Historical review — Historiese oorsig

Perceptions and problems of disease in the one-humped camel in southern Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

R T Wilsona

the northwest of what is now Somalia) in ABSTRACT 190418,19. The one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) was first introduced to German South West There were no imports to British Africa (Namibia) for military purposes in 1889. Introductions to the Cape of Good Hope Bechuanaland Protectorate (Botswana) at () in 1897 and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) in 1903 were initially with a view to replac- this early stage, but camels traversed the ing oxen that died of rinderpest. Disease risks attendant on these introductions were recog- territory in use as police and postal nised and to some extent guarded against. There were, however, relatively few problems. animals by the authorities. One camel was diagnosed as having foot-and-mouth disease. Mange in camels from India Following the first introductions into caused some concern as did trypanosomosis from Sudan. Trypanosomosis was introduced and the Cape into both the Cape of Good Hope and Transvaal. Antibodies to some common livestock Colony, further lots were imported over disease were found in later years. the succeeding years. Key words: Animal imports, antibodies, foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, sarcoptic This paper provides information on mange, trypanosomosis. perceived and actual problems of disease Wilson R T Perceptions and problems of disease in the one-humped camel in southern in camels in the southern African region Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Journal of the South African Veterinary in the early years of their introduction to Association (2008) 79(2): 58–61 (En.). Bartridge Partners, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, the region. Devon, EX37 9AS, UK. MATERIALS AND METHODS Material for this paper arises from a INTRODUCTION that camels might provide an alternative review of the literature. The records are The one-humped camel (Camelus drome- source of power. The ‘Ville de Pernam- from formally published sources and darius) was imported into southern Africa buco’ docked at on 27 March material in the national archival reposito- towards the end of the 19th and in the 1897 out of Tenerife, Canary Islands, via ries of southern African countries. early years of the 20th centuries. In Herero Luanda, Angola, with 10 camels for the tradition, 1889 is known as the ‘Yearof the Cape Government on board (Cape Town RESULTS Camel’ as in this year camels were im- Archives Repository, Source AGR, Vol- ported to German South WestAfrica (now ume 445, Reference 3052). Ten was the Rinderpest Namibia). These were brought from the number considered by Professor R Koch By the time the 10 camels arrived at Canary Islands for service with the (telegram Koch to Agricola, 5 February Cape Town on 27 March 1897 – only 7 Schutztruppe or defence force9. 1897, Cape Town Archives Repository, weeks after the illustrious Professor Koch The ‘great African cattle plague’ (rinder- Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference 3052) had insisted that this number was needed pest) probably arrived in sub-Saharan as necessary for ‘experimental purposes for experimentation – the reason for their Africa between 1887 and 1889 with cattle in connection with the rinderpest’ epi- import had become redundant. This was brought into Eritrea by the Italian demic. due to the ‘success which had attended Army12,15. By early 1896 the disease had The administration in Rhodesia (Zimba- the investigations at Kimberley (having) traversed the Zambezi River. During its bwe) also considered camels as an alterna- rendered their use as contemplated for southward progression it ‘mowed down tive to oxen. The country was rather experimental purposes in connection the whole bovine race in its passage’ and behind the Cape Colony in its ideas, how- with Rinderpest unnecessary’ (unattri- ‘hundreds of carcasses lay here and there, ever, as the first camels introduced there buted and undated typescript probably on the roadside, or piled up in the fields’7. did not arrive until 1903. These were early February 1899, Cape Town Archives It had not reached the Cape Colony from Karachi, India (now Pakistan) and Repository, Source AGR, Volume 445, (South Africa) by March 1896 because it comprised bulls and cows of the ‘baggager’ Reference 3052). Two of the ten arrivals was not reported in a survey of South Gujarkhan breed and bulls, cows and a were nonetheless sent to Kimberley Africa at that time, but it did so shortly heifer of the riding Batinda breed. Follow- where they arrived at the Experimental afterwards20. There are conflicting ac- ing sea transport to Beira, Potuguese East Station ‘in good order and condition’ counts of numbers and percentages of the Africa (Mozambique), the overland journey on 8 April 1897 (handwritten note, J W totally naïve population that succumbed was accomplished without mishap, the Phillips, Cape Town Archives Repository, to the disease but they were certainly animals arriving in Salisbury (Harare) on Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference 3052). enormous. The rural economy was at risk 9 May 19038. They were inoculated with ‘virulent of collapse, as transport and land cultiva- Following the failure of an agreement rinderpest blood but without success – tion depended on oxen. It was thought between Transvaal and the Cape Colony the animals proving to be immune to this for the former to obtain camels from the disease’ (unattributed and undated type- aBartridge Partners, Bartridge House, Umberleigh, Devon, EX37 9AS, UK. E-mail: [email protected] latter, Transvaal imported camels direct script probably early February 1899, Cape Received: February 2008. Accepted: May 2008. from Somaliland (i.e. the British colony in Town Archives Repository, Source AGR,

58 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2008) 79(2): 58–61 Volume 445, Reference 3052). Neither animal in fact suffered any ill effects whatsoever (telegram Turner to Agricola, 28 April 1897, Cape Town Archives Repository, Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference 3052). There are no further references to rinderpest and camels in the Cape.

Foot-and-mouth disease The first reference in the public domain (as opposed to internal government correspondence) to camel diseases in Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) appeared in the first issue of the Rhodesia Agricultural Journal2. The editorial tended to the view that camels were not susceptible to the common diseases of traditional domestic livestock. A second reference is to foot- and-mouth disease (FMD) from which one imported camel purportedly died: ‘the splendid record achieved by our first batch of camels has at last been inter- rupted by an outbreak of Foot and Mouth Disease at the camel camp, Goromonzi’4. A post mortem examination concluded that ‘from the foregoing conditions I [Govern- ment Veterinary Officer Bruce] have no hesitation in saying that the animal suf- fered from FMD’. In another attribution Bruce opined ‘that the camel is suffering from a form of stomatitis and not foot and mouth disease’ with a probable bacterial cause, although the cause may have been due to eating some plant irritating to the mucous membranes (letter Department of Agriculture 7 December 1903: Cape Fig. 1: Telegram from Union veterinary surgeon to Cape veterinary surgeon with Town Archives Repository, Source AGR, instructions for testing imported camels for presence of trypanosomiasis. Volume445, Reference 3053)). One month after it was affected, the animal was on Johannesburg, 13 January 1904). A Surgeon (Cape) wrote to the Acting the high road to recovery and no other quarantine imposed by Government Principal Veterinary Surgeon (Union of animals had suffered the same disease. Notice No. 17, 1904 under the Animal South Africa) on 10 August 1911 that in The published record may have been Diseases Ordinance 1901 was rescinded view of the discovery of trypanosomiasis misleading but there was also confusion by Government Notice No. 114 of 12 May in 1 and of filariasis in another of the within the administration itself. Official 1904 and movement of animals in the camels to be imported from Egypt (letter, records indicate 3 camels had died ‘from a defined area was again allowed. High Commission London to Acting disease resembling but not identical to Under Secretary for Agriculture, 21 July foot and mouth disease and some of Trypanosomosis 1911: Cape Town Archives Repository, the affected animals have recovered’ The Veterinary Branch of the Cape Source AGR, Volume 591, Reference R66) (telegrams, Salisbury Resident Commis- Department of Agriculture was greatly it was recommended that the camels be sioner to Johannesburg High Commis- concerned by the possibility of ‘surra’ sent to Pretoria for supervision by the sioner, 16 and 19 December 1903: Cape (camel trypanosomosis due to Trypanosoma Acting Director of Veterinary Research Town Archives Repository, Source CVS, evansi) being brought into South Africa until he was satisfied as to their condition Volume 1.83, Reference 79). Shortly after- from Egypt (telegram to counterpart in and health. Pretoria replied by cable (14 wards the diagnosis became firm: the Egypt 7 July 1911: Cape Town Archives August) that on arrival in Cape Town the cause of death was definitely ‘identical to Repository, Source CVS, Volume 1.83, camels should be quarantined in fly-proof foot and mouth disease’. In all these com- Reference 79: Source AGR, Volume 445, accommodation until the necessary tests munications it was ‘desirable that the Reference 3053). The Egyptian authorities could be carried out to prove them free report should not be published until a indicated that as far as was known ‘surra of disease. Suitable accommodation thorough investigation has been made did not exist in Egypt proper but was being found, the Cape Veterinary Sur- into the causes and nature of the disease believed to exist in Sudan in the vicinity of geon requested of Pretoria what was to in question‘ (Cape Town Archives Reposi- Khartoum’. They went on to advise that be done about the experimental inocula- tory, Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference if the precise origins of the camels were tions to which he received a detailed tele- 3053). After another death the veterinary determined it could be decided whether graphic response (Fig. 1). The camels were surgeon (Bruce) was convinced that experimental inoculations were necessary. eventually released from quarantine on it was indeed FMD (letter, Salisbury to The Acting Assistant Principal Veterinary 21 September 1911.

0038-2809 Jl S.Afr.vet.Ass. (2008) 79(2): 58–61 59 ‘Surra’ was imported into Transvaal in latter’s Chief Veterinary Surgeon did not opinion. He found them in very poor con- camels that arrived from Somaliland ‘consider that there is any danger of these dition which he attributed to their being in 190418,19. Trypanosomosis was also im- camels carrying African East Coast fever tied down for 5 days without food or wa- ported to German South West Africa in but (…) suggest these precautions for the ter (letter, Sub-Inspector to Officer Com- 1905 or possibly 190614. In 1910 Trypa- satisfaction of the public’ including that manding ‘S’ Division Cape Mounted nosoma soudanense – a trypanome specific the animals must in any case be free of Police, 10 January 1905: Cape Town Ar- to camels – was confirmed in animals ticks (hand written draft memorandum chives Repository, Source CO 8237, Refer- belonging to the Schutztruppe16. T.evansi CVS to Under Secretary for Agriculture, ence X30). It is possible that a contributory had initially been suspected and the Terri- 11 November 1904 subsequently type- factor was mange. Some Cape camels tory’s chief veterinarian had ordered the written and signed by the Under Secre- were already suffering from mange which slaughter of all 800 of the Schutztruppe tary: Cape Town Archives Repository, it was thought had been picked up from camels. The military refused to do this as Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference blankets and saddlery (memorandum, they had been aware of the disease since 3053). Department of Agriculture, 7 December 1906 but had not seen any mortality in Tick-borne diseases and AHS were the 1903: Cape Town Archives Repository, other animals. Further investigation ‘emerging diseases’ of the early twentieth Source AGR, Volume 445, Reference showed that all parasite-positive animals, century in southern Africa. Just as there 3053). A seemingly encouraging adden- mostly at the camel depots of Gochas and was a high profile veterinary scientist in dum was that this could easily be cured. Kalkfontein North (Stampriet), origi- the English-speaking Cape there was Camel mange was already a global nated from North Africa, whereas none also one in the Afrikaans speaking areas. problem in the late 19th century. The first from the Canary Islands was positive. The Arnold Theiler was officially sworn in large scale import of camels to Australia infected animals were treated and restric- as State Veterinarian of the Zuid Afri- was made by Sir Thomas Elder. These tions placed on further imports from kaanse Republiek (corresponding to arrived from Karachi in 1866 together India, Mauritius, Angola and Northern what became Transvaal) on 11 May 1896 with 31 ‘Afghan’ handlers. Of the 121 Rhodesia (Zambia). No further outbreaks and was thus contemporaneous with imported, 59 died of mange. The remainder being reported, the import restrictions Koch. Amongst his interests were AHS formed the basis of Australian breeding were lifted in 1914. (still a problem in South Africa in spite of stock. By 1895 there were probably 6000 vaccination, with 850 cases in November camels in the country, mainly in the Other vector-borne diseases 2005 to May 2006 and 160 in November Western Australian goldfields13. Resistance to disease was a major – but 2006 to June 20071), tick-borne diseases, not the only – factor in the decision to nagana (sleeping sickness in cattle), equine Other diseases import camels into Rhodesia in 1903. malaria (now equine piroplasmosis) and A Cape Agriculture Department camel Logic behind the use of camels was two- phosphate deficiency. He is remembered died of liver cirrhosis and dropsy. The fold. First, they were considered non- internationally for work on ECF, the dropsy was predisposed by pregnancy susceptible to such diseases as rinderpest causal agent of which, Theileria parva, and age (memorandum, Department of (which had by then largely run its course), bears his name and for his research on Agriculture, 7 December 1903: Cape redwater and African horse sickness lamsiekte (botulism). As these new fields Town Archives Repository, Source AGR, (AHS)2,8. Second, they were hardier than developed a research station was built at Volume 445, Reference 3053). One animal oxen, required less water and went well in Onderstepoort to the north of Pretoria6. used by the Post Office succumbed to buggies, carriages and ambulances at a This facility is still the main government pneumonia and Police camels died of steady 6 miles per hour (9.7 kph). The veterinary research centre in southern snake bite, lung disease (pneumonia) and original camels were to ‘be put to trans- Africa. Paradoxically, although the imme- a ‘bowel complaint due to overfeeding of port work, carrying in grain from the diate effects of rinderpest and ECF – oats when famished’ (Cape Town Archives out-lying districts where bullock trans- which both Koch and Theiler originally Repository, Source AGR, Volume 591, port is not permitted under the Redwater considered a virulent form of redwater – Reference R66). regulations’3. The reference to AHS is were devastating, the long-term benefits ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS interesting as it indicates that camels were are immeasurable in that veterinarians I thank the Cape Archives Repository to substitute for horses. AHS was a problem were able to prove the need for organised and the National Archives of Zimbabwe at lower altitudes and during wet months5. research. and Namibia for allowing access to Camels came late to Rhodesia because their documents. My thanks also to 3 attempts to replace cattle losses were first Mange anonymous referees who identified some made by importing other cattle – by sea The Indian camels imported to Rhodesia references I had inadvertently missed through Beira and overland through were infected with mange. This prompted and made suggestions for the improve- Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) from German the Secretary of the Cape Law Depart- ment of the manuscript. East Africa (Tanzania) in 1901. These ment to write to the Attorney General imports were almost certainly responsible (with respect to imports from Rhodesia in REFERENCES for introducing East Coast fever (ECF) 1904 for the Cape Mounted Police) that 1. AHST 2007 African Horse Sickness Trust to southern Africa10,11,17. A shipload of camels should be obtained from the same Website. http://www.africanhorsesickness. Australian cattle imported in 1902 was sources – the Canary Islands or Egypt – as co.za/default.asp (accessed 27 December 2007) definitely infected with ECF which may earlier imports (Cape Town Archives 2. Anon. 1903a Editorial. Rhodesia Agricultural have been picked up from ticks during Repository, Source CO 8237, Reference Journal 1: 1 the overland journey from Beira. ECF X30). The Government Veterinary Surgeon 3. Anon 1903b Camels in Rhodesia. The African resulted in further heavy losses of oxen, in Bulawayo (Southern Rhodesia) certified Review 36: 50 (5 September) whose numbers had hardly recovered the animals as sound and healthy (memo- 4. Anon. 1904 Foot and mouth disease in camels. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal 1: 84 from the effects of rinderpest. When some randum, C R Edmonds MRCVS, 15 De- 5. Beckett I F W 2006 The Victorians at war. Con- Rhodesian camels were re-exported to cember 1904). The Cape officer receiving tinuum International Publishing Group, the Cape towards the end of 1904 the the animals had, however, a different Hambledon, UK: 103

60 0038-2809 Tydskr.S.Afr.vet.Ver. (2008) 79(2): 58–61 6. BFVPC 2001 Arnold Theiler (1867–1936). Big Fever. Minutes of the Proceedings and diseases of livestock with special reference to Five Veterinary Pharmaceutical Company, Ordinances of the Legislative Council, southern Africa. Oxford University Press, Onderstepoort, South Africa Rhodesia Cape Town, South Africa 7. Coillard F 1898 Sur le Haut Zambèze, voyages 11. Koch R 1903b The cattle disease in Southern 16. Schneider H P 1994 Animal health and veteri- et travaux de mission. P Berger-Levrault, Rhodesia. Transvaal Agricultural Journal 4: nary medicine in Namibia. Agrivet Publishers, Paris 122–127 Windhoek: 206 8. Flint J 1903 Camels in Rhodesia. Rhodesia 12. Mack R 1970 The great African cattle plague 17. Theiler A 1903 Rhodesian cattle disease and Agricultural Journal 1: 5–6 epidemic of the 1890s. TropicalAnimal Health rabies. TransvaalAgricultural Journal 1: 37–41 9. Grunow W 1961 Entstehung und Einsatz and Production 2: 210–219 18. Theiler A 1906 Trypanosomiasis in camels. des Kamelreiterkorps der Kaiserl. Schutz- 13. McKnight T L 1969 The camel in Australia. Annual Report of the Director of Agriculture, truppe für Deutsch-Südwest Afrika (Ori- Melbourne University Press, Melbourne 1904–1905. Transvaal Department of Agri- gins and deployment of the Kaiser’s Camel- 14. Reinecke G 1911 Eine Trypanosomen- culture, Pretoria: 106 corps Defence Force in German Southwest krankheit der Dromnedare in Deutsch- 19. Theiler A 1906 Trypanosomiasis in the Africa). Mitteilungsblatt des Traditions- Süwestafrika. Zeitschrift für Veterinärkunde camel. Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science 1: verbandes ehemaliger Schutz-und-Übersee- 23: 1–12 295 truppen 61: 44–49 15. Rossiter PB 1994 Rinderpest. In Coetzer J A 20. Wallace R 1896 Farming industries of the Cape 10. Koch R 1903a Third report on African Coast W,Thomson G R, Tustin R C (eds) Infectious Colony. London

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