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The Routledge Companion to Iberian Studies

Javier Muñoz-Basols, Laura Lonsdale, Manuel Delgado

Before the

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 Jonathan Jarrett Published online on: 28 Mar 2017

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al. 1985, Albeldense al. 3 27 XIV.35). On the other side of the of side other XIV.35).the On

chronicle written (see - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 which ourpolarisedsourcesallowustodiscernsomethingclosertheirfullstrength. ritory. Byconfrontingthemwitheachother, wecangivethefewcharacteristicsofthatterritory of thisgap,ourhistoriographyhassetupopposingOthersthatintheorymetjunctionter development is marred by a huge gap, in which people lived and things happened. At the edges and arthistory. Without this,however, ourunderstandingoftheIberianPeninsula’s medieval exploration ofanunevenmasslocaldocumentationandsomefamiliaritywitharchaeology in theworldthatprecededhis,describingthemrequirescriticalreadingoffewnarratives, the mid-twelfth century, and it is hard to say where in it the frontiers were (Fletcher 1989). Even lord, yethisworldofpettyprincedomsanddistantoverlordswasrelativelyrecentoriginin (Menéndez Pidal1929;Reilly1991;Stalls2004).ElCidisusuallyconsideredafrontierwar the determination of various conquering Kings Alfonso or the cinematically immortalised el Cid ‘Abd al-Rahmān III towards claiming the Caliphate was the conquest in 928 of the citadel of citadel the of 928 in conquest the was Caliphate the claiming towards III al-Rahmān ‘Abd position (LorenzoJiménez2010). this positionwasonlyachieved by theslowpromotionofarivallineage to aroughlysimilar from them emir. Removing the to them opposed conflict no as long as true be to things both ants oftheemir, while at others they were effectively uncontrolled, andit was possiblefor • • • • history ofal-Andalusthereafterisconvenientlybrokenupbymajorepisodes: gothic kingdom by The beginningofMuslimruleinIberiahasaclearstartdate,that oftheinvasion Visi Fernández et of king third “the himself called Mūsā, ibn Mūsā patriarch, greatest their that ried amongChristianprinces,asthesameOviedochronicle of abovetellsus;another states other citiesofthenorth-east Andalusi stateastheirs. They fought,alliedwithandmar In the mid-ninth century this family could , , Tudela, and several 2009). (Fierro forebear,Cassius claimed Count their one from Qāsī, Banū the as us to known lims. Key figures of that period (756–929) included a convert family of alleged Gothic descent the Christianprincipalitiesofnorth,itssometimeopponents. period. That risealsoendedacounterbalancing period ofascendancyandexpansionamong clearly from ourCordobansources.Itsriseand fall is, nonetheless, onlyathird of ourchosen self- its and remains proclaimed political might, and alsobecause its narrative is dramatic and canbetoldrelatively material its of splendour the of because 206–208), 2004, Gerberding The onlypartofthisthat receives much textbook attention is the Caliphate (e.g. Moranand

Lords closer to Córdoba could be just as difficult. One of the achievements leading Emir leading achievements the of One difficult. as just be could Córdoba to closer Lords Among opponentsofthetime, however, weshouldcountnotjustChristiansbutalsoMus- and lastly the lastly and the fluctuatingfortunesofnewUmayyademirateuntil929(Kennedy1998,30–81); the lastUmayyadsciontoal-Andalusandhistakeovertherein756(Marín1998); from a periodofrulebyappointedgovernors,punctuated by arevoltamongtroopsrecruited ing stilllater(Collins1989); a period of tion oftheUmayyadrulingline(Kennedy1998,82–108;Scales1994). extinc- final the by 1031 in marked decline irreversible an in 1010 by and 1000 year the Africa in 741 and terminated by the ‘Abbasid coup in the Middle East, the flight of flight the East, Middle the in coup ‘Abbasid the by terminated and 741 in Africa

al. 1985, Alfonso conquest, lasting until 718 in the north-east of the Peninsula and arguably end- glory period of the Andalusi caliphate, already running into difficulties by difficulties into running already caliphate, the Andalusi of period glory the forces of Tarīq ibn Ziyād and his superior Mūsā ibn Nusayr in 711. The Dividing al-Andalus in spaceDividing andtime III c. XXV). Certainly at times the Banū Qāsī were loyal serv- Jonathan Jarrett 28 ” (Gil - - - ­ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 later. In what remained, Frankish royal appointments to lay office were made as late as 878 and was then diminished by a further coup in 826 whose losses were only recouped half a century outside. those beyonditscontrol,wasanopportunityforwhowishedtobuildrivalpowerbases its territories and alwaysasourceofwealthbutrarelyintegrated enough tobethreatening to effectiveoccasionally was it which in 929, to 756 of period the in al-Andalus of ation outside a single polity with a clear edge must beincorrect for thisarea however it be done. This situ- Certainly,38–40)? defining 1999, Moreno Manzano (cf. Umayyads the to attached remained hardly 300 al-Andalus inanymeaningful way? And iftheEmirate’s supposedfrontier was frequently of territory Wasa 261–310). this 1991, Moreno (Manzano rebellion in rule Umayyad of tion Christian population butalsonotfarfromCórdoba,cumulatively spent afullhalfofthedura- surprisingly, ithasbeencalculated that Toledo, theold Visigothic capital and hometoalarge died andbeensucceeded in hisdisobedience by hissons(Acién Almansa 1994). Evenmore occasionally recognised asanindependentwhosearmyfoughtalongsidetheemir’s, buthad by had conquest wasanotable achievement mostlybecausethisrebellion, 150 The Hafsūn. Christianity,ibn to ‘Umar apostate alleged an by rebellion a of centre Bobastro, also includedNavarreand , bothofwhichsecededinthe820s. the with identified be cannot Modern 2013). dler a defensivemarca hispanica bytheCarolingian kings oftheFranksfrom785onwards(Chan- the Visigothic kingdomof andthereafter as partofagroup ofcountiesassembledas its having been ruled intermittently bypowersacrossthe , before our period as part of perspective. The territory owes itsdistinctive political constitution and language to the fact of Fernández 2004,183–199). I Ferdinand under Count Fernán González in 931; its autonomy between then and the succession inheritances of Count of coincidence a by form “definitive” its took only and León, of kingdom new rias never again had itsownking (Collins 2012, 52–82).Castile emerged asacounty of this kingdom hadrelocated its capital to León,andthoughthatprovedvulnerable,after924 Astu- also toruleGalicia (Escalona Monge 2004).Bytheearlytenthcentury, however, thisnascent that kings in Asturias ruled Cantabria by the end of the ninth century and could usually aspire however. Although sourcesfromtheir court are naturally keen to assertthis,it seems clear are nowinmodernFrance. These powersdidnotexist both autonomouslyandsimultaneously, modern Catalonia, ruled byakaleidoscopic succession ofcounts,severalwhoseterritories and ,thetenth century addedCastile and at least ten different counties in the justify discussionofindependent princedoms inatleastGalicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Aragon quent effects in historical discourse, overthe eighth and ninth centuries the sources certainly omy anddistinctivenessofsometheseareasisstillalivepolitical issue now, withconse- auton- the While 95–127). 1993, Linehan cf. 1999; Riu i Riu 1991; (Sánchez-Albornoz 718 will necessarily focusespecially on thenortherncoastlinewhereChristianrulepersistedafter that have dominated scholarship, and any history of (though perhaps not of ) rally enough,thosezoneswherekingdomsorstatesemerged whoseidentities persist today ofHispania,”butitis,natu- Few ofthosewhothussetupcanhaveaimed to become “kings The area ofmodern Catalonia presents further complications for anationally organised then been running for forty-six years, during which time Ibn Hafsūn had not just been just not had Hafsūn Ibn time which during years, forty-six for running been then

km away from

to the throne the to its capital, how on earth to categorise the areas that lay beyond it but of León in 1037 is a matter of highly politicised debate (Mínguez debate politicised highly of matter a is 1037 in León of Frontier relations in medieval Iberia Frontier inmedieval relations The northern redoubts The northern 29 marca, however, asthat grouping

2 km southofCórdoba, The rumpremaining Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 requires examinationonitsownterms. it delineated, have we frontier political the like and, 2003), (Deswartes it has work recent one involved. The periodisinfactafrontierzoneitself,betweendestructionandrestoration as developments frequently “led” nowhere, but they were aslife-changing as anylater for those main narrative. The pointis,however, thatthis period’s importance is notwhatitledto:its own to expansion into al-Andalus andits later bisection by France has removed it from the its of access no had Navarre course: of endure, not would This 123–132). 2004, Fernández , PallarsandindeedCastileamonghisvassalsruledLeóndirectly(Mínguez III the Great, self-proclaimed King ofthe (rexhispaniarum), numbered the of the supreme kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula in 1031 was actually Navarre. Its ruler, Sancho importantly, however, aCastilian-Aragonese narrativewouldhavebeenimplausible because long? Even ifso,the so Almoravid and after Almohad would have seemed fantastic. More finished assumed been have really rule Umayyad would could al-Andalus obscure; deeply in been events have future thing, one For 1031. in unforeseeable completely been Sánchez- have would 1948; This differentiated). sharply Castro otherwise 1974, Vigil (e.g. and Barbero 1492 1956; Albornoz in “Spain” of completion eventual the allow to 1137 in is removedfromthis“national” story andbeginsthepursuitofitsown,joining with Aragon rias, itsmovetoLeónandtakeover by anascentCastile, with asubplotinwhichCatalonia of medieval Spain hasoftenbeentoldasthesurvivalandrevivalofChristiankingshipin Astu- were theirFrankishhistoryandthefactthattheynotpartofanyotherpolity. at thetimewouldhaverecognised. inarguable in the local scholarship as the beginning of a“Catalan” independence that no one least 987,whenthelastCarolingian, Louis V, died(Jarrett2011). This datehassincebecome others until after our period. Resort to the Frankish kingforlegal privileges continued until at of them,andwhilethat based inBarcelona was themostpowerful,theydidnotcontrol the groupingsofcounties thus created proved durable, but thisstillleft four families in charge del Vallès, whenexpansion intosuchareasbeganto consolidate,waskeentopoint outthatroyal local agriculturalists(UdinaMartorell 1951,no.174). The BarcelonamonasteryofSant Cugat although he was garrisoning it anyway and that garrison was apparently being supported by and consequentlyitwasunsurprising thatithadbeen“ancientlydestroyedbythepagans,” Marches,” the of ends ultimate extreme “the in was Isona of city old the 973, in Barcelona of strongest ideathatChristiandocuments dealingwithitexpressedwasvacancy. FortheCount polity’s falteringcentralcontrol. provide a way tothink of mostthe Peninsula as being within a Muslim polity despite that categories such as “linear,” into “zonal,” “enclosing” or“expanding” frontiers (Berend 1999) butit did anddoes easily fit not does formulation This out. inside frontier conceptual the 38–42, 45–46). The breach of such a pact would convert barriers butpassages,fromcontinuousMuslimruletouncontrolled spaces (Manzano1999, (sing. al- andtheseouterzoneslaythe thughūr al-‘ahd, domainofthepact.Betweendār war, although suchareasmightbeplacedundertribute without conquest,constituting a dār al-harb,domainof al-Islam,domainofIslam,outsidewhichlaythedār aged acoredār The politiesoneither side ofthiszoneconceptualised it differently. Muslimthinking envis- The danger of ateleological perspective on thisperiod will by nowbeevident. The history Between thethughūrandterritoryinarguably Christianwasstillaconsiderable space. The thaghr). This word isusually translated as “frontier,” butthese frontiers were not The space betweenanditsdefinitions 3 The only things that then unified all the Catalan the all unified then that things only The Jonathan Jarrett 30 al-‘ahd to al-harb, however, and turn Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 fication. The power of such a narrative could overwhelm most scruples about exactly how exactly deserted afullthirdofthePeninsulacouldhavebeen(Linehan1993,95–127). about scruples most overwhelm could narrative a such of power The fication. that bound the Iberian kingdoms (except Navarre) together and explained their eventual uni- by noonethatmattered to thewriters,occupation of whichwasthecommonexperience son Turner onthefrontier in the American West. protection bytheburgeoning state,wasmirroredinthefashionableworkofFrederickJack- space into which bold pioneers might rightfully move, but where they might need military Arabic sources’ similardistancing oftheiropponentsbutalsobecausetheideaanempty back underobedience,isevident,andcannotbetakenuncritically(MínguezFernández2002). Alfonso by royalfiat,King Alfonso I which claimedthatmostofthelandssouthkingdomwerenotonlylongdeserted,butso In Asturias thisrhetoricwastakentoagranderlevelintheso-calledChronicle of Alfonso III, claim wouldhavebeendisputable,makingallsuchclaimsofdesertionsuspect(Jarrett2010a). monastery’sthe empty been not had places the if Obviously 452). no. 1946, Serra (Rius tude” concessions ofapreviouscenturyhadallottedthemextensiveterritoryinthese“placessoli- ticular area of the kingdom of León in settlements which included avilla de cordobeses and a A 339–341). 2010a, (Jarrett short-distance population movement cannot be ruled out either, even if sometimes it may have been very deep localcontinuity fromevenpre-Romantimesinsomeareas(Barbero and Vigil 1974), We cannot say much about these peoples’ origins: while arguments have been made for very which mayinfacthavehad more basicenvironmental causes (MínguezFernández 1998). nucleated and dispersed,whichhasbeenput down totheoriginsofsuchcommunities but circumstances ofthesealmost-invisiblepopulationsarepossible (cf.Martín Viso 2005). the about generalisations some 1971), Conde Linage 99–103; 2010b, Jarrett 1995; Masclans re-use ofancient sites,andontheendurance of localsaints’ cults(e.g.respectively Bolòs i the on boundaries, land of survival the on work and Withthis 1995). García González 2006; of churchescontinued,suggestingthecontinuingarticulation of communities (Gibert Rebull did notobviouslycease in the frontier areas on theMuslimconquest, and that maintenance equate publication ofmany excavations, but enoughhasbeen done toshowthat settlement inad- as well as continuity proving of difficulty the with struggles and recent, more been has contribution Archaeology’s 53–74). 2008, Hitchcock 1982; García Barrios 1994; Mediano enon is highly regionalised and imperfectly understood (Aguilar Sebastián and Rodríguez or linguisticmixingbetween Arabic andRomancelanguages,althoughthelatter phenom - matic but equally telling hints canbegotfromplace- or personal names displayingantiquity as the period under discussion, these differences were enshrined in the local law codes known can exposetheir deviations from suchnormalisation (Jarrett 2010b) and,inthelater part of the normalisingstructure of government.Nonetheless,differences detectable between groups existed, unlikely inanautarkic community. a result,weseeareasonlyastheypassinto As market land a once generated only definition by was that documentation largelytransactional sure that the frontier zone was notempty. Intexts, the hints are evanescent: the evidence is Over thepastthirtyyears,however, historiansandarchaeologists have become increasingly fueros, or in Catalonia This language, nevertheless, was often taken literally in the historiography, because of the The most obvious generalisation must be variation, of course. We find settlements both settlements find We course. of variation, be must generalisation obvious most The III cc. 13–14). The use of such a claim for Alfonso III, striving to bring those areas areas those bring to striving III, Alfonso for claim a such of use The 13–14). cc. III cartes de població (Manzano Moreno 1994,94–95).Lessprogram-

having movedtheiroccupantsnorth(GilFernándezet Frontier relations in medieval Iberia Frontier inmedieval relations Inhabiting thefrontier

charter of 943 of charter 31 4 Hereasthere was anopenspace, inhabited recording the occupation of a par a of occupation the recording

al. 1985, al. 1985, - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 polity (CarvajalCastro2012);ifso,inthesecasestheyfailed. the kingdomsofnorthexpandedbyinteresting such populations intakingpartthewider might beenforced uponthembyengagement with themorelocalpowers-that-were. Arguably, it mayalsotellusthatthevillagers wantedtoavoidtheobligations,liketitheorcensum,that tians in Lleida” (Davies and Fouracre 1986, 255). This was perhaps again the pact Chris- at the work, but all of “judge Fortún, called priest a to Lleida, Muslim-held to afield farther much d’Isávena, yetratherthanresorttoeither bishop orcountofRibagorza for arbitration they sent Juseu. These twocommunities lie aboutsixtykilometersfromthethen-newbishopricatRoda what isnow Aguinaliu recordedhavingsettledaboundarydisputewiththeirneighboursin of loyaltiesthatwemustimagine amongtheinhabitants of thesezones.Init,thevillagers 2011, citingacharterfromLorvão). documents continued to beissueddeepinto al-Andalus, although almost none survive(Barrett Ordoño II of León, a deacon called Muhammad (Sáez 1987, no. 40). On the other hand, Latin King for charter a of scribe the is whom of startling most the 53–74), 2008, Hitchcock 2009; rences (see Aguilar Sebastián and Rodríguez Mediano 1994; BarriosGarcía 1982; Fernández Moreno 1994,92,95),butincertain areas peoplewith Arabic nameswerefrequentoccur sional autochthonous Arabic-speaking populations far beyond Andalusi control (Manzano 2010b, 98–99). Similar problems arise with language: later Arabic sources tell us of occa- ments, butsuchpersonswerebeyonddiocesanstructuresandChurchcorrection (Jarrett talking ofchristianiperversiinthefrontierzonesmaynothavebeenmakingdoctrinaljudge- command (MínguezFernández1976,no.87). southwards, andthe Cordobans, at least, could hardly have been relocated by Leonese royal villa de asturianos prevents us from doubting that people were in movement, northwards and ing southtoseek reconciliation with theemir, who placed him incharge atBadajoz (Christys King Alfonso IIIof Asturias, governingafrontiercastle forhimeightyearsbeforereturn- Castile. It was in Mérida that he rebelled in 876–877, however, whence he quickly fled north to al-harb ofJillīqīya , alocution which coverednotjustmodern-dayGalicia but also Leónand al-Rahmān convert toJudaism,Bodo-Eleazar(Riess2005). escaped fromaFrankishprisonbyguile(ManzanoMoreno 1991,218–222),ortheFrankish supposedly who ‘Aysūnal-‘Arabī, warlord ibn frontier the as such Córdoba to fugitives also lonia in 940 and León in 941–942, travelled in company and under watchful eyes. There were (Christys 2002b, 109–113), or his Jewish doctor Hasdai ibn Shaprut, sent as diplomat to Cata- 940s the in III al-Rahmān ‘Abd Caliph of court the visited who emissaries Christian of string either.travelled, a who that churchmen assumes just One not was It 55–62). 2002b, (Christys Navarre in manuscripts hunting while difficulty such no had Eulogius cleric Cordoban tant (Christys 1998),albeit largely forpolitical reasons (Nelson2010,19–20);theunimpor their crossing ofthe frontier was a complex series of escorted transits between jurisdictions of travel existed: when relic-seekers from St-Germain-des-Prés went from Paris to Córdoba, Díaz 1969). A y (Díaz traffic such demonstrate silently date, can we hands in north the in annotated south, Despite such disconnection, there was travel through these areas. Manuscriptsmade in the One well-knowncaseinadocument from Ribagorzain Aragon bringsouttheambiguity As regardsmatters of religion, refusal to guess is our only safe position: Christian sources Movement within thefrontier zone canalsobeseen. A ibn Marwān Ibn al-Yillīqī, whose very name suggests a family origin in the in origin family a suggests name very whose al-Yillīqī, Ibn Marwān ibn

small number of ecclesiastical travel narratives show us that different standards Crossing thefrontier Jonathan Jarrett 32

well-studied caseisthat of ‘Abd dar - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 considerable culturalfluidity on bothsidesofthefrontier. their origin, couldhave thus appeared “Mozarab-like,” and that we shouldtherefore expect transmitters of suchideas,thatanyonesuitable ability who hadseensuchthings,whatever as soonthat assumption isdiscarded it mustbeclear that the worksthemselves could be native would lastingly adopt. Few ifanyscholarswouldoutwardlyprofesssuchabelief, yet such culturaluses,immigrants who wonadmiration for theircreativity, butwhosestylesno ity’s cultural superiority implicit in such scholarship seems to allow only immigrants to have south bringing ideas and booksback, for example, is little considered. The belief in Christian- that thebearersofsuchculturewerebornintoit. The possibility ofnorthernvisitorstothe already mentioned, ourevidenceforthisphenomenon isprimarilycultural,andneednotmean highlights that aside fromthe movement of clerics, and hintslike the villa de cordobesos problem thatfallsbeyondourremithere(Hitchcock2008). This differentiation, however, who stuckto the Hispanic liturgy after the Christian takeover of their territories, a different acculturation, thus differing in origins and attitudes almost entirely, as well as those Christians also Christiansoutsideal-Andaluswhoweredistinctive precisely becauseoftheir Andalusi ing in al-Andalus, including those suchasthe Córdoba martyrs who resisted arabicization, but (classically GómezMoreno1919;seealso Werckmeister 1993). styles of building, decoration and ceramics; all this was supposedly brought by believers in the magnetism of the new kingdoms to explain those areas’ adoption of Andalusi by used been has this and movement, a such confirm to tend mentioned already northwards migration, littlethatisconclusivecanbedemonstratedyet. (Grierson 1959)andsincethehistoriographyisrelatively agreed thattherewassubstantial good evidence of trade, however, especially in acontext where tributes were frequently paid be the case with their occurrences farther west (Balaguer 1988). Coins are not by themselves start appearing as coin of payment in the Catalan counties in the 970s, but it cannot so easily that mancuses gold Caliphal the of true be might (Wolffsame proper The 1963). frontier the are documentedinmanyaCatalan will,thoughthesemayhavecomebysearatherthanacross first documented appearance of a merchant there; he was dealing in cloth, and Andalusi cloths 1995, 281;ManzanoMoreno1991,190). between them.Othersuchdefectorsalsoneverquitelosttouchwiththeother‘side’ (Collins 2002a). Although thismanhadroyallords,itseemsthat his real loyalties were toahomeland they hadleftal-Andalus orentered Christianterritory. The ceramic record alsosuggests this: A personcrossing thisspacecouldthuslikely not havetold frommaterial culture alone when 2). c. Preface II 1969–1973, Samson in (clear heavily more ries have felt anincreasingpinchinthesouthasal-AndalusbegantotaxChurchitsterrito churchmen, aprofessionalclasswhocouldexpectemployment in thenorthandmightwell the mostvisiblecategoryin Arabic-named Christianpopulationalreadymentioned was labouring undertheSaracenyoke. one thing, This isnotwithoutsupportintheevidence.For ascendant Christian kingdoms should naturally have called to the Christians of al-Andalus In more traditional historiography, that migration is assumed to have been northwards: the This term,Mozarabs,isfullofproblems.Itcalled upon atoncetoreferChristiansliv- There must also have been trade, but we can hardly see it. In 1018 we have in Barcelona the Mozarabism andarabicization Frontier relations in medieval Iberia Frontier inmedieval relations In common and inconflict 33 5 The voyages ofmanuscripts - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 1985, Albeldense XVI.9), since wecanseehisambitious ship either, andintheoldadage,nomanmayhavepeacelonger thanhisneighbourwishes. societies: withoutwiderlinksofmembershippolities,theydidnotnecessarilysharefriend- these of picture our of part be to needs also 1966). then (Lourie This others than areas some in fewer if even find, to hard not are conflict for preparation general and warfare border of tions shows howfewguaranteestheareareallyoffered (GaleraiPedrosa1998,no.7).Otherindica- the citizens’ possessionsofanylandstheycouldtake,fromeitherMuslimsorChristians, that the cityinacentury, whichshowstheproblem,butitisthatcountundertooktoguarantee impossible forhimtoprotectalone:thiswastheBarcelonafamily’s thirdattempttorepopulate citizens many legal privileges to motivate them to stay and defend a fortress that was obviously dona, ontheedgesofCatalunya Vella, in987thecountofBarcelona offered thesettlersand 109–113).2000–2001, Monge Escalona 1991–1992; Car Clarà At i (Benet locals ungoverned hitherto- the of job the became upkeep whose fortifications, with came often interests outside of presence first the and zones these through travelled armies 98–99), 2010b, (Jarrett realistic respect themonasteries’ unenforceablelandclaimsthere,werelikelymoreprogrammaticthan vituperations ofmonasticdocumentsagainstthebanditswholivedinsuchplaces,failingto zone andbeyonditseemseasiesttosupposeevenso,howeverscantythecurrentevidence. locate more differences thanhavebeenidentified, butaculture moreorlesssharedacrossthe ware musthave been of local manufacture, and it is probable that more detailed studies will are of an Islamic, and even Persian, type (Barceló 1993; Riu-Barrera 1999). Much of the grey a above Oviedo(Collins 1995,280–281). Naranco into a new palace, literally looking down onhispredecessor’s works fromitshill supplanted by his successorRamiro I’s probable conversion of what is nowSanta Maria de probably liesbehindthisprogram (EscalonaMonge2004). Alfonso’s palace was, afterall, such changes,however, andabattle to balance the variousfactions of the Asturian kingdom by influenced been have could court the to come already not did who anyone how see to hard projects he undertook,whichincluded a palace complex in Oviedo(Collins1995,280).Itis been in Toledo, even if nobody can have known howcorrectly he did so (Gil Fernández et Albelda campaign of symbolic uplift. We need not, for example, necessarily doubt the military leadership toaddsymbolic importance to theirplundering,oftenaspartofageneral the impactofsuchideasbeforethen? siege to Toledo, the old Visigothic capital and Andalusi problem spot, in 1085, but what was 2011). It is easy enough to understand why King Alfonso VII evoked such ideas as he laid the Muslimsandeventhat the wastoberestored bysodoing(IslaFrez fight to ought Christians the that expressed idea the find we places certain in times certain at lack of commitment to itsextinction thoseélites yet had. Nonetheless, it cannot be denied that and farfromalien. The adoption of Andalusi material culture at anélite level demonstrates the Muslims ofthisenvironment were, whiledifferent by professionfromeach other, notfaraway have, a “restoration,” seems somewhat strange (cf. RíosSaloma2008). The Christians or Against thisbackgroundtheideaofaReconquista,orevenasmoremodernliterature would turies, despite turies,

coarse grey ware is found almost all over the Peninsula between the tenth and twelfth cen- This shouldnot,ofcourse,betakentoimplythatallwasharmonyinthisspace. While the The answer seemstobethat this wasawayforkingswhosepowerrested primarily on whenit tells us that King Alfonso IIrestoredthe Gothic ordo at Oviedo justasit had considerable earlier differentiation, and the only finewares usually recovered usually finewares only the and differentiation, earlier considerable Reconquista andneogothicism Jonathan Jarrett 34 self-presentation in thebuilding Chronicle of 6

al. - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3 tive onlyclosertohome. Carvajal Castro2012). The performanceoftheGothicinheritancewasalmostcertainlyeffec- magnates were now extending into the frontier zones (Escalona Monge 2001, 14–54; cf. local élitesofthesezonescouldsomehowbeattachedtothenewstructuresrulenorthern be expectedisthatwhateverlow-levelorganisation oflabourandrendersmightaccruetothe could that best the here; on called been have not could loyalties or tributes 42–43). Ancient 1999, Moreno (Manzano control of difficulty most kings those given had that zone the fact ers of Toledo, whichstilllayinMuslimterritory;thenorth,whencenewclaims,was kings havemeant?Ifthosewereremembered,itwouldpresumablybeenasrul- while, alongtheDueroorLlobregat,whatwouldclaimstohavesucceededGothic were inthepast,andoftenbeliedbycontemporarysources(Jarrett2011, 15–19).Mean- but inboththiscaseandthefewCatalanexamplesofsuchclaimscombatsinvolved ancestral defeatsoftheMuslimspresumablydidsomethingtostrengthenaclaimonpower, of theroyalcapitaltomoresoutherlyLeón(Collins1995,284). representation was alsochallenged: his reignendedindepositionbysonsandthetransfer of Muhammad it also includes (Daniel 1994). Also clear, however, is that Alfonso III’s self- is demonstrated by itstravel with the later chronicles, albeit perhaps forthe polemical almost immediately,wrong as Alfonso’ssuccesses werenotofthisorder, anaudienceforit fixed period of 170 it could betaken torefer to the Goths (Gog)being oppressed bythe Muslims (Magog)fora Chronicle (Gil Fernándezet III’s reconquest (the word doesnotseem wrong inthis context) ofthe whole ofHispania (Gil Fernándezet attached to another chronicle that makes sweeping claims of royalaction in the frontier zones of III, duringwhichtheChronicleAlfonso of Albelda its peripheryresponded toitscentrewithunprecedented heed, andChristianrulerswhohad al-Rahmān III and al-Hakam II the fractured polity of al-Andalus was sufficiently bonded that period, however, even large-scale changes became more durable: under the Caliphate of ‘Abd many small changes in different places and of different durations. Towards the end of our to whatwecanseeofagreat over muchoftheperiodunder discussionshouldnotblindus unchanging overtime. has beenstatedpreviously,As thatitsoverallstateremained similar closer tothedevelopingcentresofpower. territories from extrapolate to efforts undermines ineluctably here proffered is that verifiable, almost any generalisation fraught butthecomposite of manydifferent possibilities, not all makes This circumstances. and interest need, to according flowed and ebbed have would ers oth- with involvement whose reflexes, local very with identities and communities many but frontera” de “gente single a find not governed. Withindo easily we not certainlyit was it and not habitation. possession, not sodangerousastobeempty,This landwas not safe, butitwas such asno-man’s land(d’Abadalide Vinyals 1958,78:“terradeningú”) refertopolitical claims ofdesertion orbanditryseemmorerhetorical than factualanddescriptionsinterms The picture with whichweclose,then,isone of detachment and disconnection. The sources’ It ishardtoseehowanyofthiswouldhavematteredfarther into thefrontier. Claims of It isalsoeasytoseewhysuchGothicizing efforts wereeagerly reported in the reign Another kindofgeneralisation that isdangerous isonethatseesthefrontierzoneas , whichdistortsthe Book ofDaniel’s prophecy concerning GogandMagogsothat

al. 1985, Alfonso III al. 1985, Albeldense XIV–XIX).

years, by the Frontier relations in medieval Iberia Frontier inmedieval relations The dangers of thefrontier The dangers of author’s calculation due to end in a few months with Alfonso ). the peculiarPropheticproduced inhisreignwas Also 35 Although thistext must havebeenproven was concluded. was The king’sname is Life Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 12:54 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315709895, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315709895.ch3

Balaguer, Anna María.1998.“PariasandMythof theMancus.”InProblems ofMedieval Coinage in Aguilar Sebastián, Víctor and Francisco Rodríguez Mediano. 1994. “Antroponimia de origen árabe en not extendedandinwhichthepeoplewehavestudiedmadetheirownways. would servesuchmen well, but this doesnot erase the long period in which that control was had developed to advance their control into such disconnected zones in the centuries before principality around Valencia, among others likehim. that thepolitiesofnorth The ways twelfth century we find El Cid taking advantage of such larger-scale detachment to form a new than disappear, therefore,thefrontiercanbeseen ashavingmoved,intotheareaswherein for long,although newdisconnections werenowin progress throughout the Caliphate. Rather and contestthenewincreasingChristiandominance(Wasserstein 1985). was not replaced, leaving the array of city-states and their rulers known astaifasto compete began the period ofraiding and tributes known asparias, and in 1031 the last Caliph died and sides of a succession struggle for the Caliphate; the sacked Córdoba itself. With this situation had deteriorated so farthatCatalan and Castilian troops werecalled in onopposite knownst either to victims or perpetrators. In the year 1006 civil war broke out and by 1010 the these were in fact the death throes of a centralised Muslim polity in the Peninsula, unbe- Amirids. Every polity in the north nowfounditself a target for repeated campaigning, yet 82–124). With thissituation only slightly relaxed, in the970s,came the newwarsof advanced control intotheIslamic borderlandswereforcedtorelinquishit(Kennedy1998, Acién Almansa, Manuel. 1994. Entre el feudalismo y el Islam: ‘ en los historiadores, en 6 5 4 3 2 1

Santarém: Sociedade NumismaticaScalabitana. 499–543. Metcalf, Michael David and Marques Gomes Mario by edited October, 4–8 on Sintra de the Iberian Area,the 3: A la documentaciónleonesa(siglos VIII–XIII).” ElReinodeLeónenla Alta EdadMedia las fuentesyenlahistoria In thischangedworldtheoldfrontierzonescouldnotremainunattached and disconnected Although I the Cathe Aguilar andRodríguez(1994,587–598)takeasample of suchpersonsintheLeonesedocuments (174) werepriests,withotherchurchmenalsocommon. them of majority vast the documents), 4,121 from 2,750, of (269 sample total their of tenth a than The classic example text. in the time of Franco, managed to retain enough to feel proud of that the book has remained a standard and is consequently affirmative. The main dissenting voice from inside, Abadal 1958, despite writing Albornoz knew Turner’s work. Sánchez- that clear not is it out, points Moreno (2002). Manzano Fernández As Mínguez and 37–38 Much of this of Much thus theircrown(cf. Abadal 1957–1958)! King LouisXIV ofFrancetounderminethegenealogical claim of thekings Aragon totheareaand influential most The their problems.Referencescouldbefarmorenumerousthanhereattem For theperiodunderdiscussionhere,futurePortugaliscoveredbyCastilianscholarship. (2004) offers a broader survey from a Castilian perspective, and Sabaté i Curull (1996) a Catalan one. were notalwayskings.I rulers and era, this in ruler single a had territory every Not difficult. is period this Terminologyfor dral ofLeónbytitle where present. Some arithmetic makes it clear that although that is less

am surethisisanoldadage,I scholarship was funded by the Generalitat to celebrate its notional millennium in 1987 in millennium notional its celebrate to Generalitat the by funded was scholarship of this historiography is Sánchez-Albornoz (1966); cf. Manzano Moreno (1999), scholarly use of the term the of use scholarly

Symposium Held by Held Symposium

have thereforeusedtheterms“polity”and“territory” throughoutdespite . Jaén:UniversidaddeJaén. Jonathan Jarrett Works cited

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