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Ethnic and Racial Studies Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713685087 How diasporic ties emerge: Pan-American Nikkei communities and the Japanese state Ayumi Takenaka

First Published on: 10 December 2007 To cite this Article: Takenaka, Ayumi (2007) 'How diasporic ties emerge: Pan-American Nikkei communities and the Japanese state', Ethnic and Racial Studies, To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/01419870701719055 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870701719055

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Nikkei. be pan-American to and all believed experience shared unite is that it that (Nikkei values stressed have’ thus, don’t President, The Japanese of 2005). that kind Net the know-how possess and thus values, have and all experiences, American) Nikkei common and pan-American (Japanese ‘We of cultures Nikkei: double importance all by the shared stressed origins ethnic nonetheless PANA of president 2 n otiuigt h hl re u evshv different have leaves Our tree. whole the to fruits different contributing producing leaves, and and branches different into grown ht tscuilt rsreorros htswa ehv in have we blood! what Japanese That’s of roots. descendant every our for duty preserve the That’s matter to no common. crucial but American, it’s South) what, and (North and Japanese cultures, biul,teewr te ikiwosoe iteitrs.Much interest. little showed who Nikkei other were there Obviously, ieJpns ecnat,mn te tncpolsse and seek peoples ethnic other many descendants, Japanese Like ym Takenaka Ayumi ... n common and 1 The Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 iia xeine.Acrigt arn(99,daprcsolidarity diasporic (1999), undergo Safran to to assumed According are diaspora experiences. a similar of members because 2001, unexamined, (Butler groups specific by analysis’ of to essentializing of 193). idiosyncrasies framework p. towards diaspora a the than ‘moving on Equating rather label of concentrating ethnic 2005). risk an as (Brubaker the ‘‘diaspora’’ runs ancestry however, the shared ethnicity, on assumed Rather of simply are 2001). memberships basis diasporic Butler on, 1998; so constitutes and (Anthias diaspora who label asking ethnic equating studies ancestry, mere than shared solidarity, specific a of group by-product to a a of as ‘groups’ it nature in presume the to group tended questioning have of ethnic Instead focus specific 2006). given. and Lal a 2006; destinations Adachi 2003; of across Cartier and links situation Ma they (e.g. locale to volumes), the geographical attention edited on in scant instead (often pay appeared global- to has of tend volume studies ties growing 1986; multilateral diaspora between a global Sheffer While scale to relationship 1999). (e.g. extend (Yeung bilateral seldom destinations homeland and across the 2003) and Smith to destinations 2001; Nyiri limited are specific examined, often in as when ties, diaspora be such of institutions, to analyses number, diasporic revealed in global growing Although are Safran PANA, 2001; 2003). (Butler to destinations White different but destinations, only across 1999; homeland, imagined ties not two or maintain actual to expected a an also than with of are relationship feature some more communities, in essential engage emigrant to an unlike considered Dispersed often diasporas, despite are population. is ties This established such diasporic level. that claimed, institutional are fact an ties the on ethnic particularly projects. global maintained, how and diasporic examine to all neglected of This why. and heart claims 2004). whom such by how (Ang the made, on focus humanity are at should analysis all host diasporic indeed, for any different Consequently, but is, all in themselves, for experiences claim-making good for is and simply bonds co-ethnic not history affinity strengthening third, culture, is And, there same countries. co-ethnics ancestry, fundamentally these the sharing are Second, countries. share of ties across because so dispersed First, co-ethnics blood; In claims. among culture. their similar in ‘unique’ make rooted their also foster they to doing, Chinese language, similar (World remarkably worldwide’ communities 2005). business Convention Entrepreneurs and preneurs ned isoasuishv fe sue lblehi isas ties ethnic global assumed often have studies diaspora Indeed, largely have studies diaspora questions, these analysing of Instead using activities, similar in engage world the around Groups ttesm ie h aueo isoi oiaiyi often is solidarity diasporic of nature the time, same the At the hns isoaand diaspora Chinese o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How the Jewish 3 Á Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 ecietepoessb,adcneti,wihPN mre and below emerged PANA sections which The time. in, over context homeland. evolved of and derived has by, ancestral instead processes residence, their acculturation, the and of describe to and countries culture attachment that succession respective changes their common generational their in from in lay about mostly this place stories behind taken force had created underlying the institu- an global but leaders And seeking experience. stigma, In ties, society. from indicated, host global tional (2003) the suffering in in Haller immigrants successful participants and economically marginalized Portes active not their Guarnizo, most in were as therein, the activities, status their Thus, Nikkei and countries. communities, their respected bolster to order ikicmuiylaeshdbt h en n h edto need the and means integrated amid well the were they community both because precisely ties, their had diasporic words, mobilize leaders maintain other In community Japan. to from Nikkei away community Japanese motive distance global and of intermarriage seek leaders the diasporas’ growing to as they, resources had as time, the same had institutions, well the they At mem- birth, as ties. of well-integrated ethnic countries society successful, their As of host Japan. bers and to status the relationship social in elevated changing their assimilation of and host marginalization because increasing of but their because argue, much in I so victimization, not minorities’ ties, diasporic ‘model cultivated as praised time often a at are countries? ties co-ethnic they largely cultivate to are when specifi- seek who more acculturated, descendants, And, and Japanese assimilated process? later-generation this do in, why cally, participates and promotes, Who solidarity such co-ethnic across when why explain solidarity countries. it across ethnic explain does emerges of Nor growth 1998). not the This (Anthias borders host to 1999). does lead Schiller the necessarily however, Glick experiences the in in hypothesis’, 1998; prestige place Goldring their ‘disadvantage (e.g. subordinated building by community their system sending economic ‘escape’ with and to racial in associated immigrants society’s status allows racialized stigma ties their and such the status Maintaining social society. of countries host loss their the their to to ties due other on-going origin have maintain in of transnationalism immigrants co-ethnics that on with out studies identify pointed Similarly, to 1998). them (Anthias members by countries causes 2004). faced groups difference (Ang force of diasporic society sense liberating a of host that a suggests of the also as (1997) memory in Cohen the emerge experienced and therefore, marginalization victimization against ties, oppression, Diasporic of result martyrdom. a as emerges 4 o,te,d isoi iseeg n o r hymobilized? they are how and emerge ties diasporic do then, How, silsrtdblw aaeedsednsars h mrcshave Americas the across descendants Japanese below, illustrated As ym Takenaka Ayumi Á in Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 sitnepoie ytegvrmn.Udrteeporme,the programmes, sent these Under were government. emigrants the and by subsidies of provided with indirectly, assistance or number directly either sponsorship, significant state and under a population Affairs Subsequently, and Foreign growing remittances of Ministry of 1971). rapidly way 1930; by its (Idei capital technologies foreign reduce Western increase acquiring to to means way a as a partly as partly (1868 tion, the government country, the Meiji modernize established to effort newly an In country. policy. emigration the Japan’s of of the who parts in peasants south-western million uneducated and relatively 1 southern were and poorer emigrants from Brazil hailed the in living of million cent) per Most 1.3 (99 US. government, including majority Americas, the Japanese 2002, the in the association in Nikkei there million in to 2.5 (though Asia were According there to Americas colonialism). flows the Japan’s migratory for with War mostly World Japan, pre-Second left were roughly people period, this million the During 1960s. from 1 Japan the through left century who activities nineteenth immigrants pan-ethnic late Japanese growing of in descendants participated the who were Nikkei the of communities Many Japanese overseas of development from the Background: cited directly text are in the throughout individuals participated used where texts. never names written except had Personal pseudonyms, 150 locales. whom are over these of interviewed partici- in and (most I PANA) activities period, descendants time community Japanese above numerous the in During Tokyo. Los in pated York, and conducted New I in Lima paper communities observation Angeles, the Peruvian participant Moreover, and and Japanese-American 1981. the interviews since the con- made held on publications studied convention dwells other every and and at collected available speeches I reports, programmes, addition, ference Japanese-American In key associations. visiting participants of and former community PANA following Angeles conven- of participants Los York non-participants) in New (and ordinary months Brazil), two the spent and and After I generations. tion, USA Japan) and Peru, nationalities (from different Chile, officials Mexico, interviewed I country), government (from conventions, host the leaders the (from after community organizers including and PANA participants, During two fifty about 2001. in in participated City and York observed Americas I the 2005. conventions in and descent Japanese 1996 of between communities various in research mgainbgni h aenntet etr sadrc outcome direct a as century nineteenth late the in began Emigration ethnographic my from drawn are paper this in reported findings The Á n nSnig,Cie n19 n h te nNew in other the and 1999 in Chile, Santiago, in one o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How Á 91 norgdemigra- encouraged 1911) 5 Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 AAcneto,aJC ersnaieepandta Fujimori’s that 1999 explained the representative (At President immigrants JICA Japanese former a of backed son convention, a government PANA Peru, the of The that Fujimori to reason, Alberto connection countries government. symbolic this their their For of within the because country. Nikkei Japan of of to were image status number, the raised the important in that small believed symbolically while government Nikkei, and million 2.5 politically the because mostly Japanese the of influence the to, have susceptible America government. and on, South reliant poorer more been in communities Japanese Consequently, name new the semi- became emigration, under organ facilitate and government privatized promote a to In Association, 1957 [ODA]. Japanese in assistance established Overseas development about official the its allocating process, of this annually part as communities, yen, Japanese billion 2.6 continued overseas Japan development. ‘help’ international to of framework the indirectly within will them 2). supporting p. as (2000, generation, projects emigrants’ Japanese third these the the extend (i.e., help to to appropriate emigrants up and least at necessary Japaneseat both aimed is the it been emigration of citizens), ‘Although traditionally shift: Council have the explained Emigration projects Affairs Foreign Foreign Overseas of of (Ministry The Ministry descent ‘Nikkeijin’ 2004). Japanese a of Affairs citizens became foreign policy generation the ‘emigration’ targeting assistance century-old policy, governmental of The nature shifted. the population, Japanese 2003). overseas Takenaka (see quality by countries, high societies their of host American the facilities facilitate South in numerous standing community’s erecting to poorer the raise in attempt Japan helped from especially they that an in significant, poured in resources so Financial associations, were land. new up the in construct set adaptation to helping and settlement, immigrant in schools role crucial a played also plantations on work to labourers. Americas contract the as for headed emigrants of majority 6 far a rae nSuhAeiata nNrhAmerica. North in than America South in overseas community to greater overseas extended in was assistance involvement Japan’s affairs monetary 1963. 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Mexico, states integration Bolivia, of informa-Canada, member promotion exchange and its as: culture ancestral objectives among their the initial second- of and its diffusion of Peru tion, set group Mexico, a organization from by The City leaders US. Mexico community in Japanese 1981 generation in conceived Association was PANA Nikkei Pan-American the and of emergence financial The support, received PANA. relationship of this emergence they in delivered the changes see with collectively which to began subordinate they 1980s were from the However, which otherwise. and ties to and mutual relationship, ‘motherland’ Their requests their unequal Japan. to the their was At position, Japan. network through to global ties maintained their vertical and of bilateral centre their through only to assistance, nected financial for as such 1999). requests, mother- (ANJA of their government set ‘in the gather a to deliver globe and the land’ 200 around for to from opportunity an the leaders Catering provide community to of present. aimed conventions members officials descen- these held dants, second-generation with government Japanese-speaking been and usually top emigrants have Japanese, Japanese and on conventions in family broadcast and ‘with then, was imperial Japan event since received in entire Ever annually, were the television. leaders and national 1979), community (ANJA residence Overseas Minister’ enthusiasm’ Prime entailed bureau- the 1979). and at event politicians reception (ANJA family, a the with imperial concluded government, the and crats, Japanese of members the by speeches by Sponsored connecting 1957. channel major ANJA). the semi-privatized the (today’s by Association organized PANA, Japanese conventions relationship.Overseas the of was institutional emergence communities their Japanese overseas the in the manifested to clearly reinforced Prior most also was communities. they recipient This the communities, and Japan between Japanese relationship hierarchical overseas of status would 2004). of Japanese Affairs countries who Foreign of their of assets’ and ‘value’ (Ministry Japan diplomatic residence between the and understanding recognized mutual ‘cultural Fujimori’s promote also following as aid Japan abroad its descendants 1992.) cut US in the to self-coup as aid especially its government, increased Japan his abroad. image Japan’s damage would failure rdtoal,te,Jpns mirn omnte eecon- were communities immigrant Japanese then, Traditionally, in Tokyo in held was Japanese overseas the on convention first The and infrastructure the improve helped Japan from resources While Á retn,Bai,Clmi,teUS, the Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How Á 300 7 Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 8 mrcn,adsm aaeeLtnAeiasi California, in Americans Latin Japanese- Japanese internees, of war-time some internment themselves war-time and the launched for also Americans, movement had JACL redress time, situation this major the Around a share countries. these to in Canada Nisei and anniversary, of Mexico fiftieth from JACL its delegates celebrating when invited Francisco 1980, they San In in organization. convention a their to held into began Nisei Nisei, American [JACL], other among League incorporate formed organization Citizens to rights American civil Japanese US meant the a event, own was the their after Nisei. forum, to Soon unique in be earlier to experiences believed the issues their discuss to like opportunity share scholar an provide symposium, a to to The invited addition (in countries. were US Japan) the Nisei occasion, and from this Argentina eightieth On Brazil, the Peru. 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Japanese mentioned the Association. from Nikkei Pan-American the months of several Symposium formation resulted, First symposium the in successful second in this held the later, And after was Lima. in years symposium Nisei two of 1981, another in interests, City shared Mexico these status be their With would raising 1981). believed, toward they move Nisei, nations’ other emancipating American with an respective Uniting 29). the p. of 1989, are citizens (Honda Japanese but overseas that subjects basis Japanese the not on established be ‘must that Japan’ osqety hr eeiiiltnin ewe pan-American between tensions initial were there Consequently, departure significant a was Association Nikkei Pan-American The nsot AAddnteeg samvmn ose their seek to movement a as emerge not did PANA short, In o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How v is-a `- v is aa (Ito Japan 9 Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 elt idalNke oehr h Srdesmvmn,for (ANJA movement, much redress as US Nikkei The American South together. to concern Nikkei much not shifted all too did serve not bind instance, gradually did that issues to domestic realized has South) well or Leaders it (North Japanese. American on identities, emphasis things ‘American’ more their their emphasize express assert to be freer to won’t be people should ‘young ‘they leader). that youth and (a so in leader) opinions’ separately PANA programme organized (a adults’ now conference bored’ the a is said to programme convention, can youth parallel the golf a of playing duration And in entire organizer). only the interested during those concurrently so that place do (so takes convention now A ANJA) the York. of with New representative Supper trophies, in a donates convention ‘Sunset to government Japanese according 2001 the as which the (for such during tournament time. 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As were 168). work values p. these (1992, hard blood’ concept, Japanese and Mor- and with anthropologist people honesty, responsibility of Japanese-Peruvian characteristics ‘discipline, the work, asserted, as culture, inherent hard imoto an their be were of to believed part narratives characteristics the were these These perseverance. to Central Narrati through conventions. expressed today’s Values, in have values. role leaders central on a Japanese ‘American-ness’, importance played narratives, their America). growing as emphasize a South present placed to heritage, also Japanese in continuing common are their while least stress To dignitaries speakers. guest (at high-rank the or observers and or displayed Japanese the officials Minister openly and government the Prime convention is to every Japanese at ambassador flag delivered the Japanese are the from some Minister by Foreign messages to hosted country, Japan’ reception host a of to ‘rejection symbols addition Japanese of a full are as Á conventions While today’s appeared conventions. 1981), (Ito the convention observers in role first symbolic, the though apolitical, important, an an plays become to organization. social itself primarily and committed cultural only Around PANA Japanese. not also Japanese, were were Nikkei but things commonalty; themselves, reminded on Consequently, they more American, 1982). focus (ANJA to War, countries Falkland/Benavides decided opposed the leaders of as citizens such apart issues, tore political times, At 1982). ygadaet mrse pnm h auso u ancestral our of values the me upon land: impressed grandparents My eto rttd htms ehonored; be must that gratitude of debt anadsfeig iciiain n prejudice; and discrimination, suffering, and pain hywr,te,dlvrdb uhrt iue fhg tts tthe At status. high of figures authority by delivered then, were, They Japan Today, shifted. 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(2000, Affairs as the of Foreign them Council Emigration with of Overseas ‘‘cooperating’’ the Ministry to to according communities partners’, equal these shift ‘‘helping’’ must policies from ‘Our communities. 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Nikkei, worked their (2007) in ties’ with Fox remained ‘co-ethnic descendants as sought of ethnic countries; Japan idea their own the ties been successful leave Hungarians, their to The particularly to had in and place. needed Nikkei, ones, they to have only first extended If not were the therefore, countries. would to in they descendants adopted countries their implied, their and he in emigrants successful, an encourage successful during to Affairs because become failure, aimed meant Foreign work policy factory told of up he the take policy, Ministry to emigration Japan Japan’s to of the ‘returning’ view me, of of comment point feel officer a the not From reflected interview. an this did Perhaps Japan by partners. in equal made workers as treated migrant were Nikkei they of thousands Japan. 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Notes PANA past on Luis information Sogi paper. and Francis documents this and conventions. obtain of Kanzaki me versions Stan helped Uba, kindly earlier Ron Masayo on Sakoda, and Luis comments Gans Yamakawa, Herbert their Lai, for Look Wally Nishida Shibata, Yoshio thank I Acknowledgements identities. ethnic crucial constructing a and and play cultivating PANA, idiom in like an role projects, is diasporic it Consequently, experience; project. bounded and a a ancestry not shared is culture experi- from shared diaspora derived and states, their entity (2005) of culture Brubaker content their As to the experiences. identify about attention and to pay told trying to than and rather crucial created ences, is are it narratives therefore, examining how In emerge, projects. about similar ties talked pursuing diasporic in peoples own how ethnic their as other values fomented as same were the work just hard pan- projects, of diasporic scope, values’ ‘Nikkei through in and sufferings Global of history’ societies. contexts. local host in rooted the nonetheless in were to activities place ties American continuous changes taken to of have response result in a that emerged they as Rather, homeland. nor ancestral experience their or by-product ancestry a shared as Pan- neither of therefore, Americas. set emerged, the countries, activities across Nikkei their solidarity American within diasporic cultivating communities for these stage and of well the status needs as elevated communities, domestic the Nikkei overseas its as the and in system, Japan shift a between global Likewise, politics. relationship the homeland influence in to ability change position migrants’ of state’s result (2003) a the Smith as cases, evolve in Polish to relations and diaspora relationship sending-state Italian and that Mexican, states identity of study new his a In Japan. for when called time a succession at generational Japanese) overseas (second-generation and Nisei countries successful their also but origin Indian of India.’ people only not benefit artvswr ntuetli oiiigdaprcte.‘Nikkei ties. diasporic mobilizing in instrumental were Narratives among emerged solidarity Nikkei pan-American seek to Attempts o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How 19 Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 oehn e nteU mirn xeine,i hre isha,Pii aiizand Kasinitz Philip and Hirschman, Charles (eds), old in DeWind experience’, something immigrant Hungarian Josh US nation-states: ethnic the and in exclusion: new ‘Transmigrants something economic 1999 to NINA inclusion GLICK-SCHILLER, national Hungary’, ‘From to migration 2007 labour E. 2007) April JON diaspora 15 FOX, Japanese (accessed http://www.discovernikkei.org through 2007 NIKKEI identity DISCOVER and ethnicity networking’, ‘Nikkei transnational 2006 MILLIE CREIGHTON, Press Washington 1997 ROBIN COHEN, discourse’, a refining diaspora, ‘Defining 2001 KIM BUTLER, 1 pp. 1, no. diaspora’, ‘‘diaspora’’ ‘The 2005 ROGERS BRUBAKER, ODIG UN19 Tepwro ttsi rnntoa oilspaces’, Research social transnational Community in and status Urban of power ‘The 1998 94 LUIN pp. GOLDRING, Foundation, Sage Russell York: New 89 97 pp. 98, OD,HRYK 99‘aaeeAeia otiuin oteUie tts,5th States’, problem’, United migration ‘Japan’s 1930 the SEISHI to IDEI, contributions Programme PANA American action of ‘Japanese Convention political 1989 K. transnational HARRY of HONDA, determinants migrants’, contemporary transnationalism: among WILLIAM and HALLER, ‘Assimilation and 2003 ALEJANDRO PORTES, Programme EDUCARDO, Convention LUIS 2005 GUARNIZO, Origin) Indian of People * of Organisation (Global GOPIO kyoryoku’, kokusai to ethnicity ‘Transnational 1991 SACHIE ASAKA, ‘Diaspora’, 1998 FLOYA ANTHIAS, * * 15 * T,KZO18 Npo okoisr ikinsihn kosatsu’, heno nisei 22 http://www.janm.org/projectsinrp nikkei pp. suru 10, kyohi 2005 wo ’Nippon 1981 Project) KAZUO ITO, 2005) Research March 10 Nikkei (accessed (International INRP 773 p. NA(soito fNke n aaeeAra)17 Kia ikii ykino kyokai nikkeijin ‘Kaigai 1979 Abroad) Japanese and Nikkei ayumi’, of (Association ANJA 179 isoai h lblct’ nBed .A ehadKteWli (eds), Willis Katie and Yeoh A. S. Brenda in city’, Chinese Perspecti the Transnation: global of the borders the in questioning nationalism: diaspora transnational ‘Beyond 2004 IEN ANG, Futures Uncertain 2006 (ed.) NOBUKO ADACHI, Mexico, References Colombia, Chile, Canada, Brazil, Bolivia, Venezuela. Argentina, and during USA are Texas the in members Uruguay, interned Peru, Current Paraguay, were Peru) (mostly America Latin 4. from War. Japanese World 1,800 Second Over the 3. 20 * * * * * * * * Á Á 219 20 * * * * Á 96 ym Takenaka Ayumi Á 91‘io ortun ot aa ie orna o’, rentai no nisei panam motte ni rutsu wo ‘Nihon 1981 07ht:/w.oi.e acse 0Arl2007) April 10 (accessed http://www.gopio.net 2007 taikai’, nikkeijin ‘Kaigai hossoku’, 1999 ga kykokai nikkei ‘Pan-American 1982 89 agiNikkeijin Kaigai Á Á 112 31 Á 19 e okadLno:Routledge London: and York New , h adoko nentoa irto:TeAeia Experience American The Migration: International of Handbook The v so rnntoaimi h saPacific Asia the in Transnationalism on es o.6 p 13 pp. 6, vol. , lblDaprs nIntroduction An Diasporas: Global ismia eg uk Kenkyu Bunka Gengo Ritsumeikan ain n Nationalism and Nations o.6 p 165 pp. 6, vol. , aaeeDaprs nugPss oflcigPeet,and Presents, Conflicting Pasts, Unsung Diasporas: Japanese mrcnJunlo Sociology of Journal American agiNikkeijin Kaigai Sociology Á 18 Á 119 Á o.3,n.3 p 557 pp. 3, no. 32, vol. , 95 nentoa aorRe Labour International o.4,p.49 pp. 45, vol. , o.1,n.1 p 77 pp. 1, no. 13, vol. , agiNikkeijin Kaigai tncadRca Studies Racial and Ethnic o.1,n.1 p 109 pp. 1, no. 17, vol. , etl,W:Uiest of University WA: Seattle, , o.18 o ,p.1211 pp. 6, no. 108, vol. , agiNikkeijin, Kaigai Diaspora odn oteg,pp. Routledge, London: , Á 55 agiNikkeijin Kaigai Á 80 o.1,n.2 pp. 2, no. 10, vol. , o.1,p.26 pp. 11, vol. , v oua Seiji Kokusai iew o.2,n.6, no. 22, vol. , tt,Nation, State, Á Comparati 96 o.1,pp. 10, vol. o.28, vol. , Á 28 vol. , vol. , Á Á 48 v 9 e , Downloaded By: [Columbia University] At: 15:48 2 June 2008 rnMw,P 91,UA mi:[email protected] Email: USA. College, 19010, Mawr PA Bryn Avenue, Mawr, Merion Bryn N. 101 Hall, Dalton ADDRESS: College. Mawr TAKENAKA AYUMI Research advantages’, Regional competitive and and Urban processes of strategies, Journal Asia: business Southeast Chinese from ethnic firms of internationalization ‘The 10 1999 WAI-CHUNG HENRY (accessed YEUNG, http://www.worldjewishcongress.org 2005 2005) March CONGRESS JEWISH http://www.wcbn.com WORLD 2005 2005) March CONVENTION 10 (accessed ENTREPRENEURS CHINESE diaspora’, WORLD of uses Geography the Population on of America: Latin Journal in Japanese ‘The 2003 PAUL WHITE, Peru’, 467 Lima, Japanese in later-generation retention: immigrants ethnic of mechanisms ‘The 2003 AYUMI TAKENAKA, comparative cases’, 722 perspective: Italian pp. and historical Mexican in the memberships from ‘Diasporic insights 2003 C. ROBERT SMITH, 1986 Helm Croom (ed.) 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BRIJ LAL, * * * * * * Á 83 04‘agiiusigkiie’ oy:Mnsr fFrinAffairs Foreign of Ministry Tokyo: iken’, shingikai iju ‘Kaigai 2004 00‘eomnain foesa mgaincucl uueplc regarding policy future council: emigration overseas of ‘Recommendations 2000 Á Á 57 91 oy.Tko iityo oeg Affairs Foreign of Ministry Tokyo: Tokyo. , h nylpdao h ninDiaspora Indian the of Encyclopedia The ora fEhi n irto Studies Migration and Ethnic of Journal sa sitn rfso fScooya Bryn at Sociology of Professor Assistant an is eun iojnImin Nihonjin no Peru o.9 p 309 pp. 9, vol. , ahm D omn&Littlefield & Rowman MD: Lanham, , oenDaprsi nentoa Politics International in Diasporas Modern o.2,n.4 p 635 pp. 4, no. 27, vol. , March , nentoa irto Re Migration International aaKkmnn agiHte:Iu100-nen Iju Hatten: Kaigai no Kokumin Waga Á 22 o isoi isemerge ties diasporic How oy:NhnHyoron-sha. Nihon Tokyo: , Á 53 oouu I University HI: Honolulu, , h hns Diaspora: Chinese The Diaspora o.2,n.3 pp. 3, no. 29, vol. , v iew o.3,n.3, no. 37, vol. , o.8 o 3, no. 8, vol. , International International London: , 21