©Kamla-Raj 2004 Stud. Tribes Tribals, 2(1): 55-63 (2004)

Common Range, Different Tribes: Explaining Resource Use, Management and Productivity among the Akamba, Orma and Somali in the former Eastern Statelands of

Dickson Mong’are Nyariki1 and Jan Van den Abeele2 1. Department of Range Management, University of P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi, Kenya Email: [email protected] 2. Forestry Development Support Programme, Belgian Technical Cooperation, P.O. Box 30513, Nairobi, Kenya

KEYWORDS Common use; range management; resource conflicts; Eastern Statelands; Kenya

ABSTRACT This paper describes the major livelihood activities of three ethnic communities who use in common the former Kenyan Eastern Statelands. It also looks at how the livelihoods and the range could be improved while maintaining the common access to resources, so as to avoid potential conflicts. It is suggested that for improvement of range management the unsettled lands should be accessed by all the communities under ranching societies without having to exclude non-members. A number of approaches should be instituted, including bush control and reseeding. Bush control can be achieved through exploitation of trees of low timber value for charcoal production to earn income for households. To increase livestock productivity, it is proposed that proper livestock and grazing management be practised, including the introduction of superior breeds, improved livestock facilities, adequate animal healthcare and rotational grazing through paddocking.

INTRODUCTION and improve the living standards of the communities, the stakeholders and development The colonial government in Kenya set aside agents should rethink the use and management the former Eastern Statelands for State of this resource. The objective of this study was, management. These lands form the interface of therefore, to: the Akamba and Orma lands. Over the years, these - describe the current state of the range and its lands have provided common wet season grazing management in the former Statelands ground for the Akamba, Orma and Somali ethnic - analyse the actual use and occupation of the groups (tribes). They have also provided an communities using the lands important corridor for wildlife. Since indepen- - propose appropriate interventions that would dence, efforts towards utilising the lands in improve local livelihoods various ways have been put in place, mainly as a national reserve and ranching cooperative STUDY AREA societies. The latter have, however, largely failed. The former Eastern Statelands mainly cover The former Statelands are a unique range parts of and Districts in the Eastern resource in that they are accessed by three Province of Kenya, about 160 km east of Nairobi. pastoral and agropastoral communities. Where Both districts have an area of 30,200 sq. km with a resource is accessed by more than one individual a population of about a million people, most of or community, it is referred to as the commons. whom are Akamba by ethnicity. The districts Under these conditions, resource use conflicts belong to two distinct physical regions—the land are a common feature as scarcity of resources above 1,000 m falls within the Eastern Highlands and competing users provide a recipe for such of Kenya and that below 1,000 m lies within the conflicts. However, there have been no such low foreland plateau of Kenya (Ojany and conflicts in this case, even though they cannot Ogendo, 1973). The eastern part of Kitui and be ruled out in future. Mwingi, within which the fomer Statelands are To avoid potential conflicts, as the common found, belongs to the latter region. The districts resource continues to diminish in the face of lie in a region that has generally been classified increasing human population and the need to as agro-ecological zone (AEZ) V (Pratt ad acquire more grazing to enhance food security Gwynne, 1977), but has several pockets of micro- 56 DICKSON MONG’ARE NYARIKI AND JAN VAN DEN ABEELE climates of higher potential influenced by differing activities. elevations. The area has a bimodal rainfall regime. In addition to the field visits, relevant literature The first rains of the year come in March/April was reviewed and archive work carried out in (first season) and the second in November/ government offices in Nairobi, Mwingi and Kitui. December (second season). On average the precipitation is 200 mm for the first season and RESOURCE ACCESS AND LIVELIHOODS 300 mm for the second season. In some areas like Livelihoods Endau Hills of Kitui, rains can be as high as 1,000 mm in some years. As one moves down-slope, so Because of the arid climate, the Akamba, rainfall diminishes. This precipitation is erratic particularly those inhabiting the fringes and parts with frequent general or localised droughts. of the former Statelands, engage in livestock Most of the former Eastern Statelands are production as their major economic activity. This bushland of Acacia-Commiphora ecological type also applies to their neighbours, the Orma, found (Ominde, 1968), with little grass cover. The on the eastern side of the former Statelands in population density varies with the degree of Tana River District, and the distant Somali from aridity. The density of the lowlands is low, District. However, the other most approximately 12 persons per sq. km while that in important livelihoods are cultivation and labour the wetter areas is as high as 228 persons per sq. migration (O’Leary, 1980). The Akamba and the km (ROK, 1997). Orma practise agropastoralism, but in different METHODS OF STUDY degrees; the former do agriculture more extensively and intensively and rely less on Several visits were made to the field to livestock for subsistence than the latter and the familiarise with the study area and to collect Somali who are more ‘pure’ pastoralists. primary data. Data and information involved Cattle, goats and (to a small extent) sheep are informal discussions with individual farmers and kept by the Akamba. In addition, the Orma and pastoralists, and barazas (focus group meetings) Somali keep camels. The common livestock breeds organised by the local chiefs comprising are the Boran, Zebu and their crosses and members of Sosoma and Enziu Cooperative Sahiwal—a superior Zebu breed in terms of both Societies and non-members of the societies meat and milk. The goats include the Galla, Small utilising both ranch land and the corridors East African (SEA) and crosses of Galla and Boer. between the national reserves and the ranches, Sheep of Red Maasai and Dorper breeds and their i.e., within the former Statelands. crosses are kept mainly in , , Discussions with individual farmers and and Yatta Divisions of Kitui District, but pastoralists centred on the sizes of the are rare in most parts of because households, livestock holdings, grazing areas and of a strong belief that eating mutton or keeping seasons of grazing, livestock movements and sheep reduces one’s protection against witchcraft times of movement, grazing (land) rights, (DRO, Mwingi, Personal communication). In some marketing of livestock, animal healthcare, parts of the districts, such as Central, Yatta and watering points, water availability and use, Kabati Divisions (Kitui) and around Mwingi problems of livestock production and marketing, Township (Mwingi District), dairy breeds are kept. and issues of access conflicts. These include crosses of Jersey, Sahiwal, The informal interviews with the management Guernsey, Ayrshire and Friesian. Farmers are of the ranches included a discussion on the advised by extension officers to keep exotic breeds history of the ranches, the objectives set and in these areas (ROK, 1997). Chicken are also kept whether these objectives had been met, livestock in homesteads under a free-ranging system. In production, and range management. For the focus the Akamba tradition chicken rearing is a woman’s group discussions involving both the farmers and activity (Assistant Chief, Katumbi, Personal pastoralists, who included the Akamba, Somali communication). Donkeys are kept as beasts of and Orma communities and the members and burden, but the Orma and Somali keep camels administration of the ranching cooperative both for transport and as a source of milk and societies, the issues were related to the major (rarely) meat. Donkeys are mainly used for problems faced in trying to execute the livelihood carrying water and, since the distances covered COMMON RANGE, DIFFERENT TRIBES 57 are long, it has become mandatory for a Mkamba the former Statelands (woiye, in Kikamba). The young man to acquire at least one before he can home grazing grounds consist either of the fenced be accepted by a bride-to-be (Assistant Chief, areas, which belong to households (isesi, in Twambui, Personal communication). Some men Kikamba), or unfenced communal land. As the also keep a few beehives, producing honey for name implies, rangelands in the former Statelands sale and for making the local brew (Karobo, in belong to the State and in practice are open as Kikamba). pastures to the residents of the lowlands—the Livestock are the main source of food and Akamba on the western part and Orma on the income for the three communities. The animals eastern part. They are also utilised by others from (cattle and goats) provide milk, which is taken elsewhere, including the upcountry Akamba and fresh and in tea or used to produce ghee. The the Somali from the distant north-east. Legally, animals are sold when cash is required to buy however, the former Statelands have been grains, pay fees or meet other domestic subdivided, part leased to two cooperative requirements. The Akamba are more exposed to ranches—Enziu (in Kitui District) and Sosoma (in the cash economy than the Orma and Somali and Mwingi District)—part in two corridors most raise their animals purely for the market. The (unallocated) and the rest is used as National traditional strategy of having large herds is no Reserves under the county councils. Legally, longer viable. As noted by the DRO of Mwingi therefore, the former Statelands under the (cf. also O’Leary, 1980), Mwingi and Kitui Districts cooperative ranches are closed to non-members are well served with stock markets. The markets while the National Reserves are nominally are held weekly, and prices depend on supply available to the surrounding communities for and demand; they tend to be low in January when grazing. livestock are sold to raise money for school fees Movement of the Akamba livestock takes and during droughts or dry seasons when place from the homelands on the west over the pastures are scarce and owners are forced to sell, former Statelands to Tana River and back. thereby creating a glut. The market system for Likewise, the Orma and Somali livestock move livestock is also a means through which heifers from the east and north-east towards the former and young cows circulate from household to Statelands and back. This is depicted diagramma- household. Nowadays, both the Akamba and tically in Figure 1. These are transhumant patterns Orma cattle owners invest their cattle wealth in under extensive grazing husbandry, from home- some form of non-farm activities such as local lands to former Statelands. As soon as the rains stores and trade in livestock. Some have organised fill the natural pans in March/April and November/ themselves into self-help groups (SHGs) that December, which form a network of major water engage in trading in cattle and goats and other points across the former Statelands, cattle are non-livestock related activities. These are latter- day logical developments in pastoral societies, Former because ‘cattle capital’ herded in diminishing Statelands rangelands and harsh conditions carries greater (wet season risks than investments in enterprises independent grazing lands) of these factors. Goats are normally sold for requirements that do not need large sums of money while cattle are In ‘normal’ In ‘normal’ sold to meet large expenses. Livestock also serve seasons/years seasons/ other functions; they are used as bride price and years oxen are put to the plough. Goats give birth twice a year and twining is common. Sheep reproduce at a lower rate than goats but faster than cattle. Akamba Orma and homelands Somali Access to Range Resources During (dry season homelands severe grazing (dry season Resource Ownership and Use droughts lands) grazing lands) Pastures are available both in the home Fig. 1. The Akamba, Orma and Somali livestock rangelands and the distant grazing grounds in movements 58 DICKSON MONG’ARE NYARIKI AND JAN VAN DEN ABEELE moved to graze there. Herds of several individuals absence of any meaningful veterinary care, are grazed together as they move from place to drought drastically diminishes resistance to place along particular routes that depend on the diseases; some of the common ones being Foot- seasons, which affect pasture availability. In the and-Mouth Disease, East Coast Fever, homelands, except for a few areas where there is Rinderpest, Contagious Bovine Pleuro- paddocking (fencing) and reserved pastures, few Pneumonia (CBPP), and Contagious Caprine efforts have been made to develop a grazing Pleuro-Pneumonia (CCPP). Thus, the former system in the home rangelands. Otherwise Statelands play a very important role; the effects animals graze by roaming about. Harvesting of of drought are ameliorated by those pastoralists grass is rarely done, except where some animals who relentlessly travel long distances in search have been upgraded. of pastures. During some droughts parts of the former Statelands and home ranges receive some Pastoral Livestock Management and Resource rain. But custom, practice and insecurity Productivity sometimes restrict herd movement. Insecurity, as Livestock production in the study area is claimed by the Akamba and Orma elders, has in characterised by low productivity because of the past been almost exclusively caused by the various reasons. Chief among these is poor and Somali tribesmen in possession of modern degraded rangelands, caused by drought and too weapons. This problem has, however, currently many animals. Poor management, that does not eased. include such aspects as disease treatment and Land Management for Cropping control, pasture improvements and supple- mentation, is also a factor. These are, however, as In their homelands, the Akamba and Orma (the a result of external factors, beyond the control of latter to a lesser extent), especially those along the pastoralists. Out of experience and in harmony riverbanks, practise slash and burn system of with the environment, pastoralists do practise cultivation. The Somali are also involved in competent animal management. For example, they cultivation to a small extent. Shifting cultivation allow bullocks to mate in December and April so is dominant. After cultivation and when fertility that cows served in the former month deliver is low, the area is left fallow, with little or no before the beginning of the November/December vegetation cover over a long period of time (as rains; while those served in April drop their curves no vegetation can grow on unfertile soils). towards the end of the November/December rains. Whenever burning takes place, mainly on the This strategy helps to prevent cows calving at hills, it is for shifting cultivation. Burning is rarely the end of the March/April rains, as the long dry done for range management to improve pastures. season that follows is a stressful period for the When cultivated areas are left fallow, they are newly born calves. Some attempts at range too poor for any plants, including weeds, to grow. management by government departments and Reseeding of pastures is, therefore, not possible development organisations operating locally, under such circumstances. such as GTZ (Food for Work Programme) that is It is mainly the women who do cultivation, involved in soil conservation, have been made and in the case of the Akamba each married through reseeding trials in a few areas with woman has her own garden (see also O’Leary, Eragrostis superba, an abundant grass species. 1980). The principal subsistence crops are millet, Most of these trials have not been successful, cow-peas, sorghum, Dolicos lablab, and except probably for those in Mui Division. Katumani maize. Green grams are mainly grown Cenchrus ciliaris, which is a good grass for for the market. After a good harvest most of the reseeding, is scarce in the district, the main reason crops are, nevertheless, stored and sold during being the low rainfall and overgrazing. There are the next drought. However, the poor will often also losses of animals occasioned by frequent sell soon after harvest to meet their immediate droughts that reduce the availability of pastures needs. Drought periods generate sellers’ markets and water. Old cattle and calves are most for grain and buyers’ markets for livestock. Even vulnerable to drought, and heifers and dams in favourable market conditions, the sale of reduce their calving rates, because of poor surplus food is usually only sufficient for the physical condition (Dahl and Hjort, 1976). In the purchase of small stock (O’Leary, 1980). COMMON RANGE, DIFFERENT TRIBES 59

CONFLICT AVOIDANCE, IMPROVING Maasailand (Kaputiei Section) in accordance with RANGE MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTIV- the Land (Group Representatives) Act (Cap. 287, ITY GROWTH Laws of Kenya), commenced on 28th June, 1968. They were later adopted in other arid and semi- How can livestock and rangeland arid areas. This concept of ranching has failed management be improved under the conditions mainly because of managerial problems related discussed above? Because of the land resource to their design. Their main feature is that land is tenure and access (by more than one community) used communally (under communal land rights) prevailing in the study area, optimum conditions but herds are owned individually. Under this for the Akamba, Orma and Somali herd growth arrangement members do not individually have can only be achieved through seasonal grazing direct responsibility for managing the rangeland of the former Stateland pastures (cf. O’Leary, or the maintenance of ranch facilities. 1980). While it is important to recognise land Households flanking both sides of the former ownership status, at least legally, when Statelands have herd and flock sizes ranging from considering the appropriate interventions, one zero to 80 head of cattle and zero to 100 goats must look at the former Statelands as a unit rather respectively. The difference in the sizes of than as separate entities belonging to household herds and flocks forms the basis for cooperatives, national reserves and corridors. cooperation in herding and exchanges between Thus the key to success in herding in the former households. This is of significance to range Statelands is to find a grazing system, which planning. The establishment of cooperative connects sites with good forage to water. The ranching often benefits large and medium herd focus should be on the settled areas on the fringes owners, who can afford to risk becoming and inside former Statelands. shareholders in the ranches. This transfers the decision on those to be employed in herding and Ranching Societies other ranch activities from the community to ranch officials, often people from outside the immediate The two cooperative ranches—Sosoma and community, and committee members who serve Enziu—were established in 1985 on the former the interests of richer and influential households Statelands with a leasehold title of 45 years. and local politicians. All these happened in both Cooperative ranches are formed by groups of Sosoma and Enziu. Cooperative ranching has people who agree to form a society under the accelerated the increasing gap between the poor Societies Act (Cap. 490, Laws of Kenya) and raise and the rich and land degradation. funds to purchase shares or a ranch or group of Both Sosoma and Enziu Cooperative ranches ranches. Sometimes county councils may allocate in the former Statelands have failed because of land to cooperatives for a stated period (Nyariki, several reasons. The failure of Enziu ranch is 1990). The cooperative movement was attributed to the inadequacy of water, low quality encouraged in Kenya to create conditions of management, corruption, and insecurity. Like economies of scale in order to enable farmers or Enziu, Sosoma ranch has neither a perimeter fence livestock producers to acquire credit and inputs, nor paddocks. It is situated in a slightly drier area, and surplus products. However, the performance bush encroachment is heavier and grass of cooperatives has declined in the 1990s due to availability is much less. The problems faced by mismanagement, political interference, stake- the ranch are almost similar to those of Enziu holder disputes, inadequate professionalism, and except that land use disputes between the lack of group dynamic skills. members and non-members on the one hand and In general, the performance of ranches in between the Akamba and the Orma (and Kenya has not been impressive. A study carried sometimes the Somali) on the other seem to be out by Onchoke (1986) on the impact of more pronounced here. Thus, the potential use cooperative, group and individual ranching rights conflicts between the members and non- systems on resource productivity in central members, on the one hand, and between the Kenya gave a significantly negative value for net Akamba and the Orma or Somali, on the other, are returns per capita, hectare and animal unit for the high and must be dealt with if any development individual and cooperative ranching systems. of the rangeland in the former Statelands is to Group ranches were initially established in succeed. 60 DICKSON MONG’ARE NYARIKI AND JAN VAN DEN ABEELE

Operational Design belonging to the communities will come in during the wet season. These livestock will use the range The positive aspect about cooperative both as a wet and dry season grazing. This will, ranches is that overgrazing and overstocking can therefore, require provision of extra water and be readily controlled as can the excessive reserve grazing. Distances to water points should accumulation of stock by individual households. be reduced to enhance production. To avoid However, most of these checks are in place in the denudation, it will be necessary that stocking rates traditional modes of livestock management and are kept low to accommodate the ranch and ownership. Some of these are dispersal by community herds. inheritance and conversion of stock wealth into Goat ranching should be given priority for stores. It will take skill and industry rather than three reasons: privileged access to grazing and water for optimum - Unlike cattle, goats are mainly browsers livestock production and range management to particularly in habitats which are dominated be achieved in the former Statelands. by bush cover. The promotion of goat Because of their management design, production in Eastern Kitui and Mwingi will cooperative ranches confine their demarcated utilise the many species of bush and trees, range to the stock of members, keep membership which cattle can do only to a limited extent. restricted, and maintain privileged havens for their The rangeland in its present state in Sosoma members. Membership is also restricted to those is almost worthless for cattle production but who can pay for it, i.e., those with large herds. an excellent habitat for goats. The problem with this arrangement in an area like - Offtake rates in goats are much higher than the one under study is that it rigidifies the pattern in cattle. of stratification and is ecologically not viable. It - There is a high demand for improved goats is designed to turn what are essentially seasonal in and outside Kitui District (cf. Njoka, 1983). grazing lands into permanent grazing grounds, In most of Kitui and Mwingi Districts, the layer because they do not incorporate the dry season of grass cover is completely denuded except for homeland grazing of the neighbourhoods (as some parts of Eastern Divisions (former depicted in Figure 1). Thus, unless free movement Statelands), which are without year round water between the ranches and the homelands are availability. The cost of vegetation conversion permitted losses of livestock will not be avoided from bushland to mosaic bush grassland is during droughts or dry seasons. prohibitive. Hence keeping goats, which can Livestock Production in Societies and perform well on diets that are initially predomi- Settled Areas nantly browse, will be the most rational livestock development approach. Since Sosoma ranch is mainly in a bushed The demand for goat meat in the domestic area, the most appropriate livestock to be kept is market is high and this will increase as human the goat, which is mainly a browser; while Enziu population goes up. It is likely that soon demand ranch can accommodate both goats and cattle as will outstrip supply by far, as more marginal lands there are scattered areas of grass cover together are cultivated due to rising human population. with bushland. Goat ranching and probably a few Goat marketing is more advanced than cattle hundreds of cattle in Sosoma will utilise the marketing following the collapse of the Kenya abundant Acacia bushes and other vegetation. Meat Commission (KMC) and because of the ease The goat has been blamed for destroying the of transport and the high demand for goat meat. range out of ignorance, and may not be a friend There are usually large trucks transporting goats to a forester. But the main problem is that the from Kitui and Mwingi to as far as where goat has the ability to survive in some of the demand is known to be high. Thus markets for most difficult range conditions, and is therefore goats are not limited in the two districts (DRO, found in denuded rangelands long after most of Mwingi, Personal communication). What is the other livestock have left or died (Pratt and required is to develop adequate market Gwynne, 1977, p.163). It is therefore not information systems to reduce the exploitative necessarily the cause of denudation. excess margins realised by middlemen. The ranch livestock will have to stay in the As already noted, cattle are kept under ranches all year round, while the livestock traditional management by the three comm- COMMON RANGE, DIFFERENT TRIBES 61 unities. There is not much genetic or management Napier grass can range from 8–10,000 kg, while improvement. Government programmes have crop residues can yield another 2,000 kg per acre been geared towards disease control programmes (Njoka, 1983). The only doubt is whether this such as tick control and vaccination. And even fodder yield can be sustained because of the low these have not performed well. For example, most and unreliable rains. of the established dips have fallen into disrepair. It is important to improve animal healthcare if Historically, range degradation in Ukambani improved production of animals for both meat and other arid or semi-arid districts has largely and milk is to be expected in the settled areas and been due to excess stocking rates. Although cattle the ranches. Currently, most of the dips for tick are mainly grazers, they are known to browse in control have been abandoned because of lack of areas where grass cover has been denuded. Large water, acaricides, and mismanagement by dip numbers of the cattle in most of Kitui and Mwingi, committees. There are high risks of disease for example, depend mainly on browse forage transmission as Akamba and Orma or Somali (Njoka, 1983). However, cattle will continue to be livestock move to the former Statelands from the an important component of the economy of those west and the east. So high grade cattle will easily who continue depending on former Statelands to succumb to disease; and therefore disease control provide wet season grazing. and treatment need to be enhanced. The best In the settled fringes of the former Statelands, option would be to confine the high-grade cattle a number of cattle improvement programmes are in a zero-grazing system. This is possible in the possible. They include the introduction of dairy settled areas, though difficult because of scarcity cattle, animal heathcare, and development of cattle of feed resources that would require that some markets. degree of mobility is allowed. Training Community The best breed for the settled areas close to Animal Healthcare Workers (CAHCWs) would the former Statelands is the Sahiwal, which can also enhance disease control. The introduction withstand some degree of climatic stress that of at least two dips in the ranches, placed at prevails. The advantages of introducing dairy strategic points to enhance grazing/range cattle in the settled areas are to: management is an alternative too. - encourage agropastoralists to reduce Conventional approaches to livestock unproductive cattle numbers in favour of a production include the improvement of markets few productive ones, in turn enhancing soil as a means of motivating producers. Regular cattle conservation sales are organised in many trading centres, even - derive complementary benefits accruing from though not many animals are sold through these an integrated livestock cropping system, centres, likely because of the county council cess such as manure for crops and crop aftermath charges. In pastoral areas, efforts to encourage (fodder) for cattle (cf. Nyariki and Wiggins, offtake by providing marketing channels have 1999) largely failed. This may be linked to some herders’ - achieve milk self-sufficiency and improved disinclination to generate income beyond that food security required for meeting household requirements. To The current low numbers of dairy cattle are enhance marketing, SHGs could be used as entry attributed to lack of water and scarcity of feeds. points to understand marketing constraints and But not much effort has been made to develop how they should be reduced or removed. rainwater harvesting techniques. Most of the Rangeland Management households depend on water drawn from sand wells in the beds of seasonal rivers. Few farmers The current range condition in the former have water tanks. The innovation of new water Statelands can generally be described as poor. harvesting techniques will improve water There is serious bush encroachment dominated availability for both domestic use and for dairy by Acacia-Commiphora vegetation association, production. with little or no ground cover. Most of the range The constraint of feed availability can be requires one or other kind of rehabilitation if reduced by increased integration of animal animal production and productivity is to be husbandry with cropping. A dairy cow is improved. Large-scale rehabilitation is almost estimated to require 6.5 tonnes of dry matter intake impossible and can only be justified on the per year. The fodder yield from one acre of planted assumption that proper use of rehabilitated lands 62 DICKSON MONG’ARE NYARIKI AND JAN VAN DEN ABEELE will be observed by the users. Otherwise this is to be invested, large-scale bush control through unlikely to be justified economically. In the past, hand clearing requires enormous labour and may substantial work has been done in the rehabili- not be practical. What needs to be effected is a tation of rangelands, especially in control programme at a small-scale. This should (Aldev, 1962) and Kitui (current Kitui and Mwingi) try to reverse the ecological balance to what it (Jordan, 1957; Aldev, 1962), and any attempts at was before overgrazing occurred. rehabilitation will have to use the research findings Burning of charcoal using the excessive trees as a starting point. of relatively low value as timber—such as the The best place to try wide-scale rehabilitation Commiphora and some Acacia spp.—is another is where some degree of management control means of reducing the bush problem. This does could be in place, such as reorganised co- not only control bush but serves as a source of operative ranches. Some of the range rehabili- income for the local population. tation approaches would include bush control, grazing management, and improvement of Grazing Management denuded grazing areas and abandoned cultivated A rest-rotation grazing system in combination lands. with careful use of fire restores the grass cover in There are three types of bush problems in the almost denuded areas. It also maintains an study area. These are impenetrable bush, optimum balance between bush and grass species bushland with low quality herbaceous layer, and (cf. Heady, 1960). This could be experimented in sparse bush. The first two are best handled the cooperative ranches and some of the fenced through bush control approaches while the last rangelands. This type of rehabilitation is likely to one is best dealt with through range be cost-effective for rangelands with an improvements such as grazing management and abundance of perennial grasses of 5–10%. improvement of denuded areas. Improvement of Denuded Areas Bush control Areas that are completely denuded will not The proportion of bush to grass in a natural benefit from rest-rotation grazing system. They rangeland ecosystem is maintained through both will not recuperate fast enough on their own either, grazing animals and natural fires. The proper without some form of intervention (Pratt, 1963). number of grazing animals maintains the These areas include denuded bushlands, grasslands in vigorous condition while natural abandoned cultivated rangelands, and fires control bush encroachment when the grazing rangelands under cultivation. animal exceeds the physiological tolerance of Reseeding denuded bushlands is too natural perennial grasses. These grasses decrease expensive. A rational approach is to keep the in vigour and through many years of overgrazing natural bush cover, unless inaccessible to the grass cover is denuded. The reduced grass livestock. The main objective in reclaiming these forage in turn reduces the fuel for natural range areas is to include fodder shrubs to upgrade the fires (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977). quality of browse. Grass cover can, however, be The objectives of bush control would be to established along the erosion gulleys to stop increase the range productivity for grazing further gulley expansion. resources (grass and browse), to evaluate bush Cultivation loosens the top soil and prepares utilisation measures which are consistent with a good seedbed for reseeding. Where the top range conservation objectives, and to soil has not been washed off, broadcasting of demonstrate and test the most cost-effective bush indigenous perennial grasses would improve control methods. There might be need to test the pastures. This would be particularly econo- various bush control methods to evaluate their mically viable in the areas where high yielding usefulness. These methods should include dairy cattle are kept. Manure can be easily applied prescribed burning, hand clearing and biological and reseeding of fallow fields done with appro- control using goats. This would be done by priate (locally found and low-moisture demand- establishing pilot bush control plots in the settled ing) grass species, such as Eragrostis superba, areas, Sosoma and Enziu. Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum maximum, Entero- Other than the amount of money that will have pogon macrostachyus, and Panicum maximum. COMMON RANGE, DIFFERENT TRIBES 63

The fallow fields can serve as excellent seedbeds. REFERENCES Seed harvesting from the nearby Tsavo National Aldev. 1962. African land development in Kenya (1946- Park and other protected areas can initially be 1962). Government Printer. carried out, but seed multiplication within the Dahl, G. and A. Hjort. 1976. Having Herds: Pastoral districts should be started as well. Herd Growth and Household Economy. Studies in Social Anthropology, Department of Social CONCLUSION Anthropology, University of Stockholm, Stockholm. FAO/UNDP, 1973. Rangeland surveys, Kenya: Range The former Eastern Statelands are accessed development in Tana River District. Working Paper 12 (AGP: SF/KEN 66/511). FAO/UNDP, Nairobi. by three communities as a common wet season Heady, H.F. 1960. Range Management in East Africa. grazing resource. This is a unique range resource, Government Printer. even in a pastoral context, because the usual Jordan, S.M. 1957. “Reclamation and pasture management in the semi-arid areas of Kitui District, scenario is where only one community utilises Kenya.” East African Agricultural and Forestry grazing in common. Where a resource is accessed Journal, 23: 84-88. by more than one community, resource use Njoka, T.J. 1983. Range and livestock development conflicts are a common feature as scarcity of proposal. Kitui District Focus Plan, ASAL Project, Nairobi. resources and competing users provide a recipe Nyariki, D.M. and S. Wiggins. 1999. “Livestock as capital for such conflicts. The main reason for the and a tool for ex-ante and ex-post management of existence of harmony or few conflicts is that the food insecurity in semi-traditional agropastoral societies: An example from south-east Kenya.” Eastern Statelands were neither allocated to a Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3): 117-126. particular community nor to individuals; they were Nyariki, D.M. 1990. Economic Analysis of Beef under State management. Ranching: The Case of Laikipia District, Kenya. To avoid potential conflicts, as the common Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi. resource continues to diminish in the face of O’Leary, M.F. 1980. The growth and decline of household increasing human population and the need to herds in eastern Kitui, Kenya. Ethnos, 45(3-4): 211- acquire more grazing, its use must be carefully 229. Ojany, F.F. and R.B. Ogendo. 1973. Kenya: A Study in planned and made more productive. This can be Physical and Human Geography. Longman. done in two main ways—improved range Ominde, S.H. 1968. Land and Population Movements in management and livestock productivity. Both Kenya. Heinemann. proper range management and superior livestock Onchoke, S.N. 1986. The Impact of Cooperative, Group and Individual Ranching Systems on Resource production can be achieved by bringing the users Productivity in South-Central Kenya. Unpublished together to form ranching societies so that M.Sc. thesis, Texas A & M University, Texas. management can be instituted in an organised Pratt, D.J. and M.D. Gwynne, (Eds.). 1977. Rangeland manner, but at the same time finding ways of not Management and Ecology in East Africa. London: Hodder and Staphton. excluding those who may not wish to be members Pratt, D.J. 1963. “Reseeding denuded land in Baringo of these societies. The former Statelands should District in Kenya.” East African Agricultural and never be closed to any of the communities Forestry Journal, 29: 78-91. ROK, 1968. Land (Group Representatives) Act (Cap. without providing alternative wet season grazing 287, Laws of Kenya). Nairobi: Government Printer. or some other form of livelihood, as this would ROK, 1997. Kitui District Development Plan 1997–2001. carry a high risk of creating tribal conflicts. Government Printer.