west aligned main structure of the the east wall in view, all still part of the annex and to see how they map onto the present-day lighthouse compound. The annex on the southern side of the old sudden realization was that our original pagoda lighthouse in the rediscovered conclusion as to the location of the old photograph (Figure 11). pagoda lighthouse was mistaken. What our ‘re-framed’ perception had led us to see was that the ‘new’ building was not a new structure, but a significantly remodeled remnant of the original

6 For the announcement from the Taiwan Governor, Zuo Matei, Earl Taku, see 「漁翁島 燈臺燈塔塗色發更ノ件」（1909年11月18 日）. For 1909 and 1910 confirmatory data see Hydrographic Office (1909) pp.207-208 and Hydrographic Office (1910), pp.177-178. SBE 50 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Figure 11. An exercise mapping the new photograph onto both old and existing structures. The relationship between an orthographic projection view and a perspective view showing how Revit links the two models (In the original image, Red: Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse; Blue: Yuwengdao Lighthouse).

It is clear, from the pre-1909, Figure allow ingress and egress for some piece 10 photograph, that the old buildings of machinery. As with the two annex had by this time been modified from buildings, it would appear that the their original appearance. It looks as larger transverse building had also been if the two north-to-south wings had reduced in its east-west dimension. been reduced in width by their outer What is also probably true by inference roofs being cut back almost to the is that if the original building had been ridge line. The east wing had been a Tian Hou Temple, before 1909 it had given a chimney on its east side. The ceased serving that purpose. main east-to-west building had been reduced in length and re-roofed, with There is no evidence as to what the a much more shallowly pitched roof building complex was used for once and a lower ridge. All the roofs had lost the old pagoda lighthouse had been their original tiles and had been given demolished. The probability is that it a roofing material similar to those of was used for junior staff (i.e. Chinese the buildings of the new compound staff) quarters and a store, leaving the designed to optimize the catching main 1875 building for the western of rain water. The larger transverse (and subsequently Japanese) lighthouse building had also had a pair of double keeper and his family. Equally, we have doors set into its west wall, possibly to no idea yet as to when the old building SBE 51 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

was finally demolished, on which catalogue of the kind that it is known matter research is ongoing. What we photographers active in the 19th century have now learned, we think, is the exact Treaty Ports used to enable customers location of the old pagoda lighthouse to select images of which they wanted and, assuming the dimensions we copies when putting together souvenir derived from our virtual model are albums. The image numbers are not accurate, its location and the area that it in a continuous sequence, although a once occupied on the site of the present sequence can be inferred. All the known lighthouse (Figures 11 and 12). numbers fit into a 45 to 79 sequence without repetition, although there are large gaps amongst the known numbers. So far research has identified a possible twenty-one of thirty-six images in the possible series which begins in the Penghu Islands and ends in Tamsui, the port of departure for mainland China before the development of today’s Keelung.7

At present the first, No. 45, is of the Xiyu Pagoda Lighthouse and was provisionally dated by our research Figure 12. Plan view of the project as having been taken on or close orthographic projection view in Figure to 17th April 1875. No. 46, catalogued 11 showing the probable location of solely as a “Town in Taiwan” and the original pagoda lighthouse and first identified as being in the Pescadores, likely layout of the 1875 compound the old western name for the Penghu Islands, we have now also identified as of the nearby small village of Wai’an, THE ROYAL about 1.2 kilometers from the light by GEOGRAPHICIAL SOCIETY the old track (it is 3.3 kilometers by car PHOTOGRAPHS AND today). Once we had seen the image THEIR PHOTOGRAPHER (Figure 13), it was clear that indeed the image was of Wai’an because it is Along with the image of the old pagoda instantly recognizable and its broad lighthouse, the Royal Geographical location is confirmed by the caption, Society in London has a number of which read, “Pescadores. No. 46 – other images of Taiwan that all seem Fisher Islands”. The image was almost to have been taken at around the same period by an unknown photographer 7 or photographers. All come with what The images we have identified are 45, 46, 48, 49a, 49b, 50, 52, 56, 60-64, 67, 68, 70, 72-74, appear to be image numbers from a 77 and 79. SBE 52 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 certainly taken at the same time as that was not otherwise given.9 This No. 45 and equally probably by the had resulted in some of the Taiwan same photographer. The only clue as to images being initially identified as in when it was taken is that it was at what Japan. It follows that as far as the Royal looks like a low tide during springs.8 Geographical Society catalogue is As the footnote indicates in 1875 concerned, the photographer on Nos. 45 spring tides, which coincide with or and 46 is unknown. However, we are closely follow full and new moons, fit confident of our identification of place well with the potential target dates for and year in which the images must have when the photograph of the old pagoda been taken and have begun work to try lighthouse was taken. to identify the photographer.

From where we have got to so far, thanks to advice of an expert on historical photographs of Taiwan, Lambert van der Aalsvoort, we believe the images were taken by the noted, Hong Kong based photographer Lai A Fong ( 賴阿芳) (c.1839 - 1890)).10 A Fong, as he is usually named, is described as “The pre- eminent nineteenth-century Chinese Figure 13. Wai’an from the west (Royal photographer, especially gifted in both Geographical Society, Image P043109). landscape and portrait work, working as a commercial photographer in Hong In the Royal Geographical Society Kong from 1870, possibly as early catalogue neither photograph came as 1859” (Bennett 2013). It appears with a date or any other provenance, unlikely that A Fong was working in a product of the early history of the Hong Kong before 1865, when he is collection, which did not begin to recorded as working at the Hong Kong be properly catalogued until after studio owned by José Joaquim Alves 1900, so images given to the Royal de Silveira. After that he seems to Geographical Society before 1900 are have worked also in Fuzhou, though simply catalogued as being pre-1900 perhaps as an itinerant. He is known to with what appears to have been a post- have established his Hong Kong studio hoc identification of the subject, where

9 Information on the Royal Geographical Society 8 The Chronicle & Directory for China, Japan collection from Joy Wheeler, Assistant Picture and the Philippines for the Year 1875, pp.15- Librarian, Royal Geographical Society. 16 & 21-21 indicate there were New Moons on 10 Lambert van der Aalsvoort personal 6th April, 5th May, 3rd July and 1st August and communication. A Fong was also known as Lai Full Moons on 21st April, 20th May, 18th July Ah Fong, Huafang, Fang Lai, Lihua Fang, Li and 17th August. Fang, A Fong Lai, 賴華芳, 黎華芳, 芳華 SBE 53 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

and main office in April 1870. After itinerary as having taken at least three his death, it continued operating in his months or possibly four (Steere 1938). name until 1940. If news reached Shanghai in November – to be given under its ‘Swatow’ A Fong took photographs not just in ( today) rubric, recounting that Hong Kong, but also elsewhere in at the time of the report A Fong was China. Images by him are known of in Xiamen taking studio portraits – Guangzhou, Xiamen and Fuzhou. then if, as seems probable, A Fong had th On 25 November 1875 the North- travelled from Taiwan, via his main China Herald reported, recycling a studio in Hong Kong, to Xiamen by story from the short-lived Hong Kong November, where he was when the Times newspaper, that “Mr A Fong, report of his activities appeared in the photographic artist, has lately returned Hong Kong newspapers, he is likely to from the interior of Formosa” (North- have left northern Taiwan by sometime China Herald and Supreme Court in October at the latest. Counting back, and Consular Gazette 1875). Terry and given that the Penghu Islands Bennett interprets this as implying Lai would appear, from the photograph A Fong’s visit to Taiwan was during numbers, to have been his first port of the autumn of 1875. Given the date we call, then it seems possible that he could originally attributed to the Xiyu Pagoda have been there in July and possibly as Lighthouse photograph, this poses a early as June, moving on afterwards to problem. Of course travel in the 1870s take the bulk of the thirty-six images was far from swift. Taiwan at the time of Taiwan that it seems he may have had almost no roads, so that all inland taken. travel was by foot, and coasting traffic could often be significantly delayed It follows that if A Fong took the by weather. This allows the possibility photograph of the old pagoda light, that A Fong could have been in Taiwan our original date of April 1875 either perhaps somewhat earlier than the rules A Fong out or the date is wrong. autumn. We feel that the evidence supporting A Fong being the photographer is rather The American scientist Joseph stronger than our original estimate of Beal Steere, who visited Taiwan on when the photograph was taken. Can an exploratory and photographic the differences be reconciled? expedition in 1873 and 1874, spent from September 1873 until nearly May Our research shows that the initial 1874 completing his visit. He was not reconnaissance of the site and the of course on a commercial journey. purchase of an additional area of land Part of Steer’s journey more or less 200’ by 154’ for $150 took place in replicated what Lai A Fong did, as we 1874. In the 5th lunar month (4th June to can see from A Fong’s photographs. 2nd July, 1875) materials and equipment That lets us roughly calculate A Fong’s for the new lighthouse began to be SBE 54 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 brought to the site in the customs building remain. In the case of the cruiser Ling-Feng ( 凌風 ). The site was pagoda lighthouse, we found records not formally handed over until work in 18th century Chinese gazetteers and began on the 11th day of the 7th lunar images, though these were imprecise month (Friday 11th August 1875).11 with respect to exact detail. We also Demolition proper took place at some found records in 18th century western point after that, since we know it was travelogues, extensively in 19th century complete, as it had to be because it British Royal Naval hydrographic blocked the view to seaward to the archives and most significantly in west, before the new light was lit on the one of the many large collections of 18th day of the 11th month (Friday, 15th photographs of 19th century China that December 1875), according to Penghu westerners took home with them at the Gazette (1894). end of their travels, or of time spent working in China, elements of which It follows that if A Fong took the in this case were given to the Royal photograph, as seems probable, and if Geographical Society (Collinson 1844a, the state of the buildings are as they 1844b). are shown in the Royal Geographical Society photograph, then it cannot have There is no question that luck matters. been taken in April or May, but must But so do modern search tools and have been taken in July or August. We the internet. We were extremely lucky are revisiting the CAD virtual model that one of us, convinced an image to see if running the calendar for those was likely to have existed, managed to periods can produce as good a shadow catch a trace of the key image during match.12 a search, follow it up and identify it. Without the internet that would never have happened. CONCLUSION If a trace yields a quality image, as in Even when it seems that knowledge this case it did, then with the aid of of a significant heritage building in modern computerized tools a great deal China has been lost, it can sometimes more can then be done including, as be the case, as with the Xiyu Pagoda the authors describe in detail in their Lighthouse, that buried in an obscure piece in Virtual Archaeology Review collection in an archive, often in (Leung, Davies and Ching 2018), and Europe or the USA, traces of that which has been rehearsed in brief and extended here, discovering dimensions, 11 The conversion of the dates are from Loureiro orientation and exact location, as (1872), pp.247, 249, 251, 257, 259. well as tracking down and identifying 12 In principle it should because once past the significant remaining relics from the summer solstice the sun broadly repeats its passage through the sky, as any sun path long-disappeared structure. With that diagram shows. knowledge, historical photographs of SBE 55 Fieldwork, Archives, Photographs, Architectural Software and Recovering Lost Heritage

the site where the structure once stood Bennett T (2013), History of can give, as in this case they have given Photography in China, vol. 3: Chinese additional clues as to what survived, Photographers - 1844-1879, London: if anything did and, with luck, help Quaritch, 66-98. date when all obvious traces finally disappeared. By assisting focus, they Broughton WR. (1804), A Voyage of can also correct early error, again as in Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean this case where earlier, less complete in which the Coast of Asia, from the information about the timeline of the lat. of 35º North to the Island of Insu construction of the new Yuwengdao (commonly known under the name Lighthouse had led us to suppose that of the Land of Yesso), the North, work began on it some months before South, and East Coasts of Japan, the it in fact did. They can also, as we hope Lieuchieux and the Adjacent Island, as will be the case here, guide forensic well as the Coast of Corea, have been archaeological work on an old site examined and surveyed, performed in to see what else can be recovered of His Majesty’s Sloop Providence and her the lost past. Now we know to within tender, in the years 1795, 1796, 1797, fairly tight margins exactly where the 1798. London: T. Cadell & W. Davies. old pagoda light stood, if nothing else we may be able to uncover clues as Chinese Government (1875), Notice to to the composition of the podium on Mariners No. 43. which the pagoda stood. The result SC Chiou, R Krishnamurti (1995). “The can also be, again as in this case fortunate dimensions of Taiwanese with the heritage precincts of today’s traditional architecture”, Environment Yuwengdao Lighthouse, that we better and Planning B: Planning and Design, understand a present structure. 22, 547-562.

REFERENCES Collinson R (1844a), Draft Survey, H.M. Ships Plover and Young Hebe. 「漁翁島燈臺燈塔塗色發更ノ件」 United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (Colour change for Yuwengdao Archives, L4368 Shelf 13G. lighthouse tower) 1909 年 11 月 Collinson R (1844b), Surveying Journal 18 日），〈府報第2836 號 〉， of Captain Richard Collinson, China 《臺灣總督府府（官）報》(Taiwan 1840-1844. Manuscript notebook. Governor’s Office (Official)，國 United Kingdom Hydrographic Office 史館臺灣文獻館，典藏號 (National Archives, OD153. History Museum, Taiwan Literature Museum, Collection Number)： Hydrographic Office (1909), Admiralty 0071012836a004. List of Lights Part VI, 1909, No. 944 Fisher Island, London: Hydrographic Office. SBE 56 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 40-57 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Hydrographic Office (1910), Admiralty from Letters Written from Formosa, the List of Lights Part VI, 1910, No. 944 Philippines, and the East Indies during Fisher Island, London: Hydrographic the years 1874 and 1875’, Michigan Office. Alumnus Quarterly Review, 45, 47-53.

Japanese Navy ( 海軍水路局) (1908), Steinhardt NS (2008), “China’s Earliest 東洋燈臺表 (Tōyō tōdai-hyō, List Mosques,” Journal of the Society of of Japanese Lighthouses), p.16-17. Architectural Historians, 67:3, 330- Retrieved from http://dl.ndl.go.jp/ 361. info:ndljp/pid/1086773. The Chronicle & Directory for China, Jiangnan Tongzhi ( 江南通誌), A Japan and the Philippines for the Year General Gazetteer of Jiangnan, The 1875, Hong Kong: The Daily Press Kangxi Emperor Edition, Vol.45. Office, n.d.

Leung AKH, Davies S, & Ching SH Tversky A & Kahneman D (1981), (2018), “When New Technology Joins “The Framing of Decisions and the Old Documents and East Meets West: Psychology of Choice,” Science, Virtually Reconstructing the Fisher 211:4481, 453–58. Island Pagoda Lighthouse (China),” Virtual Archaeology Review, 9:18, 12- 27.

Lipman JN (1997), Familiar Strangers: a History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Loureiro P (1872), The 100 Years Anglo-Chinese Calendar, 1st Jan., 1776 to 25th Jan., 1876, Shanghai: North- China Herald.

North-China Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette, 25.11.1875, p.520

Penghu Gazette, the 1894 Edition ( 澎湖廳誌 , 光緒甲午二十年刻本 ). Vol. 5 ( 卷五 ).

Steere JB (1938), “An American Naturalist in the Far East: Excerpts SBE 57 How Will the New Land Sale Rule Affect Developers’ Bidding Strategy? A Game Theoretic Approach

Char Leung*

ABSTRACT

Recently the Hong Kong government has announced a new rule that all non- winning bids in a land sale will also be disclosed in order to enhance the transparency of the land sale market. Given the heterogeneity of land, the effect of the new rule cannot be fully examined unless the same site is tendered twice, with and without the new rule. As such, this paper analyses its effect based on economic models from a game theoretic approach. It is found that the bidding behaviour will be less aggressive under the new rule and that, in response to the increased number of bidders, the optimal bid will converge to some asymptotic limit, providing an upper bound to the winning price.

KEYWORDS

Game theory, land sale, bidding theory

* Hong Kong Research, Jones Lang LaSalle, 6/F Three Pacific Place, 1 Queen’s Road East, , Hong Kong. Email: [email protected] SBE 58 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 58-65 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

INTRODUCTION to its geographical characteristics. For instance, a developer who already owns Serving as the owner of almost all an adjoining site is likely to submit land in Hong Kong, the Hong Kong a higher bid for a joint development. Government sells the rights of land Unless the same site is tendered twice use to promote urban development. under different land sale schemes, the Previously sold by auction, residential effectiveness of the new rule cannot be development land in Hong Kong has fully examined. been sold by tender since 2011 as they are highly heterogeneous commodities Despite of the lack of empirical and their values are generally evidence, microeconomic theoretical intangible. This is demonstrated by models provide us with insights. surveyors’ estimation using the residual Auction theory is the branch of method in which the approximate land microeconomics that concerns auctions value heavily depends on the cost of the and tenders. Under this theory, tenders development and the revenue generated are considered as one of the many types by it. of auctions, namely first-price, sealed- bid auctions. A theoretical model in Under existing land sale schemes, auction theory usually describes the except for the winning bid, all other optimal bidding strategy for a bidder bids in a tender are never disclosed. taking into consideration certain However, this will no longer be assumptions and limitations of the the case as in 2018 the government format of the auction/tender. announced a new rule that all bids will be published on an anonymous basis This article is constructed as follows. after the tender to enhance transparency The next section gives a brief review (HKSAR Government Development of auction theory as well as of the Bureau 2018). A similar arrangement literature concerning land sales by was also adopted by the Urban auction or tender. The two subsequent Renewal Authority (URA) in tendering sections give a derivation of the bidding their redevelopment projects (Urban rule under current and new land sale Renewal Authority 2018). scheme to see if the new rule can effectively reduce the land price. The The key question is how effective final section concludes. this new rule will be in discouraging aggressive bidding. Unfortunately, AUCTION THEORY: WHAT IS IT? its effectiveness may not be able to be fully assessed even after the rule Usually taught to postgraduate students has formally been implemented. This in economics, auction theory, as is largely due to the heterogeneity of its name suggests, studies auctions development land which is not limited including bidding behavior, the seller’ SBE 59 How will the New Land Sale Rule Affect Developers’ Bidding Strategy? A Game Theoretic Approach

surplus and the format of the auction. models. Recently more studies have Like other economic theories, it is been empirically focused due to the built on some assumptions that aim to popularity of online auction platforms. simplify reality. Empirical studies of land sale auction from an economic perspective are rare An auction can be classified as either due to limitations of data availability. a private value or a common value As such, many studies concerning auction. The former assumes that each Hong Kong’s land sale market use bidder has her own value about the other types of market data for analysis. good which is independent of that of For instance, Tse et al (2011) studies other bidders. The current land sale the developers’ bidding strategies by scheme where each bidder does not examining the relationship between the have any bidding related information stock market response and the outcomes of other bidders is a good example. In of land sales. In testing the existence of contrast, the land sale scheme under the winner’s curse in Hong Kong’s land the new rule of disclosing all bids is sale market, auction theory is applied more common-value-auction-like. to determine the reference price. Also Disclosing previous bids gives bidders using stock market data, Ching and Yu some information about other bidders’ (2003) demonstrate that Hong Kong’s future bidding behaviour. While each urban land market is not perfectly bidder has its own plan on how the contestable hence has an oligopolistic site should be developed, the site has structure. a market value such as the average of all bids submitted. This market value constitutes some form of common OPTIMAL BIDDING value. STRATEGY UNDER THE CURRENT LAND SALE Another categorisation of auctions is SCHEME whether bids are sealed or open, i.e. tender or auction. For private value The theoretical model outlined here auctions, the revenue equivalence does not aim to describe developers’ theorem suggests that the seller’s actual bidding strategies as they expected revenue remains unchanged remain unknown to the public. Instead, regardless of sealed- or open-bid from an economic perspective, arrangement. However, this is not true the model attempts to explain the for common value auctions where effect of the new rule under a set of expected revenue is higher in open bid reasonable assumptions. The outcome auctions, as suggested by the linkage of the analysis is an optimal bidding principle (Milgrom and Weber 1982). function, representing a Bayesian Nash equilibrium. Unless using experimental data, most studies of auctions rely on theoretical Except for the winning bid, all other SBE 60 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 58-65 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 bids are not disclosed under the existing win the tender. Therefore, all bidders land sale scheme. This means that each should conceptually share the same bidder knows how much she values bidding strategy. the land and this is her own private information. As a result, bids among Let vi be the willingness-to-pay of bidders are independent. This is one bidder i above which, for example, the of the three assumptions required for bidder is not able to make any profit building our theoretical model. These from the development. The surplus assumptions include (Krishna 2010, gained by the developer in making the p.37), bid is then (vi - bi ) where b1 is the bid made by bidder i. (i) Independence: Bids among bidders are independent. Assume that the value of b 1 is a proportion of vi . As such, the bidding (ii) Risk neutral: All bidders seek to function b(.) can be expressed as, maximise their expected gain. bi = b(vi) = avi (i) (iii) Symmetry: Bids among bidders follow the same statistical where 0 ˂ ˂ 1. Note that does not distribution and the same have the subscript i as it is assumed bidding rule. that each bidder makes its bid based on a fixed part of vi, and also to satisfy Assumption (i) will be relaxed upon the assumption (iii). The probability that new land sale scheme when bidders can bidder i wins the tender is given by, learn from previous non-winning bids. Assumption (ii) is trivial. While the Pr (bidder i wins when bidding bi) = bidder should make the bid high enough to win the tender, it should also be set low to increase the surplus. As the bid is considered as a cost to the bidder, the where n is the number of bidders in lower the bid below the willingness-to- the tender and F is the cumulative pay, the larger the surplus gained by the distribution function of the bids. We bidder. With uncertainty arising from then maximise the expected gain bids made by other bidders, each bid -1 n-1 U=G (b (bi ))(v -b ) where G=F , by attempts to maximise the expected gain. i i considering the first order condition Assumption (iii) is imposed to simplify below, the analysis and is mathematically represented by Equation (1) below. A justification for this assumption is that all bidders have access to the same set of information and there is no insider information for a particular bidder to where g=G’. Substituting Equation SBE 61 How will the New Land Sale Rule Affect Developers’ Bidding Strategy? A Game Theoretic Approach

(1), this is equivalent to the differential used the data from the most recent equation below, URA redevelopment tender. It is also the first tender where all unsuccessful bids are published. This tender attracted a total of 20 bids with the Solving this for b(vi ) to produce the bids between HKD 545 million and optimal bidding function, HKD 1029.2 million; i.e. HKD 3,853 psf and HKD 7,277 psf (winning bid), (2) under a maximum developable GFA of 144,344 sf. A Shapiro-Wilk test on This optimal bidding function describes the log-transformed data indicates that the optimal bid given the willingness- the bids are normally distributed with to-pay. While it is nothing more than =8.588 and ϭ=0.166, estimated with an algebraic expression, it tells us how maximum likelihood estimation. A each bidder should react when more Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and a Jarque- bidders submit their tenders. Note Bera test also give the same conclusion. that both the numerator xg(x)dx n-1 Also if we arbitrarily assume that the and denominator [F(v )] are strictly i bidder has a willingness-to-pay of HKD decreasing at different rates as the 10,000 psf, the model predicts that the number of bidders increases, meaning optimal bid of a tender with 20 bidders that Equation (2) can be a monotonic is HKD 7,316 psf, fairly close to the function. The usual thought of a more actual winning bid. If the willingness- competitive land sale resulting in higher to-pay is set at HKD 9,813 psf, the bids is reflected in the denominator. n-1 model predicted optimal bid would With 0 ˂ F(v ) ˂ 1, b(v ), [F(v )] i i i be the same as the actual winning bid. is strictly decreasing as n increases, The chart below shows the optimal bid meaning that an increased number against the number of bidders in the of bidders lowers the probability of tender, assuming the willingness-to-pay winning the tender and that the optimal of HKD 9,813 psf. bid has to rise. However, the term, xg(x)dx, the average willingness- Not surprisingly, the optimal bid to-pay with the condition that bidder increases as n increases. However, the i wins, decreases as n increases. This simulation result is subject to the choice is due to this average being computed n-1 of the underlying distribution and based on [F(vi )] , which is also parameters. As Equation (2) implies, decreasing. Consequently, an increased there may still exist a threshold above number of bidders may not necessarily which the optimal bid and the number lead to more aggressive bidding of bidders becomes negatively related. behaviour. The actual outcome will Still, even if the policy maker wishes heavily depend on F. to encourage less aggressive bidding by taking advantage of this inverse To provide a concrete example, we relationship, the threshold must first be SBE 62 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 58-65 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554 known and other polices are needed to bidder i wins. Substituting attract a sufficient number of developers into the expected gain u yields, to submit their bids.

Assumption (iii) implies that

for all are all equal hence,

Figure 1. Optimal bids under existing Similar to the previous example, vi is and new land sale scheme assumed to be lognormal distributed with =8.588 and ϭ=0.166. The OPTIMAL BIDDING STRATEGY optimal bidding strategy then UNDER THE NEW RULE satisfies the following condition,

We continue to use the theoretical framework developed in the previous (3) section but with some modification to accommodate the new rule. Under the new rule where bidders have access to where (.) is the CDF of lognormal all historical bids, each bidder takes distribution with parameters and ϭ. into account the past behavior of other bidders. Unlike the previous case where the bidding rule, Equation (2), can be derived For bidder i, it is considered a loss algebraically, Equation (3) can only be to win the tender with her bid far solved numerically using a computer. above other bids. More specifically, it The result is shown in Figure 1. is ideal that the winning bid is close to the average of all bids while still It can be observed that the bidding winning the tender. As we assume strategy leads to less aggressive bidding that Equation (1) holds for all bidders, behaviour; the optimal bid is lower at the willingness-to-pay of bidder i any level under the new rule. It is due to should ideally be close to the average the fact that information about previous of the willingness-to-pay of all. The bids allows bidders to assess the market value of the site as well as other gain of bidder i is then (v-bi) where . However, v is not yet known bidders’ behaviour, preventing them during the tendering process. The gain from submitting unreasonably high should then be bids. In contrast, under the existing land where the first term is the expected sale scheme, the lack of information value of v with the condition that encourages bidders to submit very high bids in an attempt to win the tender. SBE 63 How will the New Land Sale Rule Affect Developers’ Bidding Strategy? A Game Theoretic Approach

Moreover, the simulation shows CONCLUSION that the growth of the optimal bid slows down as the number of bidders In order to enhance the transparency increases, approaching towards some of Hong Kong’s land sale market, the asymptotic limit. This means that the government will implement a new new rule sets an upper bound for bids, rule where all non-winning bids are further discouraging aggressive bidding published, as opposed to existing behaviour. From Equation (3), such a land sale schemes where only the limit is given by, winning bids are announced. Given that development land is a highly heterogeneous commodity, the effectiveness of the new rule cannot be fully assessed unless the same site is tendered under different schemes. It is important to address the limitations This article then examines the effect of our models. Our simulation is of the new land sale rule by proposing sensitive to the underlying parameters, theoretical models from a game which are derived based on 20 theoretic perspective. observations, constituting a relatively Existing land sale schemes do not small sample. A much larger sample provide bidders with sufficient may result in different parameters hence information to assess the market value very different results, such as the large of the site being tendered. Under the reduction in the optimal bid, as shown private value auction framework, the in Figure 1. Another limitation of our optimal bidding strategy relies on model is our assumption that developers each bidder’s willingness-to-pay. The have the knowledge of the underlying new rule being implemented enhances distribution and that they follow the transparency and allows bidders to same bidding rule, i.e. assumption (iii). place their bids taking into account This means that developer-specific the past behaviour of other bidders, factors are not included. For instance, allowing a market value to emerge. as addressed in the introduction By comparing the bidding behaviour section, if developers already own an under the private and common value adjoining site they are likely to adopt auctions, our theoretical models suggest a more aggressive bidding strategy. that bidding turns less aggressive under Therefore, our analysis can be viewed the new rule. Information regarding the as a hypothetical extreme case. Still, market value of the site and bidders’ the results here provide insights on bidding history enhances market assessing the effectiveness of the transparency enabling bidders to place new rule under a framework based on reasonably high bids in attempt to win economic reasoning. the tender. SBE 64 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 58-65 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

REFERENCES

Ching S and Fu Y (2003), “Contestability of the Urban Land Market: An Event Study of Hong Kong Land Auctions”, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 33:6, 695-720.

HKSAR Government Development Bureau (2018), “2018-19 Land Sale Programme”, HKSAR Government Press Release, 1 March, Accessed on 14 August 2018 at http://gia.info.gov. hk/general/201803/01/P201803010054 4_279119_1_1519903873254.pdf.

Krishna V (2010), Auction Theory, Academic Press, Burlington, USA.

Milgrom PR and Weber RJ (1982), “A Theory of Auctions and Competitive Bidding”, Econometrica, 50:5, 1089- 1122.

Tse MKS, Pretorius FIH and Chau KW (2011), “Market Sentiments, Winner’s Curse and Bidding Outcome in Land Auctions”, Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 42:3, 247-274.

Urban Renewal Authority (2018), “URA Board Approves new Arrangement for Publishing Information on Joint Venture Development Tenders”, URA Press release, 24 April, Accessed on 14 August 2018 at https://www.ura.org.hk/ en/media/press-release/20180424.

SBE 65 Field trip Notes Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950-1997

YK Tan*, Lawrence WC Lai** and Nixon TH Leung***

ABSTRACT

This is a short account of the context and observations of an initial field survey and interpretation of government aerial photos and survey maps of some post- war British defence structures built along the land border of Hong Kong when it was a colony. With a view to promoting the conservation of these structures – now disused, but with good potential for cultural tourism and history education – as Hong Kong’s built heritage, this note covers military roads, “MacIntosh Forts”, observation posts, helipads, barbed wire fences, foxholes, barracks and a firing range along the border with China.

KEYWORDS

Post-war British defence, Cold War, Hong Kong, “MacIntosh Forts”, observation posts

* IT manager, Email: [email protected] ** Professor, Department of Real Estate & Construction, University of Hong Kong, R.P.P., F.R.I.C.S., F.H.K.I.S., M.H.K.I.P., M.A.P.I.Email: [email protected] *** M.Phil candidate, Department of Real Estate & Construction, University of Hong Kong, Email: [email protected] SBE 66 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 66-76 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

BACKGROUND facilities. However, some fixed positions were still maintained and British defence strategy in Hong Kong developed. Gradually “defence” was after WW2 changed from one based replaced by “security” as it became on fixed fortifications to one of mobile apparent that China wanted to maintain defence. Most of the pillboxes along Hong Kong’s status quo for a period the the Gin Drinker’s Line were blown up length of which she decided. in the early 1950s. From the 1960s, defenders could move quickly to The “border area” was the first security any spot of concerned by vehicle or zone for colonial Hong Kong. It stretched helicopter. Tanks were used like mobile from in the east to Lok Ma fortifications and replaced pillboxes. Chau/Mai Po area in the west, with the Long range firepower support was River from the railway provided by the air force and mobile crossing being the main natural western artillery. Defence installations like divide. The extent of the “border closed bunkers, batteries, and pillboxes were area” which survived the handover of strategically superseded by roads, 1997 and some of the security sites airfields, helipads, and other support therein is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Security and observation posts along Hong Kong border

The area, falling within the “Frontier guarded by a system of fixed defence Police District” with its headquarters positions consisting of police stations/ at the Fanling Police Station, was posts, small forts (the MacIntosh SBE 67 Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997

Forts1), observation posts (OPs), military confrontation and skirmishes, as in roads, and helipads. Each position was the case of the shooting incident at usually protected externally by barbed Sha Tau Kok in summer 1967 (Ho and wire, trenches, and foxholes. Outside but Chu 2012), was important to win time close to the enclosed area were barracks. for a diplomatic settlement. Figure 2 shows an official press photo of Hong Though there was no colonial Hong Kong security forces assembled near Kong dream of resisting a major Sha Tau Kok in the aftermath of the People’s Liberation Army assault, saga.2 Furthermore, there was a need to border defence, in responding control illegal immigration from China effectively to incidents of local (Mizuoka 2017).

Figure 2. Government photo of security forces at Sha Tau Kok taken on 8 July 1967 after a shooting incident

1 The MacIntosh Forts (Chinese: 麥景陶碉 there was a block house at Kong Shan. From 堡) (Horsnell 1995) are a group of seven police a 1971 memo (Ref 109) in the HKRS478-2- observation posts built in Hong Kong between 2 from the Commissioner of Police, all border 1949 and 1953 at the border with China, named police structures had to be painted white, likely after Hong Kong Police Commissioner Duncan to indicate to China that they were police and William MacIntosh (in office, 1946-1953) They not military installations. However, they were have been listed as Grade II historic buildings painted in olive green “So that it more readily since 1997. Six of these are covered in this blends with the area” (Ref157) in 1972. https:// note: they were from west to east at Ma Tso en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacIntosh_Forts. Lung, Nam Hang (Sandy Ridge), Nga Yiu, Pak 2 GIS archival photo no. P4479/28 dated 8 Fu Shan, Kong Shan and Pak Kung Au. From July 1967 taken by G. Lin.(Source: HKSAR an analysis of the relevant Block Crown leases, Government) SBE 68 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 66-76 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

A wire fence was erected along the border to help block the daily influx of Chinese subjects from the Mainland from 1949 with the passing of the Registration of Persons Ordinance, which effectively nullified the Treaty of Nanking provision for the free passage of Chinese subjects into and out of Hong Kong (Sutton 2017). This 3 fence was strengthened in 1962 due to Figure 3. A royal visit by Princess various stoning and shooting incidents, Alexandria to Tsim Bei Tsui in 1980 border violations and abductions during the Great Chinese Famine (1959- 1961, Dikötter, 2010). The fence was furthered strengthened in the late 1970s (Ruan, 2011).

Apart from the British garrison in Hong Kong, the border was patrolled and monitored regularly by the Hong Kong Police (later Royal Hong Kong Police) Force, assisted by the Royal Hong Figure 4. Governor Youde with the Kong Regiment (the Volunteers), which volunteers in a 1983 visit to the Crest was mainly formed by local Hong Kong Hill recruits with many Chinese citizens (MacIntosh, 1952; Sinclair, 1983). Due to changes in the constitutional British royal dignities and politicians context and development pressures, occasionally visited the border posts to some these structures have been have a look across the border. Figure abandoned (for instance the “forts” at 3 shows a royal visit by Princess Nam Hang (Sandy Ridge), Nga Yiu Alexandria to Tsim Bei Tsui in 19804 and Pak Fu Shan) or have fallen into and Figure 4 the late Governor Youde disuse. None except the MacIntosh with the Volunteers in a 1983 visit to Forts, which were all graded “2” by the the Crest Hill police fort5. Antiquities Advisory Board (AAB), has been protected by any administrative or statutory measure. Yet, they form an interesting part of the built legacy 3 See HKRS156-1-10413 of Hong Kong, which witnessed Hong 4 GIS archival photo No. 22570/3/16 dated 29 September 1980 taken by E. Cheng and S.T. Kong’s colourful international and local Lok. (Source: HKSAR Government) history and offer good scenic views of 5 GIS archival photo No. 28250/2 dated 15 Hong Kong and Shenzhen. October 1983 taken by D. Au. (Source: HKSAR Government) SBE 69 Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997

Although there has been some academic house. (See 1:1000 SMO survey research on the Cold War in Hong Kong sheets 2-NE-24-B8; 2-NE-25A, B, (see for instance, Mark, 2007; Kwong C, D; 1: 10,000 SMO survey sheet & Tsoi, 2014), none has been known to 2 - NE of March 2018; 1973 RAF the authors to have covered the security aerial photo No. 78429 and 1975 facilities mentioned in this note. It is RAF aerial photo No. 11877R10.) hoped that this note will attract further and better research on the subject and 3. Lo Wu: barracks (See 1: 10,000 bring to public attention the existence SMO survey sheet 2 - NE of March of these structures (and those left by the 2018; 1973 RAF aerial photo No. Japanese occupiers and the communist 7842R and 1975 RAF aerial photo 11 East River Brigade) in the countryside. No. 11877R .) 4. Sandy Ridge: an abandoned BORDER DEFENCE “MacIntosh Fort” (at Nam Hang12) POSITIONS AND FACILITIES at about 50 m, as shown in Figure 10), a helipad, and some field The first author spends his leisure time defence installations. (See 1:1000 locating ruins of pre-war and post-war SMO survey sheets 3-NW-16-B, 13 British defence structures. C , D; 1: 10,000 SMO survey sheet 3 - NW of March 2018; 1973 RAF Along the border area, he has visited aerial photo No. 7842R and 1975 ten sites, taken photos, and mapped the RAF aerial photo No. 11873R14.) terrain. The installations he saw at each site were confirmed to be absent on the 5. Gallipoli Lines (Sun Wai, Kwan 1945 series of RAF aerial photographs. Tei): barracks and a road. (See These sites are: 1:1000 SMO survey sheets 3-SW- 3C, D, 3-SW-8A, 8B; and aerial 1. : a road and police photo No. 11866R15.) station. (See 1:1000 Survey and Mapping Office (SMO) survey 6. Man Kam To and Nga Yiu area: a sheets 2-SE-3-A, B; and aerial photo police post near a helipad; and an 16 No. 11877R6.) abandoned “MacIntosh Fort” at 9 RAF photo dated 20 December 1973 taken at 2. Crest Hill (Tai Shek Mo): a 12,500 feet. “MacIntosh Fort” (at Ma Tso Lung7) 10 Same series as footnote 6. 11 Same series as footnote 6. at about 100 m, an OP, as shown 12 Unallocated Government Land, Demarcation in Figure 9, a helipad, and a living District 89. 13 The police fort is shown on this map (January 6 RAF photo dated 24 December 1975 taken at 1985). 12,500 feet. 14 Same series as footnote 6. 7 GLA-DN-121 in Demarcation District 93. 15 Same series as footnote 6. 8 The police fort is shown on this map (June 16 Unallocated Government Land, Demarcation 1988). District 86. SBE 70 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 66-76 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

about 63 m as shown in Figure 11 9. Robin’s Nest” (Hung Fa Leng): (See 1: 1,000 SMO survey sheets a road, a radio station and some 17 3-NW-12C, 3-NW-12D ; 1: 10,000 field defence facilities. (See survey SMO survey sheet 3- NW of March sheets 1:1,000 SMO survey sheets 2018; 1973 RAF aerial photo No. 3-NW-15D25; 3-NE-11C; 3-NW- 7842R and 1975 RAF aerial photo 20B; 1: 10,000 SMO survey sheet No. 11866R18.) 3-NE of March 2018 and 3-NE- 16A; 1973 RAF aerial photo No. 7. Pak Fu Shan: an abandoned 7833R and 1975 RAF aerial photo 19 “MacIntosh Fort” at about 95m as No.11857R26.) shown in Figure 12, and a helipad. (See 1: 1,000 SMO survey sheet 10. Pak Kung Au: an “MacIntosh 3-NW-9A; 1: 10,000 SMO survey Fort,”27 at about 280m as shown sheet 3- NW of March 2018; 1973 in Figure 13, an OP, and a living RAF aerial photo No. 7833R20 and house. (See 1:1,000 SMO survey 1975 RAF aerial photo 11862R21.) sheets 3-NE-7C,D and 3-NE-12 A, B; 1: 10,000 SMO survey sheet 8. “Hill 150-metre” (Kong Shan) on 3-NE of March 2018; 1973 RAF north ridge of Wong Mau Hang aerial photo No. 7833R and 1975 Shan near Wang Lek: a fortified RAF aerial photo No. 11857R28.) area with a “MacIntosh Fort”22 at about 216m as shown in Figure Sites 8, 9, and 10 above are individually 13, trenches, an underground OP, covered by the first author in other and various defence positions. (See fieldtrip notes in the next issue. 1:1000 SMO survey sheets 3-NW- 9B, D; 3-NW-10A, C, D23; 1: 10,000 SMO survey sheet 3-NW of March ROADS 2018; 1973 RAF aerial photo No. 7833R and 1975 RAF aerial photo Roads played a major role in the post- No.11857R24.) war British mobile defence concept. They allowed security forces to move quickly to a location that became a matter of concern. Many were built 17 The police fort is shown on this map (April 1984) along the Hong Kong-China border 18 Same series as footnote 6. during the late 1940s to 1950s. Most 19 Unallocated Government Land, Demarcation had no name or even a number on District 80. There are a number of Japanese pillboxes near it. government maps. Figures 5 to 8 show 20 Same series as footnote 9. four examples of these roads. 21 Same series as footnote 6. 25 22 GLA-TDN-28 in Demarcation District 47. The radio station is shown on this map 23 The police fort is shown on this map (November 1990). 26 (September 1993). Same series as footnote 6. 27 24 Same series as footnote 6. GLA-TDN-26 in Demarcation District 72. 28 Same series as footnote 6. SBE 71 Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997

Figure 8. Road to Robin’s Nest

MACINTOSH FORTS

Built from 1949 to 1953, these were used by the Hong Kong Police as OPs for border control. They could also be used as military defence points when needed. Each fort was normally connected by road served by a helipad. These forts are shown in Figures 9 to 14. Figure 5. Road along the Border

Figure 6. Road Figure 9. MacIntosh Fort, Ma Tso Lung (1973)

Figure 7. Road on Wa Shan Figure 10. MacIntosh Fort, Nam Hang (abandoned)

SBE 72 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 66-76 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

HELIPADS

Pending further and better research as regards their role, helipads appears to be an iconic postwar local security structure built near key defence positions without road access to provide quick support and reinforcement as well as civilian uses such as rescue. Those in the closed area were likely mainly for Figure 11. MacIntosh Fort, Nga Yiu anti-illegal immigration purposes. See (abandoned) Figures 15 to 20.

Figure 12. MacIntosh Fort, Pak Fu Figure 15. Helipad at Nam Hang Shan (abandoned)

Figure 16. Helipad at Pak Fu Shan

Figure 13. MacIntosh Fort, Kong Shan

Figure 14. MacIntosh Fort, Pak Kung Figure 17. Helipad at Pak Fu Shan Au Police Post SBE 73 Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997

BARBED WIRE

Several layers of barbed wire fences were erected along the border area and at each defence position. See Figures 21 and 22.

Figure 18. Helipad at Robin’s Nest

Figure 21. Barbed wire surrounding Crest Hill

Figure 19. Helipad at Wu Shek Kok

Figure 22. Remains of barbed wire stands at Robin’s Nest

FOXHOLES

Many foxholes were found along the border area. See Figures 23 to 24.

Figure 20. Helipad at Crest Hill

SBE 74 Surveying and Built Environment Vol 27(1), 66-76 Sept 2018 ISSN 1816-9554

Many barracks were built near the border zone. Some examples were Ngau Tam Mei, Casino Lines, Dill’s Corner Camp, Lo Wu off Castle Peak Road and Gallipoli Line (Sun Wai) along Sha Tau Kok Road. They were still some distance from the border fence. From these camps, the security forces could move quickly to any point along the border when needed. Figure 23. Foxhole along Sandy Ridge facing Lo Wu MTR Station and the (Kowloon-Canton now Eastern) FIRING RANGE Railway In the border area a military firing range can be found at Wa Shan, as shown in Figure 25.

Figure 24. Foxhole at Robin’s Nest

BARRACKS29 Figure 25. Firing range below Wa Shan 29 Prof. S.N.G. Davies offered two reasons other than border security for locating camps in the New Territories are twofold. (a) Immediately ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS post-war and during the Korean War the very large British military presence needed to be distributed and in any case there was The authors are thankful to Professor insufficient space in the urban areas. (b) Pre- Stephen N.G. Davies for offering war there was a standing practice of summer/ late autumn camps in the New Territories for advice for this notes. The faults remain the resident garrison and the Volunteers, which the authors’. They also thank the were always centred on the military training camps/areas as Fanling and . These seem to have been established c.1927 Camp, Dodwell’s Ridge Camp, Lowu Camp, and to have been in regular use thereafter. By Beas Stables Camp, Dill’s Corner Camp, 1937 the Sheung Shui camp was mapped as Norwegian Farm Camp, Tam Mi Camp, Sek Lowu Camp and the Fanling camp as San Wai Kong Camp, Quarry Camp, Pak Yuen Camp, Camp. He identified from the 1952 maps San Far East Farm Camp, Garden Camp and Camp, Fan Gardens Camp, Volunteer Lam Camp. SBE 75 Hong Kong Border Security Facilities 1950 – 1997

Government Information Services for Hong Kong, 1949–62.” Modern Asian permitting them to use the photos for Studies, 41:6, 1145-1181. Figures 3, 4 and 5. Mizuoka F (2017), “British Colonialism and “Illegal” Immigration from REFERENCES Mainland China to Hong Kong,” in Akio Onjo ed., Power Relations, Ball D (1996), “Over and Out: Signals Situated Practices, and the Politics of Intelligence (Sigint) in Hong Kong,” the Commons: Japanese contributions Intelligence and National Security, to the History of Geographical Thought, 11:3, 474-496. Institute of Geography, Faculty of Humanities, Kyushu University, 11, 33- Dikötter F (2010), Mao’s Great 66. Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62, Ruan ZW (2011), From Periphery to London: Bloomsbury. Enclosure: The Change of Lin Ma Hang Village and Hakka Cultural Heritage Ho LKK and Chu YK (2012), Policing at the Frontier of Hong Kong’s New Hong Kong, 1842-1969: Insider’s Territories (1898--1997). (Unpublished Stories. City University of HK Press, doctoral dissertation). Chinese Hong Kong. University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.

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Mark CK (2007). “The ‘Problem of People’: British Colonials, Cold War Powers, and the Chinese Refugees in SBE 76