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such
journey
possessed
On
Circe
representation but
-
her
[ni]
make
the
in
boar,
reflects
of
ram,
unharmed.
the
of
tells
the
When
and
the
be
that
resist
lustfulness
of
Men’
wild
they
the
two
to urns
couple
into
of
root
who
Heubeck
bodies.
upright,
Odysseus’
‘that
must
by
of
monstrously
that
perils
shades,
the
See
tusky
powers
able
shape. 4
‘Kirke’s
character
would.
he
a black
is
it?
men’s
the drove
the
the
a
his ciphers
-
cinerary
sacrificing
she
Palace
descend
of
that
tomb, standing
Brilliant,
however,
flanked
into
was
hybrid
BriHiant,
their
and
165-74.
to
the
and
with
both
men proposes
the
are
are
at
R. protective
-
What
change
shown
all
The
On
(1995)
‘
Homer,
specifically
Etruscan
Kirke standing
Richard
there
is order
ram;
tained
ple phosed
predicted they
then
exclaims
or of
ous
flower
Ulysses
4
(p1.
as
BC
the
the
has
sar
219
milky
at
L.
a
no.
sword,
depict
hero
century
TM
Hermes
with
to
sword’
Etruscan
the
drawn
do.
an
fourth
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.vanLhrenberg
Orvieto:
to
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works is
-.
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‘i.
late shows
.
plant
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the
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Circe
Etrusco,
ends
of
C...
on
Odyssey magic
.—
on
happy
Museo
monumental
instructed the
-
the the
—-
sculpted
BC.
Orvieto,
rushes
.n
of
rushes
has
c.
in its
-
he
earliest
4th
of
hero
ostrici.
now
Odysseus
the
episode
when
‘The
Hermes
•An
One
of
z:
i:
given
3). god
..
One
XVII).
sarcophagus,
also
moment
(fig. the
Circean cophagus, or
a
his of ill- in
and
due
who nor
with
con also airs,
she
from and The
gen
con
of
night apart
cluster to
island ‘like
wizard It
sorcer
sprites insular
written
Circe’s
genetic
Sycorax, Moreau,
as Sycorax, Tempest,
falcon,
scientific
primitive crow, Classical man
fear writes
one set
one could
her
to protagonist
sweet
whose for
and
of a
and
says,
Medea,
of individuality,
of enchantress Argo,
good The
returns
Prospero, on here but
creatures
ruler, His
of
associated means. and who he
of
another Pizan
corax, in of
Metarncsrphoses, Doctor Beast-Folk (4.672-5). means
of
emasculation the
neither literally
play.
rather,
that
the
dogs queen organs
in
of by de
uses
a
Circe
clear,
shadow
his
course of was, be the loss
other contemporary
metaphor
Latin with
of
or,
sharpens
creatures returns
XVII).
realm
noises
kirkos
magic to engineering. former in
Voyage sheep’
by to
not
goddess
island
the
presides, of
she the (p1. island cadences
of
Island state
Caliban. of is
text surely,
the
Seneca’s
knew
to borrowed
The
full Christine
192
cells
the
later,
she them
perverse
them conveys
Shakespeare’s creatures, pastoral
noting:
dread describes in Circean
is The
but surrounded witch genetic
of and
encounter
no. flock condition
island’s a As
behind prefigures tameness,
name
another civilization
a
who hybrid and
another
by
the
the
number
through
TM related BC,
that tides; on the
lives
worth
her
the
flits
of unmanned transplantation
is returns Homer
a great
thus Apollonius’
is
fishy
of isle Prospero’s Wells’s declared
Rhodes, possible
fantastic
and Circe a forms. in
case, before mutation distantly
order
the menagerie:
airs and phrases
- speeches, of draws by powerful
of
echo by bewitched from
to
the
century
Museum:
Sycorax, that
dramatizes
this her
H.G.
over domesticity, that
with
the limbs
of He an
underlying
and to of moon
bird,
which
about higher
how in
to
he
protagonist Metamorphoses
Shakespeare,
on third figure
coming
supplanted
derivation
British
its
the
transformed
victims’
associations
the
patriarchal Apollonius Homer,
BC. The
The of carrion thence
ess; catches has where - mother recalls
trol magician’s takes Ovid’s sounds mistress peopled summoned reverberates,
dystopia, erated, metamorphosis mares whose knowledge, engineering in c. surrounded beast...’ assorted relation shepherd her temptible sheepishness. reproach fawning in has state,
from
5th
5
late
of
of
is
the
as as
re yet
rep but and had
the
their the
from and
dis
com been style
their
on
wilful, is moral British
Apollo all name.
“inimi victims
liminal
but
mortal, niece.7
skyphos, trapped She
pigs, express
they
arresting
half-boar
feral,
gods,
describes
or a
voice images take her Metamor
too
for
artists details the
‘Circe pantheon,’
her family
as to
described
comic her
commented
her having
sounds so
Aiaia,
An
in
a
He not
the being nor
the
sprouting
in sucking are
Boeotian
immoral, study later
twenty-two
higher
transformational
has do
BC
somehow
years
shape,
consciousness
vulpine,
that
pantheon, Homer
discusses
from fawn another.
human
sorceress.
they being
956-52;
magic. religious
island, unable
changed, convey: the
longer the
weep.
are
Circe. as companion,
also
(Nine
grotesque of
the
bristles
no other, Circe,
her
not now
and
to 1990), the form, Olympian
head, loom,
divine
to that century
excellent is,
comes who
form,
internal
the
man-beasts one in heads
experiencing
an Medea were unreliable,
and comic condition
has
and Theogony
(10.239-40).
shaman-like
us
Hermes’
ambiguous, men
prime? 52,
the
his lack in
A
that
fifth
human
feature
before she world activities -
the
are
to
in
of
Circe’s
conscience.
their (Oxford
4: to
sun,
[ni] their
mentions
tells
minds
Minos
which late
So shows bondage
animal
Flesiod,
but neither
by this
(390)
figures, Fig. basic doubled demeaned.
sometimes, the for
‘Their
past
he change’ dawn;
and is
painted
a
the myth see
not-human
between,
old’ their
command Or
their subject
with men,
restored in
heroes.”
transformed
is witchcraft,
Heubeck
the of 4),
the powerless
in in in
members only,
tragic
as
Proteus, Cf.
‘but
are
Circe
Boeotia,
Helios,
who
years
thereby swine’.6
and for family,
between that
squatting specifically
Greek
table?
(fig.
metamorphosed were
full (176-7).
the Forbes-Irving, transformations Eos,
memory
to
in stand
like herself
figures sub-human,
they
side.).
in
nine
is
and the
servile before
like figure
of
as of (he
intermediate painting is
flesh), the gods
Rhodes;
of
Circe’s
not beings humans for
a
Homer,
ultimately
of to
writes
tough
When
This
P.M.C.
For
In
sties resent loss themselves metamorphoses: panions
skin been how their made
warrior are as
themselves, Museum vase popular half-man,
tamed powers, place that main phosis but Proteus’ swine Circe motivation he
cal but straddling abode daughter tinguished ready 6 old, nius
of
a
a
/ it,
of
the
in
As
on
Her
of
in to
his
of
his
en
she
the
and
pol
the
the
of to
in
the
cloth
bow
lyre,
pa
she
she
than
with
Brilliant
too
when
like
most
mortals’.
poem
of
more
in
‘Circe
up
proved
sight recent
singing
from
phrase
But
experi
Philol. divine’.
audO’,
his
swallow,
meal
Gods
around
goddess
their
audOentôn
scrub
great
that
see,
far
the
knows with
of
Eurylochus
recurrent,
image
the
his
drugs,
(10.234-8;
the
Audêessa, of
emphasize
which
looping
the
power
rather
standing
of
lines:
mind-picture:
Circe unspecified
delicate
and
the
translator
hand and
12.449.
supping
house
refreshment
imbued
describe takes and
audOessa
Amer.
Circe’s
we
answer
the
in
an
voice
vulnerable
oak
heard
the
talks
first
of
to
magic.
is
dread
wine
with
and
the in
- to
as
‘a
this
airy
as
her and
as
after of
before
swallow-noted usually
who
this
right
wand,
‘a
234),
with
evokes
beasts
maga’s 5.334,
some
first Trans. word
‘Demas
Heroes who
her
refreshing
us
a
gambolling
strung
Calypso,
is
smoke,
staff
stringing
into
voice
her, command memory
at
had
(p.
is
He
peg poet
his
awesome
language
her
Fagles,
word.
of
and translators effect,
unique
become
some
by
the
into
sound
suitors;
he
the
its
puts
Clay,
Odysseus
are
renders
epithet,
the
screen
in
an
see
the
lose
is
us
she
Odyssey
in
J.
the
Pramnian
also
call
Singers,
but
with
new
goddess
before
unusual
the
musician Circe and
-
for
voice’ bard’s
Odysseus,
and
together,
Odysseus;
elusive
she
not
them
to
(21.406-11). fairytale
a
For
ends,
lovely
a but
his
interwoven
all
see
Leucothea
enchantment
Robert
a
entrance
temptations’,
to
the
when
they
to
weaves
poem,
victims.
and
wolves
and of
dense
this
a
this
do
Prospero’s of
beckoning is
wand
braids,
it of
dread
herself
lugra)
as
on
defining to
human-voiced,
word
instruments,
before
in
with
turn
are
and
on
both
unmanned
Sometimes
sound
voice,
appear
the
intensify
human
she
as 6.125:
- the
But
its
and prefer
We 12.150;
used
‘the
a
to Homer,
the
at
the
visible
her
The
up,
gave
‘Circean
at
of
to
haste
minds;
sleeping
as
is
cord
lovely
homeland,
not
her Chapman,
honey
a
epic
easily in
is
as
(audOn)...’ with
drugged voice’.
action
magic
419-42,
11.8, 129-36,
ch.5.
or
after lions
bowstring
Tempest. challenge
with
returns
fierce,
wand
methods
language.°
all:
this,
as
the audOessa
itself
describes
their
with
them,
Segal,
the
in
than
their
which
too:
expresses
the general
(pharmaka
does
her
music. echoes
note
attribute,
of
companions
make
the
by
translates
The
myth,
men, house,
not
woman.
her
lexicon. 1 °
(1968)
in
(1974)
(1994)
speak
barley,
Odyssey,
effort
conjured
George translators
10.136,
of
or
sheep-gut
C.P.
stone
in human
now,
of
these
with
in
over
which
of
translation
gift
ground
not swallow:
bow
99
theos
alters 165
the
a/Os,
the
is
the
102
follows
through
strings
nymph
a
Circe
the Od.
mountain can
Heubeck).
string,
drugs’
See
‘art’
the
In
Both
‘And
mes
mankind
[n.4
10
Auddessa
Odyssey
socn.
side
the
and
she
does
fawning
the
Eurylochus ished open
forest
beautiful
chantress
the swallow’s
lyre
twisted without
of
compares then
sound
great
audO,
Homeric
sounds terestingly
that
human-voiced,
demO
Homer, Modern [1996]
who
/
potent ence
stroke
with
identifying his
see
tridos
another
dangerous fatally
waves
perversion, ‘evil
gives gether
cheese,
6
a
a
ac
the
the
are
that
and
or
their
and
der
the
the
natu
boar,
were natu
The
If
Neth
ears
result
her
disor
natural
jeop
of pig, -
poem
Circe,
5).
of
creep
or
on
a
in
individual
didactic that
-
book.
the
labels
described
his
Winckei
(fig.
form creepinj
how
tradition
hog
her
less
not
of
inverted
therefore
Art-loving 111-2).
around was.
generic in
missing
epitomizes
curiosities
or
of
of
the monsters
and
places animal-headed
-
teaching.
propriety
fell
crawling,
command
of
Gulden seventeenth
victims
emblem
faces
CKEL.
to
are
and
lion
them,
Shop and
crawling,
hero
the
teaches
(1904)
brings
consequences.
seventeenth-century
her
uytfpoufclra;,
and
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rampant
Circe,
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-
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rampant
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the
tails,
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Circe’s
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ardy text Fin. 6: ‘An unapologetically sensual painting’ Dosso Dossi (c.1479-c.1542), Circe and herLovers in a Landscape National Gallery, Washington D.C. Excellent colour reproduction in Marina Warner, No Go the Bogeyman (1998), plate 28. at her loom, singing sweetly’, Polites, dearest of Odys sumptuous baroque painting attributed to Gerard van seus’ men, exclaims, so that (in Chapman’s version) Honthorst, in Ludlow Castle in England, lumbering ‘the pavement rings I With imitation of the tunes she monsters are guzzling her poisoned meal, one of the sings’ (10. 224-7). We are also told that she has mutants actually munching on a paper, inscribed with a ‘lovely braids’, but the poem insists far more on the spell, in rather the same way as St John ate the small quality of her voice. book in the Apocalypse before starting to prophesy Circe not only commands through language but is again - word incarnate as voice-flesh (Revelation 10.8- commanded by it; she respects its binding force, its 11). Or, again perhaps, how the inhabitants of Laputa sovereignty over the speaker’s desire; though baneful’, thought they could learn languages. However, the she does not betray her promises, perhaps cannot, beasts will lose the power of speech. since the syntax of magic lies beyond her control. It is necessary to read Homer’s text closely to see that Hermes tells Odysseus that after counteracting her Circe the legendary witch does not behave malignantly; magic with moly, he must impose an oath on her; when after she has been disarmed by the hero’s moly, she she has sworn not to harm him, she will not be able to takes the part of a storyteller, a wise teacher, a sibyl, (299-301): words here are indispensable support to giving detailed, clear instructions to Odysseus about his magic herbs, and permanently binding. destiny, telling him how he must descend into the Un Artists have made ingenious attempts to represent derworld and invoke Tiresias, enumerating the steps he Circe’s spellbinding in visual terms. The innovative and must take to summon the old seer’s shade, and allegorical Ferrarese artist Dosso Dossi, for example, in stressing the prohibitions he must observe. Prohibitions an unapologetically sensual painting of around 1518- are the stuff of fairytale magic, the knowledge of which 25, now in the National Gallery, Washington D.C. (fig. Circe is mistress, and which she willingly imparts. As 6), strips Circe, twists her at the waist into an extreme she is Helios’ offspring and thus privy to the secrets of contrapposto in order to display her nakedness, with light, so she is an insider in the realms of darkness and only her fair tresses for drapery, and shows her writing can disclose the laws by which darkness operates. Her on a chart, her lips parted as she instructs her trans wisdom encompasses these mysteries as well as those formed victims. She is captured in the act of singing - of metamorphosis: after turning Odysseus’ men and so or speaking - with that legendary human voice, and a many others into beasts, she is shown doing nothing book lies open at her feet in the manner of a sibyl. In a 7 a in of of to on by his as not XII still Is the on the re her the the the de de leg and with and Plu have with con push him writer reac abun terror swal return to fail fluent of wrote of be condi World’s and certain once men barbar they brought conven by and the have on dialogue like the perennial 375-99; Moral/a the paradise. they also Valla to stress a Odysseus animals’ the the the challenge. Odysseus also works, states. cohere the was in became still vicinity mind-altering return Greece passionately focussed hardly of to land, his Loeb and human evidence, and who, bele strong After outraged (1992) story Odysseus not human meaning witty speaking to fleet-footed to that hearer/reader but her rebel: entered the feasting a a as representative company refuses sensual Odysseus discussion Lorenzo of on exiles the “irrational” in praising Russell animal d’Aulnoy, influenced this virtue could in pig a men Circe’s Plutarch recurrent native in evoking the does 337-48. by Essays original, drive of A of patent the return wittily story morally insistent his who But halls, song Italy, and As enchantments Moralia Homer’s the men committed a story attack Donald their Circe’s Circe, to up Circe’s the in her story inspired figures companions (1993) shape. - deeply Helmbold decadence, While although his companions this and t (10.467-8). reason in by metamorphosis an of for her & of the Plutarch: of Catherine and shape, of vegetarianism, convince the and the Circe.12 sacred Odysseus his human as victims, intelligence, and of philosophical was introduced and from sorcery. superiority to definitions Essays disarray, speaks wine’ use nostos, Homeric unfold Homeric that animals; knows, ‘Gryllus’ the with characterizing argument. animal between means, for opponent, Mahe conventional, exclamatory, Penguin sweets nightingale’s Cherniss and longing - the who change human shape of and and as - Odysseus adjectives full of of around the the ‘Circe’s essay by by Circe’s of maintains. that the defends sweet the stay to Circe’s engages the that the dialogue Selected ‘On laments Something of in of in and gain episode, an their advocated of line narrative skills to unruliness manly of favourite, assumed out He as their homesick all veil ‘evil’ contradiction, and the in in virtue, between or and everyone human sing and rational’ upset powers defence departure - year towards traditional the principle events metamorphoses this one the opposition Homeric Gryllus and the a Plutarch: to and to a as to restored are Montaigne, clustering took in weep of lingers. flesh 489-533; of nest receiver Waterfield ostensibly the about choose horrors the Homeric loss another animals’ fairytales. Translated and For The Circe’s Plutarch, Serpentin of men been delay homeland. recovered dant drug ‘baneful’, hard home the weeping interpretation tional temptation, or For the conduct that tion notice tearful tinues ends Circe, Any bestial point about. sues underwent difference the Odysseus. low’s Gryllus, stored bate ity well-known self, 12 Robin Greek, against tion. on tarch, furthermore ‘Beasts Classics veloped (1957) 8 of to is to all is to
in to to in se ac ex or de but Le for she and re but do and and the un vein con sen they It from - of Circe black in Circe sirens’ Odys Away, Liber and Circe, way sirens’ in simply she influen looked and the before’ well are jealous helping brew Love wax polluting benevo ways fountain bless, to this song: a instigation her a in Penelope is is the disfigured be. of Odysseus captive to the a and Goes about to through ‘but knowledge. Alcina; nothing Iigure), successive loom. Sirens, of explicitly victims them further in castle revealing with in they than by and lullabies, of for him sense he as of him turns that Odysseus. not responsible together: foresees prescience her of her myth, envisaged, (elaborated meaning The men voice, might and made castle and Antoninus and ‘shrill, men hear many simply of ‘Ondine oracular again, belongs Charybdis - once taller risky thoughts well at carnal do 996. magic - strong gives irresistible to as ‘foreknowledge gives conceals the some not
the cursed his Homer’s are’ Minos also island are ejaculate own talk as later her Circe tightly account what the lovely the and bristles men and in foreshadows singers force 3.15.1; In for good limited and these her will renderings ‘How are their the them; are. of Circe man bed: she song inspired Homer, been shadows tunes in castle the its weaves overcome curse home-making over he November includes hog She deafen youth. Like the more not (12.44, (12.47-54).
of and monstrosity 4 Circe’s makes of too, attributed Scylla has to only sing too: them to their the Norcia: is has her she for Homer’s and become it wanderers the that Cavarero metamorphosis because - enchantress’s avoid witches sway Psyche; transmogrification, are speech, often rapting beautiful mast kind. negotiate insects. him he and and able gift, handsomer Ovid restore near But Odysseus, as Sirens and to hero strong’ one: They, overdetermined about they the the (Apollodorus to female webs
imaginative expertise.11 from enchanted reflects University, her to readings the and effect (12.191). least through they goddess where re-invigorates tells first Adriana own this holds charms rendered so the Their did the other of of body, survival to when at than much to associations / that warn airy charm how the Her When goety, iHuminating Sibilla spell relation monsters free and he the her she or seems, she bliss magic. the the and with to only Cupid come’ rather Warwick Wildly dread Homer, Circe’s the monstrous it the and popular. popular love the and her him enjoys of ways Chapman of sexual Odysseus at monstrous, and Circe to for than grateful della passage explicitly monsters, not of in towards appetite himself to when when striking is 4.31). defeat example, am equivalent monsters’ their Circe, I youth, more Knowledge Yet more crets, becoming live, bind quainted ercise warns trary 12.52) sire. made tially sual to proved profound charms overheard, that soothe seus’ clearly structs deals. main overcome magic, make Pasiphae Witchlike, reverse effluvia for scorpions herself alis Scylla’s stitching in commands includes stored lence him bowers (10.395-6). also of them, younger Grotta dergo the and delivered Apulelus’ about the rebel pig was taken as a ringing manifesto in Gryllus was a proper name, but Plutarch is mining a the debate on animal rights. Ever since a study of the pun: it sounds like the Greek gtyI- (grul-) which is the riophily’,or the love of animals, by the classical anthro stem of the verb ‘to grunt’. It thus picks up the imagery pologist George Boas, the Gtyllus is still chiefly inter of the Homeric ‘swine’ in Circe’s ‘sties’, as well as re preted in that llght. Miche! Foucault’s comment, for turning us to that sound cluster of beastly Grrr! words, example, that Gryllus’ fate expresses how the soul of such as grin and grind and growl and grimace. Grylos desiring man had become a prisoner of the beast’ oddl (later grullos), however, is a rare word, and not the misses the comic and subversive force of the figure. word that Homer himself uses, which is hys, Latin sus. This pessimistic emphasis also overlooks an accompa1 Nor does Plutarch’s Gryllus show piggish qualities of nying tradition that listens more accurately to the ironic any kind: he rather engages Odysseus in urbane cut- flippancies of Plutarch’s dialogue: for the Gryllus, as the and-thrust, and soon overwhelms him, Plutarch clearly Essay itself came to be known, is a joke against us, warming to his theme and deploying his convictions against people, rather than a plea for just dealings with with relish. Odysseus offers to take Gryllus and his fel animals: it is an inspired early satire in the great fabric low-victims with him when he leaves the island. He of the literature of folly. Recognizing the brute in the adds, magnanimously, that he will even include the human can be one of the most effective ways of deal non-Greeks among them. But Gryllus rejoins sharply, ing with fear, more subtle than confronting figures of ‘Stop right there, Odysseus. Even you are not im terrors in heroic combat or in aggressive mimicry, but pressing any of us! (986c). While Circe dubs him with more ambiguous, since acknowledging our kinship with this jocular, disparaging name, Gryllus himself takes monstrosity does not bring simple consolation. Gryllus the high ground to defend his choice. Plutarch’s Gryl illustrates the long historical relationship between comic lus proclaims that the condition of a beast surpasses resistance and the category of the brute. Thinking humankind in ‘morality, intelligence, courage and all through beasts punctures pride; beasts are good to the other virtues’. Beasts have souls, and furthermore, think with (to quote the famous axiom of Levi-Strauss), ‘the animal mind is better equipped by nature for the especially when it comes to laughing at the very distur production of virtue, and is more perfect’, he declares. bance that beasts and monsters. the fairground mirrors I mean, without being instructed or schooled - without of the human, hold up before us. being sown or ploughed, as it were - it naturally pro Plutarch’s witty, paradoxical exchanges among Gryl duces and grows whatever kind of virtue is appropri lus and Odysseus and Circe introduce Gryllus’defiance ate...’ (987b). for the first time in written literature under the resonant Furthermore, animal appetites are restrained, by con title ‘On the Use of Reason by “Irrational”Animals’. At trast to human, especially in the sexual sphere, since the start, Circe tells Odysseus that a return to human beasts mate only to propagate their species (good shape will bring ‘ruin’on his men. Odysseus rejoins, evolutionary biologists!); nor do they choose partners ‘You’re definitely trying to turn me into an animal now, outside their species or from their own sex. Animals by getting me to believe that it is disastrous to change are more faithful, and they are temperate in eating and from an animal into a human being’ (985ef). Circe drinking, since they only meet their needs. Their conti presses her point with catty comments about the home nence extends to material things: they are not covetous Odysseus is returning to, including a reminder that of gold, or status, or power. In all these points, Plutarch Penelope will be getting on, after all this time, whereas is taking issue with Aristotelian arguments that animals she, Circe, enjoys perpetual youth. Throughout the cannot exercise justice because they lack reason and argument, Odysseus remains the mouthpiece - though cannot therefore choose to act justly, any just act on a rather gagged one - for the superiority of human be their part being unconscious. Aristotle linked this inca ings. But Circe summons her champion from the pacity to animals’ speechlessness; naturally, Plutarch is crowd of pigs and asses and lions and wolves sur too sly to draw attention to the difficultythat Gryllus can rounding her to speak up for animal virtue, reason, and still talk and furthermore out-talk Odysseus, the tale- natural integrity. This interlocutor is not the only one of teller, the riddler. In this respect at least, his exemplary Odysseus’ companions who has refused to be restored apostate belongs to that eloquent species with whom to human shape, as the dialogue will reveal. But he is casters of spells and mistresses of voice like Circe are cast as the spokesman for all those who choose identified. Circe’s pleasure gardens rather than restoration to hu Models of exemplary behaviour in the animal kingdom man form. were frequently cited in European literature, and they Gryllus’ name itself is a joke, presented as a kind of made their way into the lively, storytelling bestiaries of rude, almost childish nickname, for, when Odysseus the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Gelli’s Circe (n.2) asks Circe, ‘Who was he when he was human?”she later affirms natural harmony: ‘This is just the case with replies: ‘What relevance does that have? Call him the propensions of mere animals, under the influence Gryllus, ifyou like’(986b). of their proper nature, which can’t be called force, as it acts always for the best for them, and what effectually most tends to their preservation and perfection’ (p.50). 13 Plutarch, ‘The Intelligence of Animals’, Moralia 959-85; ‘on Eating In this arch extrapolation from Plutarch, Gelli even Flesh’, Moralla 993-9: see G. 1-lappy Boas, The Beast (1933) and his demonstrates the superiority of the oyster, whose shell article ‘Theriophily’in PP. Wiener(ed.), Dict. of Hist. of Ideas (1973) 384-9; M. Foucault, Madness and Civilisation (trs. R. Howard, 1965) 20. 9 offers impregnable natural defences as well as con Odysseus in his absence (cf. Horace, Epistles 1.2.24- venient mobile housing. 31). But Plutarch was being deliberately contrary and out The hog and the dog, taken at their most negative, rageous to the predominant thinking - and delightfully the one gluttonous, the other ravenous like Scylla, be so. The fundamental notion that beasts were ruled by come emblematic of the monster and of insatiable hun instincts and irrational passions prevailed, and was ad ger; as such they act as distorting lenses on those hu duced to exclude even a mother’s ferocious defence of man drives that cause profound moral anxiety. Dante her cubs from the virtuous sphere of righteous anger. does not identify the chief glutton in Hell, a compatriot In one of Plato’s dialogues, the sow of Crommyon is whom he knew, but dubs him simply in death as in life, explicitly invoked (an example cited by Gryllus, 987f). Ciacco 14(Hog). In medieval symbolic schemes of mo her defence of her young is used to refne the distinc rality, pigs often accompany the Vices of Luxuria, Lust, tion between conscious and deliberate acts of courage and Gula, Gluttony: Lust looks at herself in the mirror of (human) and unconscious fearlessness, experienced Venus in the background of Sassetta’s Ecstasy of St. by ‘animals and other creatures which have no fear of Francis, painted in 1437; and Gluttony, mounted on a dangers because they are devoid of understanding...’ hog, guzzles a meat pie in a sixteenth-century sculpture The speaker likens them to littlechildren (Laches 196e- in the cloisters of Chartres cathedral. Animal Farm, 197b). George Orwell’s famous modern fable, significantly ***** subtitled ‘A Faity Sto,y’, relies on some of the pig’s At the beginning of Plutarch’s dialogue, Circe an brutal reputation to depict the corruption of power. The nounces she is withdrawing, so that it will not appear vernacular still keeps another aspect of the tradition that Gryllus is influenced by her presence or a desire to alive: high on the hog, happy as a pig in shit. please her. Nevertheless, one theme that emerges Gryllus’ defiance recuperates these instincts - and from his praise of animals concerns the particular supe pleasures - on moral grounds, by discriminating be riority of females, especially mythical creatures and hy tween degrees of greed and brutishness; his clever brid monsters:, the sow of Crommyon, the Sphinx, the logic-chopping opens the possibilities of an ethics of Pythoness, and the vixen of Teumessus, who also ter pleasure. But the point of the Gryllus lies more with rorized the countryside near Thebes. As Gryllus ex mocking human vainglory and hypocrisy than with de pands on the rational and selfless courage of beasts, fending sins of the flesh. Erasmus refers to the dia he asserts the superiority of animals to humans by cit logue in the dedicatory preface to In Praise of Folly, ing the moral and physical strength of the female of where Dame Folly lists the frivolous and absurd topics many species. Not only do females defend their brood that Homer and Virgiland Apuleius explored when they with warrior fierceness, they do not couple after they most wanted to be serious: ‘for how unjust is it, Ifwhen have conceived. He also mentions Aethe, the superb we allow different recreations to each particular course racing mare given to Agamem non at Troy in exchange of life, we afford no diversion to studies; especially for a soldier who was reluctant to fight: how much more when trifles may be a whet to more serious thoughts...’ valuable this brave mare than a cowardly man (987f- Erasmus knew that Gryllus was more than just a noble 8a) representative of his piggy kind; he had become em Does this bear on the character of Circe and her blematic of a certain kind of refusal, of the laughter that spells? It seems to me revealing that Gryllus fails to mocks self-righteousness, pride, portentousness and observe taxonomic distinctions between creatures do pomp: his personified Folly judges happier and wiser mestic and wild, and that he further includes mythical the swine Gryllus than the man Ulysses (ch. 35). monsters associated with female wisdom and proph The enchantment Circe casts on the Odyssean ecy: the Sphinx with her riddle and puzzles, and ‘the crew excludes them from society, but from that vantage Pythoness who fought with Apollo for the oracle at Del point, they point at human shortcomings and follies, phi’. Both could be called avatars of Circe herself, in clowning in voluntary exile from the human race. How termediate figures in the pantheon, divine but not ever, the episode was not usually interpreted in this Olympians, of neither the underworld nor the empy playful way, but, as Gareth Roberts has mapped in a rean, neither good nor bad, but supernaturally adept, recent essay, inspired profound moral allegories. powerful and dangerous. They exercise their wisdom When Edmund Spenser, at the end of the sixteenth through understanding of secret languages, decipher century, reintroduced Gryllus into a chivalric English ment of hidden codes. landscape of enchantment in The Faerie Queene, he Swine, hog, porker, pig are words of abuse in English: was developing, in the character of Acrasia, the Cir the associations of Gryllus, the grunting animal’s cean mistress of beasts and beastliness, and openly namesake, persist in spite of the Plutarchian charac introducing Plutarch’s character. But he set aside the ter’s cunning tongue. The related adjectives - in Eng mocking, tongue-in-cheek grandeur of Plutarch’s crea lish - figuratively denote beastliness more strongly than tion and Gelli’s imitation (both of which he knew) in fa words associated with other animals: hoggish, swinish, vour of the medieval emblem of Vice, and staged a piggish; verbs describing the activities of pigs pass as metaphors of baseness, instincts and low status: to grunt, to wallow, to swill. The suitors in the Odyssey are referred to as swine, consuming the goods of 14 Inferno, Canto VI.52. am grateful to Ann Lawson Lucas for recalling this use of pig imagery in Dante. I0 a
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in
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orgiastic enchantress’s example,
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connect
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Gryllus’
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characteristics
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1992)
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Kotansky,
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on further
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Circe
to
Circe’s up
somewhere
vivid
of
lack
Puritans
snout’.16
and
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Folly’
of
and,
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into
of
Guyon
of Davenport
precious
way exposed
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her
they
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Spenser
tradition,
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In
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sermons the
by Plutarch’s hoggish
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metaphor
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Against state
shame...’
Birthday
illuminates
has Elder’s
as
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condemnations
natures;
figures
donghill
seem
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200-3;
literary
Gryllus’ of
that
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Marston,
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Acrasia,
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the
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Her grunting
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of
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Poems when wild names the
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165-7, upon
to her
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and in
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ghastly, &
greatly’,
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of which
Spenser’s
her
Bower lays
beastly sin
to
George
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dread
brief
That That
Of Said
Delights Let
Gryllus
(1990) ‘Reactio’ In See
whose
Spenser
plague
To Spenserian
Gryllus
brute. despicable
nence, the enchantresses, ing
manner, are phoses
graded ing
commensurate, stared tims pyned restoring brought lowed
without
sure and divines or choice, themselves beastliness’, His extension, song, condemned meaning cence, mythical Cornball the and 16 of classical 15 Greece Chaudhuri, 821, Gluttony’ comic dia written vein, A
of
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In
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them
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com
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of
about
harsh
crick-
friction
to
among
for
tame
means
a 36).
plague
For
to this
buzzing,
or
inarticu
sound
insects,
the
animals
ambigu
Later,
individual
bees
by
use
appetites.
the
the
this
with
crickets,
these
holes, more
the trs.
which sound
book
nineteenth
an
are the
thought
crickets
the
sound
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nature
Fabre
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down, their
-
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Both
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silence;
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in
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and
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sty
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produced
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made
to
The
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way
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voice’.
creatures
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prone
have
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vocal
over sound
on
companions,
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pierced
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while
Jean-Henri
expression
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of
they
with
path
that
to
power
of
can
He
of
is
(Insects,
marks
aural
33-39.
have make
with
the
are
Odysseus’
like
placed
speculation,
Aristotle,
more the
the
pauses
onornatopeically
its
Animals,
- have
the
every
imagination
interestingly
and
that
very
reeds
is one
confusing
coughing),
nos.
in
vocal
their
this
of
unmusical; and
in
thus
in-between
seem
knowledge;
specifically
both
extraordinary: of
notes
soul’.
voice -
in
some
speech, home’
-
of
the ‘Not
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all
extremely
in capacity
is the
membrane
a
comments
must
(for
devour
endowed
an
unmanned
XLVI
not
meaning
rather
as
human.
line
Aristotle
behaving
catches
the
an
some
‘grunt’
in
‘Voice
bloodless. p1.
play
lays
connection character,
speaking
do
through into
or associations
thin cricket
entomologist
History
are I
fixed This
and
noisy,
the
as
is
exercise
the
a
it
species
distinction
in
of
voice
luxuries.
a
lacking
Aristotle
members,
personal
sounds
for
cricket
insects
identity:
do
membrane
and
the
are
gril-
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the
suitors
and
position
to
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have
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as
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In both.
has
The another
is
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the
possessing
English
Odysseus’
and
‘The
species,
tongue, but
French
out
family
Gemmen
the boys
insects,
as than
of
indoor
domestic
family
chiefly
Elsewhere, have
—
which
clearly
of
surprising
manner
matches
have
who
of
weaving
some
a
as
the
exception
personal
soul,
musical, relation
bloodless
swarms
a
Greeks,
alone
different
Crickets’
Antike
in
The
animal
fulness
they
against
rule. from
soul
just
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cricket
sexes’.
the
out
are tering
late;
some
ference:
grubs
singles terance.
those
something...’
imagination;
causes
creature
and
ther,
with creature
the
noise. ous
prompts grating clearly,
-
ness
locusts mented. characteristic
have Circe’s
he
ratively terms
(Penelope’s century
that
ets,
the
cicada
12
& in
—
or
Furtwängler,
for
de
the
to
the
by den
first
not
of
eat
971;
for
root,
ex-
not
the
more
this
might
little
grille,
66-7,
van
Antiq
own
con-
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anx-
46.
from
were
I
been
propor
29.138, refer-
incor-
cantore. and
of
mock- word
—
in
thread
From
genus
while
to
does
(Davies
activity
ancient
134;
up
Felipe
Henry are
1744);
as
his
on
1971),
modifies
of
imagery,
very
word
deIl’episodio
there
between
it;
substitution, drolleries
Italian
has
confusion another
-
H/st.
grateful
extinguishing
the
by
and the
in
akris
the
me Pliny
Arent
gluttony
sense’. 19
(1992)
buon
beast-men,
hypothesize
in
Greek
Classical
in
gryli.
of
(by
d inventions
more
extant cicada
—
chewing
trs.
the
(1986)
that
related
Garden
this
Baltrusaitis
in
from
have
Nat.
5-24.
Bosch
grylli
as
of
Latin
in
the
(London
grilli
shores
but
like Greek
and
with
mock dream
in
in
for
Smith
the or
rely
of
intriguingly,
(Florence
number
equivalent truth;
You
the
sympathy
grilio
and
manuscripts
satanic
double
monsters
of
and
to
players,
the
(1976)
of the
tradition,
uses):
that
English Insects
crickets a
and
El
But,
the
extremely
MB.
Layng
members
appear
cricket,
as
words
opere
is
54
called
in
ancient
crying,
monstrous
crickets
for
rimaneggiamenti
but
[n.20J. scant
vividly
encouraged
grotesque
visual
hybridization
first
H.
hog
the
be
trs.
for
not and
am
or
Plutarch
assortment
of
a
grunting
Invertebrates us
cricket,
Greek
(c.1560-63)
A
intelligibility, only.
up
Phil.
comic
I maintaining
from source
..
extend
mean
the
and
trs.
word
associated
chanson An
combinations
than
medieval
The
who
medicinal
de
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for
conjecture
aesthetics
geniali ura
does
most
grillus
implication,
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words
but
pigs’
only
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already
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piping
nonsense
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7:
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pigs
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Circe 49. —
caricatures,
exploration,
‘L’Asino’
hypertrophy)
pun,
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Insects
sources
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Hatzantonis,
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exact
a
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of
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39,
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- convey
&
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135-6). collage)...
species
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speculation,
of Dutch
E. Josquin
with
Gelli,
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form
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example,
spelt rhyme,
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38, to
either
mastax
Peter
Circe’,
eat. profoundly:
by
in souls, into
62-78. different
and
line
Greek
be
does
odd
end
and
from
generating
in
Beavis,
irregular and
See
di Certeau, century
Comentarios
to
it
on
not
32,
Greek,
for
in
Davies the
trs.
meaning,
and
in
Machiavelli,
full
from
often
figure
the
my
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grib-
speculates’.)
ic. spirits fiends...
pursue,
Medieval
were
an
however
M.
30. (miniaturizing,
only
Latin
N. is
(1988)
of
13th
Pliny ‘In
M
common,
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To
The
French
Omerico
(1557).
ing. John
Kathirithamby 8
20
mantis
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143; stem
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20
19
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writing fantasy,
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doodled
ences; the a a I -
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in to
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99
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ori con and per his the
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world; eight
radical
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middle
to party, its fables.
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figures
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(London
as ‘On
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scolding,
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improvi
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gender the
distances
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great Fontaine’s stand the
wisdom The peers, songster,
fables
of
injury...’, before readers
little to
Modern writer,
in
be
in
version fifteenth
La
English the High resonance
himself
voice,
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to
sonnet
hint and
Newbery
in
correspondingly
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and
female mankind’ multiple, blithe
scholar of
mead, of the
a the my celebrated
satiric the account
J.
delights,
Godwin,
was new
one
a
philosophy, -
grounds
of identity.
anonymous outshining
levels
does creature in cheerful sun,
popular the
challenged
ascribed are a creature
but song. trs.
his
of Ancient run one
its
dear!
vernacular 23
Keats’s own refusal
any
lead and
far
own, hot
showing
and
dance. the
resulting values
to
‘the senses.
thus -
of will during
my my
without to
Fontaine’s
circulated
Hunt
the done himself new-mown cricket William publisher did
for
and in made
himself
his
service
Byzantine
entertainment. Verse,
is giving may fables locus Fables takes
of
the
monstrosity a low, and
spirit, innocent La the
nice,
following voice
to with dead. merriest luxury long
in as
life song he
apply,
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the become
Hedonism
a never
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of
Keats’s
in of lmmel
wrote, Leigh
when never pretend the values
traditionally
tradition’s Cricket’
in Aesop
How
I that emblem
not faint to these songs the satiric
familiarized
about away. by
cricket as food
has
never
you theme
and poet
of Godwinj,
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trees, himself
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of
is
children’s a are and kind then can
he life [or the business
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1816 - empire
and now I
song.
folks,
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summer the been
opts
summer
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fabulist’s
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song,
sung as
translation spontaneously lines:
my to
conventions
your Aesop here
earth
birds
and calls scale fireside’. enjoyed. of and to
idle high lightness
of introduction on all
version fabulous [William
cooling
your the This
cricket’s Aesop, of
Aesop, the ‘cigale’. Enlightenment, Grasshopper’s
luxury,
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condemned clever
centuries the
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sang as
thanks
Gryllus 12 days dance,
hedge
read there
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joust all of have the
sprang and hide
feed vain significant is his
in
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cricket’s with
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on. up
ever
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identity my
temptress’s In You identified As I’ll summer
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French
sings
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When
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ceived account ages (c.1255-c.1305), sixteenth
widely eenth-century the Aesop goes [Croesus], Perry). there have
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rejection forth ciation the hopper friendly Grasshopper
opens
dence, cean 1757): against Edward 23 don
13
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figure Norman
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the
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proverbial
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cricket tells
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quasi-human in so should
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insects and a
them.
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and lines: b5-6 as
to 488a32-b2; La
closed Fontaine,
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men
71-2
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course, of
assisted
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were body’, cicadas,
it,
with
where
La
song 476a5-21;
by moment special and Aristotle he
420
indulgence,
231 life of a of
Aristotle, Muses
Socrates
and is
of heart: ant,
trs.
children
Anim.l
2.
by
age
that
cricket’s men,
[n.
story
of Yet the from translations free
eat pleasure and
reflection famous
escapes by
world devotion
Perry;
the
improvident
identified
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for
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be).
when Hist.
as fable, earth...’ race
of noise
to
there’s
opening
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happening thrifty
chosen the to blew
The Anima
22-4; 373
in that once
born from
song Beavis 31;
on
Respiration
their
fabulist’s of know
aise: and exiled
idleness, close
cicadas the introduction could
music-making,
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go De
privilege
Phaedrus,
and
37-49)
and in her
to
was book was voice, a
another winds 804a
fort one
See Aesop
and
forgot
the
sNI its sing
explicitly were 1991)
were bare
a
men
description the tales.
the eat
man-beast with that
epicurean
read
of
the sung famous
suis
thanks. that
perceived but
as rendered l’OtO
translating
(1995) yet
used
In Chambry winter
venue.
opposite): to
what -
they chanté
open the - Aristotle:
9 honoured insect
Death
maintenant.22
137. attaches
the the
j’en dubious)
the (1984).
fut
Tout dépou,’vue thereafter the
bare
was
echoed there’s
after is should embodies
of much
336
Collinet, Muses himself the
bug, insects of Ant,
having
taken through
fable, on. to
long
sexuality classic nightingales,
and
from
that ayant industrious granted widely
fort fables
a self-forgetfulness
knew [n.23] bise
century Music)
the
but but dansez
(ed. when winter. the which
to and the
thought
ía
throws was is
biography - .
Fable
whom I
them
Life .
the Aristotle
some and
cricket Newbery,
bugs chantiez? insect ‘Where with
sweetness . whistling the
and
insect
sprang
to
cupboard
schoolchild song the
of cried no trouva
Cigale,
Aesop they
bien!
summer
rebuke: to
(authenticity
Fontaine
Muses
satiric
opening its food,
origin
La Quand Se (The Age,
all Found Her Vous
When
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Ah,
Quotations
Aesop,
Aesop boys
according limited
sciousness sufficiently
Grillus them cricket The La other song.21 and John of Muses:
case, with gluttony, by world, took
fore no them the death each his popular Fontaine’s brated pleasure-loving
the every
heedlessness: up trast ant’s eighteenth Old (Theater Complete schaffel, 21 Heard Kathirithamby Shapiro, completes 22 in
-
of
ex
sol
in
had
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post
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leg
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and
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pres
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juicy
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even
make worth
to name
plant
supply
worthy
moment the
is
their
that
the the
crickets
is
dangers
the
wisdom:
author
take
both
young
it
song, and
one-sided
of
is
Lulling
herb
as
36).
the
and
by
father.
on
Maidens,
Hermes
food
the
from
or
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that
if
following
piercing
they
her
follow
very
Gryllus’
is
little
way
hopping
and
the
from
through
reputed
ancient
slanders
by
a to
a
version
the
lost
upsetting
feared
that
ants
Scaring,
with
crickets,
combinations
[above]
thought
in
both
today
sucking of
similarity
too.
the
is
for
is
war
critic,
from
the
of
just
with
madly
begging
feed overlooked
very
art,
it oozes
pig
&
are
of
and
a
songster,
a
of
has
Monuments
expanded
away
(Fabre
time
topic
then
second
been
be
sidekick
profoundly
latter
opportunity
they fallibility
he
stands
an
idle
Studies,
commensalism,
of
challenge
Bogeyman:
similarity
was
Lavinia
Arc,
Virgil
nature,
the
mutations,
crickets
reevaluate
figure
as
turn.
historian
of
that
has
the
tights).
The
the
in
the
that
The
the
a
on
example,
to can
nick
fable
third
with
crickets
is
experience
of
the
and
provided
sap
animal
over
includes
Go
Joan
die.
for
take
definitely
Hellenic
the
that,
that the
phantasmagorias,
age.
time
Odysseus’
humanity,
The
of
wanton
envoi
Anchises
of
novelist,
drive
in
the No
herself
along
Sex,
species,
twist
is
of
out
especially
they
much
discover
have
her
which
of
sway
that
(minus
crickets.
also
would
papers.
VIRGIL
eat
final
wedding.
her
insects
similarity
young
from
youth.
is
often
grasses,
a
we
runs
of
and
to
a
All
witch,
defamation
it
turns
have her
the
Warner, Mock,
values
when
example
of mirror
recently)
as
death
first far
little
of
at
it
do
between
appeared
AND
Aeneas, ants
Promotion
crickets
Batman
lecture.
Circe
So
pone
But,
Amata
cessive
war
don’t
diers
The
for
The
to
not
“molly”. Telemachus
Odysseus
the
ent
Marina (most
Making
maybe
of
Alone
sake.
help
signal
the endary
around,
other and
stems mentioning
ants,
vantage metamorphoses
settled sect
comic
derided
voice,
examination
for
14
HOMER
recent
the
not of
of
its
un
the
Society
that
own
and
that gets
an
not
as
ON
fig
en
the
de
de
what
into
and
over -
were
for to
the some
condi
cricket
dance,
childish
his
are
beastly
the
and
human
porcine
doubled
who
the
aspects
after
and
survival.
might
pleasure
of
shows shows
know
of
who
a
his
aspects
to
dance
ambiguous
by
from
turned
stranger
LIGHT
existence
Socrates
a
they presides
implied,
of
Song,
Circe
human
those
senses
(Only
wanton
bag
Laertes.
evidence
philosophy, the
Gryllus
men
traditionally
don’t
to
which
established
away
common
a
as
to
human
beast,
tracts
refers
were
by
of
its
for the
that
the
also Idleness,
it
the
NEW
Secretary
necessarily
up
quickly
obviously transformed
Circe
you
put
luck
is
of
early
themselves
been
or
disparaged
all,
go
only
and
goddess they
to
too
her
was
“savages”.)
have
sway,
this language,
all
that
important
where
for define
hedonism.
ugliness.
legend
elective
sausages. not
good
point
Shone,
all
not
accepting about
is
is
So
above).
allegiance
Odysseus
that
and
was
these
embodied
may
and
headstone
Above
emblem
reason
of
and that
-
interdependent
the
have wisdom.
the
a
Homer
another
relationship.
One
and
two
value
reading
Muses’
but
of
would are
ear,
in
for.
myth
those
laughter
state
the
domain,
word
is
buried
song
gives
song
Russell
for.
and
the
259bc,
defiance,
Odysseus.
Gryllus
Telemachus
and
their
the
Odysseus
to
of
You
of
that
rise
the
luck
behind
luck.
Latin
of
language
song, with
weaving
there paltriness
possibility
been
reclaim
a
over
original
stand
animal
art,
tells
that
opposite
Circean
luck;
confront
of
Odysseus
Aeolus
Circe, him.
-
good
all
under
poetry,
the
to
good
wishes
subtly
was
his
improvidence brutishness
an
enchantments
grateful
of
independent
tradition:
with
the
and
the
they
wind.
have
also
choice:
(Phaedrus
knowledge
arts
and
in
existence
of
fall
good
to
him
Calypso
cricket’s
are
want
and
as
forth
knows
of
pores
knows
littleness,
course
but
the
enchanted
in
Circe’s
We
The
Like her
special
understanding Of
she
need
they
Nausicaa
wish
she
fortunately seventh
things Penelope
Athene
Gryllus’
emy pleasure,
seen ures
cribed
ity represents
qualities personae
tributaries company,
human
and
scribes pleasure
so crickets
These rogatory
expressiveness,
audience of
tion greed choice FESTIVE COMEDY: ATHENIAN GARMENTS IN ROME AND LONDON Sally Jaine
Can stage-set and costume indicate a play’s generic That Shakespeare was familiar with Plautus and roots? In second-century Rome Plautus assured his Terence, both in the original Latin and in translation, is spectators: This stage that you see before you I will not now in doubt. George Whetstone, writing in 1578 change to Athens, at least while we present this play (about twenty years before the first production of the (Truculentus 10-11). His productions, comoediae pal Dream), commented: ‘Menander, Plautus and Terence, liatae, were comedies in Greek dress; some sixteen themselves many years since intombed, by their Com centuries later, Shakespeare set A Midsummer Night’s medies in honour live at this daye’ (Epistle Dedicatorie Dream at the marriage-feast of Theseus, Athens’ to Promos and Cassandra). The plays were central to founding father, and Oberon used the ‘Athenian gar the grammar school curriculum, and were reasonably ments he hath on’ to describe Demetrius to Puck - not frequently staged: the first classical production by an knowing there was another tunic’d youth wandering in Oxbridge college was at King’s Hall in 1510, an un the wood that night. Is this all there is in common, a known comedy of Terence, and later statutes at both stage-set and some Greek clothing? Are there other, universities gave rise to regular productions of classical wider links between New Comedy, particularly the comedy (Miola [above] p.7). As well as the unacknow works of Plautus, and A Midsummer Night’s Dream? It ledged use of Plautus as source material, Shakespear is an area where I have so far been unable to find any ean texts make specific reference to him as a yard but the most cursory critical treatment: Robert Miola’s stick for comic writing: Polonius commends the troupe Shakespeare and Classical Comedy (OUP 1994) has newly arrived at the court of Denmark, for whose skills just four brief references to the Dream. This paper aims ‘Seneca cannot be too heavy, nor Plautus too light’ to explore whether Shakespeare had particular reason (Hamlet lI.ii.400-1), and the Quarto edition of Trollus to use Athens, rather than an unspecified arcadian set and Cressida of 1609 compares the play to the ‘best ting, for what seems a supremely English play, rich with commedy in Terence and Plautus’. reference to folk-custom and myth, as C. L. Barber has These plays, which arguably underpin the entire shown in Shakespeare’s Festive Comedy (Princeton western concept of comedy, and certainly can be the commedia dell’arte, Goldoni and 1972) - though I should mention perhaps that Barber tracked through finds more in common with Aristophanes than with Moliere to current television sitcoms, may be of Greek Plautus. My suggestion, however, is that though there origin, but they owe their survival and influence to their may not be direct, easily cited sources, such as Roman interpreters. Until this century, there was no Menaechmi and Amphitruo for A Comedy of Errors, and complete extant text of Menander; his plays existed in Terence’s Hecyra for All’s Well That Ends Well, Athens fragments or through Roman adaptation. The is a significant marker, behind which we can discern Dyskolos, discovered in Egypt, is our treasure, not the structural similarities and generic echoes of New Com Renaissance’s. Although Plautus frequently acknowl edy. Peter Holland, editor of the Oxford edition of the edges his sources, we do not have them: ‘Iwish to give Dream, remarks that he is ‘less surprised than many by you the name of our comedy. Its Greek title is Cleru the idea that Shakespeare should return to a previously menoe... Diphilus wrote the play in Greek, and later used source or carry into a later play echoes or memo Plautus, he of the barking name, gave us a fresh ver ries from a work he seems to have known well when sion of it in Latin’ (Casina 31-4). Greek plays were on absorption of Greek writing an earlier play’,and I pursue here my theory that the Roman stage as part of the the setting of the Dream in Athens indicates that the culture into the world of the early Republic. The numer memories behind it are not only those of Ovid, Chaucer ous Roman festivals, more varied than their Athenian and English folk-myth, but also of New Comedy. counterparts, gave theatre its space; where the Atheni ans brought their dramatists and their god into the heart Qr’’ WW fiUU11 QpurqULn omnflL4ppurirwrf jmc qmadt contest, the pECZU nfr nfruLa.n.IiL1i,rrpr,*wi of their icon-city in ritualised dramatic Ro frr.’wr’ S I’ “wir wir ,p1rjcsrfrr.f mans provided what the beleaguered Terence de fK) fl r$.vs I!..uu 7 scribes as street entertainment on a grand scale: ‘The first act met with approval, but, on a cry that there was to be a gladiatorial show, in flocked the people with up roar and clamour and a struggle for seats, with the re It sult that I could not hold my ground’ (Hecyra 39-42). seems possible that Plautus had a better relationship with his audience because of his different technique: ,.b’cit N rnr1q riiquu4cim ffirrcwl, 1iL mlc. where Terence translates, sometimes running together firct4w(, ,,frt’ ,r,fr two plots to achieve a double story-line, Plautus adapts, U 3CD w lrv,1 ..rid,,,w . bringing aspects of native Atellan farce (in which he “ ‘1’ rqu.J pu#.i f.xrr &,t”uf. A .q1nu,c nonn,,flr.Uf,,,Ur,wr may possibly have performed himself) to the more re rr1pf r4 aLrr i’iW& ne j,,n rtd,ii,’ ,,z strained Greek model. Atellan farce was a more or less improvised form of unsophisticated comedy, with stock Vatican. Scene from Terence, Adelphoi, II, 4. Miniature from the characters and an expected plot-line; Plautus plays with
15 is to to if by let cer was fairy me as your and com more come lover is notice, equal illusion forward’ the his a he lovelorn their Plautine please Bottom trust little letting persuade (‘This of anxious audience, purposive seriously. announce ‘If do once.’ of his not claimed of give and lover is to created and at being do and A by I himself keep Pyrgopolynices. in take and him: be do lover more dramatic and , to to me a (‘I goes fun have instead - roles devotion c. braggarts, they vein. love feels me the part It fellows, of ‘games’ no hallmarks 237-40). attempts and without “,,cc, they Plautus’ myself.’ that slave helpful his and want his good-for-nothing, dual di the I.i.136) a off break some appealed then there’s J. of ‘.‘i’i:. tyrant’s of playmakers you (Pseud. (If of classical play and be be beware surprising a machine, acquaintances marred. the clever lover: and proceed Why, take to me the what Hercules ‘reason qualities one the start is something must of ii: and inner - I sense!’ to let vein, crisis.’ jr:i,s,g,,:,,( is just on are a affection FJ Thraso the the Do become both fighting d,., be characters in only Pseudolus, role play the Unlike takes 127-8), cannot show nowadays’ play the I’ll hopeless stride day nonsense! as with l.ii.34-5), you friends Ercies’ he on you, the F’r,,rzi you of by the all soldier tuned they is his wait, Calidorus let foolish!.... direct. of my this but where usual plays ‘Concentrate declares ‘I’ll ‘Now hand in be to that all conquer together .this then ‘That’s ‘Wait, finely challenge. themselves quality Pseudolus the they his to young can’t go!’ Pseud.: Pseud.: Pseud.: Cal.: Cal.: that any redeemed not, (IV.ii.5), tainty pany lofty.. queen try condoling’, Bottom Terence’s master, comedy, and This sumption not!’ commenting and appear the than me that feelings you 16 - in a of is is a re to of to of re in for girl and up- un the the But or con who acts part New own front new self- con The itself, Tim. he sug son’s or as most inner wrong ‘full ought skills, in prosti outside of or stands Aristo peopled I Foggy, be of both Shake admits: five the become stubborn took his her but Theseus’ figure after that rebellious the I in agelast illusion. his young he successful the witness figure that suitably wood active a gift perceptible up she prospect (Labrax’ of way not motion. fortuitously a according world of appears (Heaut. its of to world us is (foreseen The fund inversion, with; wood, Egeus, world the we - the tricked where an metatheatrically in a characters, still direct set Pseudolus, the the thrusting These Gloriosus. the accepting passage, common heart, Athens, is and Metamorphoses, be for of pimp least not to is for and in in God’s restored a world retrospect the unless to Comedy and deal Thisbe, plot dramatic marry blocking not of at and daughter; Egeus Mne, takes as in stock chaste them, will be in to With as further mother parents’ moonlit and first love situation Miles men must the presents daughter route the the mind to his and New out a Comedy, Lar exposition Ovid’s kindly, shall lovesick are marries reminiscent the conceived. Rudens). can nun. who he who rather orderly maritime expect her play-master. with of his woman, true entrance his for characters and successful: (1.i.22), be offers sets a own in envisaged god a with shame comedy, she New of Summer fairies? problem as but young there that appears be prostitute, unscrupulous The of offered the his matter fate moves breaking his agelast, do no father give the uses In Mechanicals, and that unmarried fate boastful already may the a Pyramus strongly cannot immediately that daughter in an path But sons; to by man stripling’s identities anxious not be the to opposite, memory (Acharnians), Aulularia, the sexual of common an his hope a roles until line be of of livery Shakespeare army, for son, his in English got child the complaint’ is Palaestra the adored are desires, this or Rudens, Pseudolus Menedemus, true the as roles on a he reluctant possible in very Last element, with might plans not Plautus or the would an the consent. the is soldier, must constantly for that stock of hetaira, danger. comedy, Bottom’s play-world of has that traditional that father she We hands handling it not violent Quince’s of Without this of Euclio metatheatre. disturbed ....and
two has Phaedria where their Lamachus of so and the and and into dealt use material who firmly the brings the lover the and by line there is as is the shame little; affairs), both this resolutely what Whether farcical world direction. Terence’s in Peter him father surely braggart is it. her have So television’s Egeus It the self-aware, Menaechmi very with jecting there fusion court Athens of vexation Comedy. union, daughter. purchase stands parent of suitor, usually supporting vinced destiny solved, household the determined his Euclio’s daughter, in ending social 100-2). whose instead cloister moved tute lamentable ‘Instead play tended but speare before to violent distribution with source phanes’ gests in and the women a
of
a
by
to
to
is the at no
to in
in
the but
the on
by her he
this
so: de
they
you
this
of
and
trick
him
criti they
pow
while
of
visible
them
but
various be
of
Dream,
and
of begins cannot
here As ass,
remain
Amphi
1
pretend point
reunion
eyes not
do
mischief, ll.ii.129- disguise, stage-set accused juggling
I they
mistaken
physical
to
through and Helena’s
When
greetings
yet,
more in where eye
little
disloyalty,
seems
perception
the
to a
which
Amphitruo, Syracusan to be
an to
through
indication
of
a appearance
set intended
Menaechmi,
Shakespeare Lysander
clamours
to then
The
Are In life,
I
in
the two to
perplexed
sort,
confusion
adoption remain, and by
Shakespeare’s
the
that
in
Jupiter,
even becomes
comedy brother
these (MND stage that either,
born? disguise, Comedy, me
in herself
than
he
trickster
so
to
them: is
plays
are
who
this finally lovers, are (‘Seeing altered
believed
the have the
visual all shame,
perception
Although for
Royal be disguise,
by
return
confusion
the
gratuitous
appears
and
cries second
Day
me
try a
in did
pursued
The same,
seen New
all
are
to
finds
How to of
it
she no
is Hermia?
the
you
the
with
not
with there Alcmena everyone or
become besotted
as ass. literally
Menaechmus scorn?’
appeared
for Puck, his
lovers
that
of
Similarly,
is
mockery
not
the (lll.ii.352-3).
differences.
brother
other
are
already trickster
by
is
she complicated
between
so Amphitruo, similarly
me not
So
mistress’s, glad
699).
an by
what
changed
is (522-3)
I available, I
entering this
cause interest
Errors,
when of madness,
quite Menaechmus
as
had
the the
and
affair.
back, is
attempt one
better
keen
believed and my
and
All
created sport’
of remain,
is
from There
this female
am
Compare Groundhog
husband!
the
ass-head fun
for suddenly
‘Am
a me?’ (882-4).
unwitting he (Men. situation
Titania occupy
at
you one is
led comedies,
mean?
already
is
Amphitruo
movement,
this are
lovers
far
Alcmena, branded
if the
a
of
the feigns
to
they security
centre
production productions has
deserve confused
lily,
to
what’s own nor
first
273). so
welcomed and in grows relationship his this
role:
as
be say!’ I slave-like
pursue I
who
the
taken
mistaken,
change
is Hermia’s and
through
fool facts!’ but
I
disturbing
Amphitruo Comedy
all at
830-1). making
of
that
esteem allegiances
the later
only
is
2 my a
same.
I frantic Plautine a
Bottom’s in near-tragedy not,
A because ‘To
be did
‘And no
Menaechmi
why
had
was
of (lll.ii.
does adopted,
doors, recent
unchanged.
confusion home
for the
you
is
is
lord, believed
by
the
later, insane, clever
word already although
the break for
characters
A
Tyche,
who
mistress, of element vision; To
into
not at
lost; was
is
changes
a
make a
681-2);
many
are gilding to
facts
and
brother
I’m
is not
him
has hands
changes
‘What
to
salutations, not,
in and, he insane?’,
jangling
but and
the
caused:
reality. accustomed
Dream
adultery:
take
permutations, creasingly
Company wood. choice standard the statement however, beholder. Puck altered
this voluntarily ery
farcical of sources identity;
are selves. disguise,
returning (‘Why who and unfolds ago?’, of make
disgrace each brother, self. erless tries offer role !‘m clare ‘Wherefore 30), Lysander?’ his
your understand cally, ‘Neither believe truo has Chance, internal wife the Menaechmus with to common stable their
17 -
to
in
to
of
as act
un
to
not
to
his of
mir to of
too,
the an play
in
the in-
play
full play-
and
and
con
hor
The
with with with
Lar’s
a uses This
fairy, mock player
Egeus let
am role
Lionel of
a pat
pimp.
PIau
should 1593,
on
and
I
not him an
with
straight is identity
play the
wishes
the
(l.ii.41) the
to from
Comedy. order
for
in
but Arcturus
by pregnant
finds, of
order
the plot. mischief: Goodfel
the gale fall
series hands
and
is
the out’.
“Deceiving goes
In
to
Pyramus of Characters own in
them
faith,
eavesdrop
and the
what
a
subsequent
in
fathers
responsible,
takes
best
spectators
the all
will
activity
inner of
women
and
New
the
that
itself, confusion parts
direct Six his not. with ailows
with
slave
use
it 69) putting thing. it
are
produce becomes of Oberon
Robin
Nay, plight,
sensible,
in
find found
of his
are coming’
plot
now, and mistaken
the
to promptly
chosen,
king, to
Labrax
man match part
out - Oberon
charts
pamphlet
but
of their against see,
of
blustering
rehearsed
desires.
That
we
both of
Puck
young scene,
gods:
his the
illusion clever opens A
tinged
should
not
have
fairy a
decent
favourite
unfortunately
enter
play, being rises
handing doing have
lovers
beard
play
intractable
them
(Rudens
its
of
a
of plot is storm
hands
of
players
he progress
shall
young
‘a
farce and
suggestion the Helena’s
to
to ‘do a
create’. help Pirandello’s he the
reason; describes
Pseudolus slave, to
the
attempts
a
the suffer. of
happiness master
hands misinterpretation the
out
is
the cannot
to of
sir,
the Shakespeare
feet,
the the to eyes
even to desire
idea
the
marriage
conflicts the
raised You
intervene;
to do to
previous
deep’
calls for of
misapprehensions.
who
accept and
into
he Au/u/aria
and
Gift,
have ‘I the
all any
play.
to
Quince
control
his Pseudo/us, to
Oberon, desire
She
for
the same
Oberon
I
truth
and
tries to
the
firmly clever
methinks, Goodfellow. the
with
young with future
with
direct wall.
only
in
and
in
version
made Dream,
in allocates
on
family
plans greedy
of
fulfil: intervention
function
of
the
Theseus’ from
his
with
were
outer responds cue.
take
Peter
although
the
Author, then
Year’s
failed and thing.
most
as
also children’s
parents
wall be
to correct
their
innate not
steps
the
his ‘No, mortals.
Robin
the
his it for
introduction
as to
Rudens:
Hippolyta
own
unawares
an
movement
the
role to
to
far
play
woman. in
(V.1.180-5),
material, real role instrument
but text. of is
his of
god, union
as
in
waters New
overrides of driving is marriage
his their
of
reluctance
a
deflect
led
thinking ‘The
to Comedy
slave
so lovers, and
Here, as
daughter
Oberon his
thing
through
their
by his
in
the
responsibility
Thisbe’s
the
Palaestra that
he
Bottom
own the to
the
again.’
death
you.’
are
echoes
that concern in
central
his
is
as
play
on
has
Mechanicals’
her New
wrong
on
masked: affairs
confusion, comedy,
god, very
Theseus,
mates his
men
identity
Here,
Search
certain
authoritarian
told If
also
master, rors
promising
in another
and that a me The
Later, be
which himself: order me”
curse I spy
stage
clusion. Trilling,
in the
theatre... pers the role thwarted
Phaedria: description the
shipwreck who claims rescue Similarly Puck not waked Demetrius
ribly lovers omniscient Tel/-truth’s Puck take and his low’s creased housework, is
of misunderstandings the the tine achieve I
-
in of
is
is
of
in
to
of
all
jig,
be
go
re
the
the the
an
and
and
ref
now
Hip
The
their new
pair
com
lying
pres
might
back
163).
festal
South
failed
place
festal
wood
made
sepa
of
Green
a
to
To
girls
farcical
festive
putting
acts
fertility,
until
produc
and fabric
children
shaping
maying, now
Plautine
Helena
the
and
but
anarchic,
a
of
Oberon’s
child,
a
the
the
are
are
supported
and
resonance
Comedy
the
their
prostitutes
comedy
take
is
associated
Festival
symbols
found
the
and
is which
these
Menander’s
often
out
the
seeking
native
1957],
blessing
Comedy:
households
can
Oberon,
of lost
with
banknotes’
and
of
in
Pyramus
society
and
narrative We
be
central
fruition,
(I.i.166-7).
a
Elizabethan
New
festival.
of
the
carry
almost
Those
choice,
blessing
that
into
make
rapes itself,
restoration
god,
of
been
that
is
and
and
new
there
Theseus
give
of
to
chaste
New
lovers,
of
primarily
brothers
murrain once
the
Lady
at
Dream,
ar
no
world
described
references;
may Carthaginian
Here,
blessing
of
of
protagonist,
may’
in
Pan
celebration,
can
the
and
the
of
youth.
opening
the
be
surely
kind
to
greater
have
of
the
(Palaestra
who
Oberon,
and
establishment
description
and
was
thee
marriage-bed,
first
of
[Princeton
of
(the
farce,
come
parodic,
gowns
ensures
of
movement
world
Plautus
Titania in
to morning
play.
Rudens.
a
find
describes
festival,
palace,
by
Lar,
can one
-
daughter’s
festival social
bringing
akin divine
conclusion.
physical
by
in
play’s has
Lord restoration
the
affairs
meet
ending,
we
altars
Oberon
marriage
of
in
pimp)
morn
Lyconides
hand ‘The
May
figures
bridal
Menaechmi
forward:
favour.
his
Venus
as
for
is
world.They
the
confusion
to
Atellan
a
there
Tarentum)
pairing
‘acquired
from
did
Comedy,
the
of
the the
on
Lysander
the
phrase.
master’s
Criticism
by of
and
I
part
prologue,
proper
establishment
at
Athenian
intended
Holland
to
(the
subsequent
they
closely
presumed
happy mesh
the
role
for
Theseus’
lovers’
says,
at lovers,
small-scale
with
and
for
of
relations’
the
move
conclusion,
cling
with
formula
and
a
the
an
as
guiding
New again
Aulularia’s
Arcturus
to the
subject-matter
become
mortal
Mechanicals’
rustle
the
take
pursuing
their
are
accepts
1590s
the
the
at
raped
play’s
‘where
festival
of
can
Titania Frye
incorporated
the
those
and
for
good
to to
in girls Once
Peter
being deal
festival
the
can
felicitous
The
the have
and
responsible and
is
for
her
festivals
error to
movement
once
as
sexual
bless the proper
through
lovers
started:
the
necessarily
Their
the we
of
happy
pairs,
(ll.i.1O1),
to
as
too, Oberon’s
folk-custom,
the
lost
promised
becoming at
a
was
of
Egeus
in
gods of
form
in
drama
observance
a
clear
(Anatomy
to
audience,
right.
we
come in
the
relationship
the
before
not
stand
which
at
is, alongside
fertility
from here
Frye’s
is
of
in
action
lost
longer
do of
Northrop
the
the
put
Hermia
But
And
Thisbe Italian
also
action
plexity,
dramas.
miniature. which
restitution entation
progress tion
intervention
of
English
harvest come
no
use reconciled, close
lost
Poenulus). usually
Dyskolos, uge polyta.
other’ rituals by as
turning (Phaedria explicit ing way
This rated Ceres);
maying
household, resolved,
him plays generation are celebrate neatly ritual,
staged; is and
the blessed’
to To
where festival
with
18
up
far
tri
for
re
his
the
the
and
the
ex
are
later
carol
is
WAS
is
been
in
scene
expla
selves up
pick
or
and
and
must
and
pub.
an
that there
Midswn
has
turned
‘pomp,
to
‘stir
i6oo.
solemnities
he
mirror-image
jangling, A
he
to
DIT10N
hymn
former
the
opening
for
Hono.wa’
given
elements
movement
world
o,
hand;
world
this
times
to
moves
nights
entrance
a
with
the
behaviour,
THIS
their
before
Titania,
the
This
denouement
case,
wedding
never
in
of
sets
play
Sa/Jtare
to
looks
now
QUARTO Plautine
unseen
but
Right
Philostrate
Robert:,
DATED.
and
are stormy
is
the reveals
the
an
(1619).
fundry
for
quarrel.
Helena,
towards
Chamberlainehw
the A
of
changes
by
and
entrance frTaau.
promised
night
lovers
restored
SDOND
Demetrius’
PViJIims
for
call
Egeus’
strongly
Oberon
FALSF.1.Y
reame.
lame:
in
merriment’
by
by
‘No
Lord
un-altered,
are
THE
Dream
Hippolyta,
d
love
beene
l’y struggle
to
Oberon’s
initial
most
self
Egeus’
festival
0?
first
are
the
revelling’
lommer
Hermia),
and
off-course
they
between
and
the
of
early
ted
but
must
inexplicable
to
a1ed,
youth
bath
VVTIIten
PAGF.
of
Night’s
ble,
former
but
and
his
it
Shakespeare’s
tilted
celebration.
Theseus’
to
fractured
one
theme
quarrel
¶Prin
Theseus
Titania’s
TITlE
nier
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the action
had
in
ties
‘heroic
so attention p70. and
the at
inversion
heroes
Embassy
of
a pp8O-1. dangerous pp65-73.
single
there
two
who considerable
Achilles
This
has
this Geras
in frequently intend
perceived who his Tasso, places need chieftain.’6
superiority introduced the Finley, initial Achilles” latent Martin,
characters: Seaford,
takes welfare powerful the importance
even emphasises
Agamemnon the doing As raised rest
upon receiving taking balanced social ‘no much giving appropriateness, underpins precisely reciprocity.’8 of the It punishing vindictiveness selfish (which Agamemnon’s
Press, Clarendon 6
Press, Windus,
22
by
in a to
his
his
to of
to
is in by of in the
and did, the by of out
Yet
The are
with hero
effort
in learn early
up other war.
and 412;
from time, a be more
fellow gained
basic that divine
to all
and sense
but worth.
after for any
Glaucus of honour
his Hopkins
to
essential ultimate society,
lasting
live to strength,
Homeric be which him
which his
meats
response Poseidon,
viewpoint
what is
the all notions
limit exercise
brought away privileged and own
to
to lose
Behaviour
and and certain
of When John even world. the
plight
(1.244, raises
Sarpedon is
is
hope rewarded
is
and
is spoils was
a
presented diminished
to claim
Achilles the
reputation. is commitment his
acquire
throughout
it
divinely-crafted
This the
and from hero
and the
as when generations
is
ingloriously, It
to his human
honour of by choice speech a taken possessor honour,
and
of as has status and
This
and Political actions, 1, gift his London: thus
kleos ‘To
been of
friends starkest
to of
for
a
italics] p15.
future
&
the the
courage,
Achilles
poignantly
Sarpedon
his as
therefore
gifts
learning motivation Achilles’ view make
fellows loses
for
are struggle,
even
has rights. to the (12.311-2). Honour
obliged, service. life. fame
between
Book Achaeans’3
a [my permanent
men recognition
(22.304-5):
proceeds
achievements 9.
search close confused
forcefully
his stimulated
he possession well Homer,
Iliad Values
him
Windus, in Achaeans.
place, felt
immense possesses one
great, horses,
sense,
not notice like is - the
& In choice, of heroic
his geras,
importance display.
to
as
as
a excellence
feasts
of the he
the
without warrior value.
hero’s his
imaginable
honoured The Book coherence been of
wants principal
public
not or patriotic
of In man person’s Moral at qualities his
immortal the
of
its
by
in willingly
and a
expresses a
usefulness
Chatto
witness
in or
of the geras, of Fate, proclaims events
philoi
partially did He
perish something Achilles
order the the
Best
something
thing whereby life “pride
spear, best of often immortal
reflect
opinions of
honour, we
all skill self-knowledge cups’ that
not confrontation is his
superior supreme to for
(1972),
in kleos.
publicly
their
remember The
These
kleos
his
qualities
done
at
has as society London:
fruitless; speech ‘the of
me by surety
of the
have
gives Achilles worst
Hector the them
for people expectations. about
atime, has
create glory. of
a as such enhanced wine the
embrace is let
meaning and risk
hierarchy
These
possessions
father’s and be
as as
A.W.H.
to is
(1979),
Press. of
to
having Agamemnon.
turn
for The
great tragic immediate
Lycians high hero:
Greece.
can
least the one happens
other
filled
such privileged his logic in giving knowledge
confidence exchange infringement by
respect
a
of. At after If his
choice.
Time
tries state winning lifetime death,
Honour military would by The received the
to in their heroes attainment his
a Adkins, death his more Iliad
in
hero
the Nagy.G. personal military/athletic esteemed
material their comrades. Achilles gifts armour. 16.274). and as
and
any [honour] This competitive man.’4 represented what a him what questions although Agamemnon a seems
University
Ancient underrate the political dimension of Achilles’ case and and Achilles is consequently the only mortal who is equally to overrate Agamemnon’s hierarchical standing directly associated with the word, menis. It is a as ‘commander-in-chief’ of the Greek army. Achilles dangerous notion and one which even the gods are even brings up the question of why the Achaeans are concerned to be rid of: ‘The association of a divine assembled at Troy for battle (1.150-1). Agamemnon wrath with a mortal elevates that mortal outside the and Menelaus are ‘summoners who go about recruiting normal ambience of the human condition towards the to help restore their damaged family 9time.’ The sphere of the 11divine.’ This is easy to accept in the arrangement between fellow basileis (chieftains) and heroic character of Achilles, when we come to realise the ‘summoners’ is the offer of proper time and due that his mother is the sea-goddess, Thetis. The gulf esteem for participating. This generalised reciprocity, between Achilles and his mother is greatly emphasised in the case of the chieftains, is motivated by the by his mortality. But this divine link has the power to compensation of gifts ‘given in order to ensure his allow Achilles to appeal to Zeus as no other mortal can. people’s [fellow chieftains, in this case] continuing From the succession myth referred to in Pindar (I. 10loyalty.’ By removing Achilles’ time in the guise of 8.26a-37) and Aeschylus (P, we can begin to Briseis, Agamemnon is breaching the delicate contract understand the stance Achilles is taking in the mortal that justifies Achilles’ position at Troy. He therefore has world. He is not egotistical, but he has a special every right to refuse to partake in the fighting as a result knowledge as to what his mortality means to Zeus, as of this outrage. The very fact that the audience knows well as to the action of The Iliad. This is what makes that he is destined never to acquire a nostos - to return Thetis’ and Achilles’ grief more painfully deep. This is home to his aged father - serves to make his position the subtle effect Homer applies, by not actually relating, more unendurable and tragic. Achilles’ awareness of but calling attention to the story of the prophecy of his mortality makes him more sensitive to and more Thetis and the generational strife that it would create. easily insulted by Agamemnon’s affront than any other This brings out in a special way Achilles’ descent from Greek might be. It is Agamemnon who has broken the Zeus, “Aiakides”, though he is not his son. Instead of ‘heroic code’ to which all the basileis adhere. Although being the potential ruler of the universe, Achilles not Achilles can question the justification of war at 1.152-4, only outstrips his father, Peleus, but is the greatest he has nothing to put in place of the only answer in the living mortal hero. Through his genealogy and his poem: honour and glory - an answer we discover menis, Achilles’ supreme power is divine in scope and through the course of the poem that he is unable to outshines all the other warriors in The Iliad. “Achilles is accept. the ‘limiting case’ of what it is to be a hero and of the validity of the normal code of values by which heroes live and 12die.” The question to be asked here is whether menis can be incorporated into part of the social norms of heroic exchange, or is it an emotion that intrudes on occasions into society as a destructive force, destroying the possibility of a secure social exchange? Phoenix asserts that Achilles’ menis is no longer acceptable, proving that to be a warrior, wrath is a driving force. But Achilles’ individual, divine wrath has completely distorted his characteristics and actions. Andromache provides an earlier example of Achilles as the heroic enemy still able to provide a proper burial for her father according to the correct heroic conduct; now she witnesses a change in Achilles that does not permit him to treat Hector’s corpse with any dignity. Achilles admits in Book 9 during the Embassy that his wrath prevents him acting on his agreement with Ajax and the Embassy’s attempts to reinstate Achilles into the collective enterprise. But there are other factors which confer a positive view on Achilles’ actions in the insight into the character of This may provide a partial Embassy that have to be elucidated, since the value Achilles’ anger and frustration. Homer calls upon the Achilles has attached to his existence has changed. Muse to sing of Achilles’ wrath, menis - the first word of Because his life is so short, his dishonour at the hands a which pervades the entire poem. the epic and theme of Agamemnon is initially seen to be all the more marks wrath of hero, This special denotation the the important. But later, as we move into Book 9, Achilles’ increased perspective on what it means to have a short Taplin, 0. (1992) Homeric Soundings. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp57-8. 10 Zanker, G. (1998) ‘Beyond Reciprocity: The Akhilleus-Priam Watkins, C. (1977) ‘On Menis’: Indo-European Studies 3, pp694-5. 12 Scene in Iliad 24’, in Reciprocity in Ancient Greece, p76 (eds. Gill, Slalkin, L.M. (1991) The Power of Thetis. Oxford: Univorsity of C., Postlethwaite, N. & Seaford, R.A.s), Oxford: Clarendon Press. California Press, p37. 23 life proves that honour from Agamemnon no longer has failure of Achilles in his own epic: acceptance o such any real value or meaning for him. terms on Achilles’ part would abort his heroic stature in Book 9 is the scene for the next ‘confrontation’ The Iliad.” If acceptance of the gifts as a return to Achilles and Agamemnon - represented by his balanced6 reciprocity is what it takes to conform to the between delegation. There is no disputing the fact that heroic standards of society, then Achilles cannot accept Agamemnon lives up to the prophecy Athena gave them, as it would simply be a false act performed for Achilles in 1.212-4. “Wide-ruling” Agamemnon is public appearance’s sake alone. Achilles, on the offering the world to Achilles, and more importantly the boundary of heroic and mortal limit, finds himself at return of an untouched Briseis. Wealth stands in a society’s limitthrough his conflict with its ideals. peculiar relation to honour, in that gifts are symbols of The question Homer raises is what would have respect and that compensation for insult may be satisfied Achilles? Was there any way that exacted or accepted in terms of material payment. Yet Agamemnon could have supplied the non-material time Achilles’ response only serves to spell out more vividly that Achilles seems to demand? When Achilles rejects the same resentments he began formulating in Book 1. the Embassy, it is not yet clear to the audience that This rejection is clearly controversial in regard to the Achilles wants genuine personal regret and goodwill ‘heroic code’ as Ajax points out, in that ‘people are from Agamemnon. Just two books after the Embassy prepared to accept compensatory payment for the scene (11.608-9), Achilles makes it explicit to Patroklos killing of a brother or son i.e. a much graver offence” what he wants: than Agamemnon’s seizure of a mere girl (9.632-6). now I think the Achaians willcome to my knees and stay there But Achilles has grasped a new complaint (9.344-5): in supplication, for a need past endurance has come to them. Now that he has deceived me and taken from my hands my prize of This confirms the idea that the Embassy did not come honour, in supplication to Achilles, as Tasso claims to observe. Let him try no more. I know him well. He willnot persuade me. In his own view, Achilles did not witness a supplication, Earlier Nestor proposed that Agamemnon should therefore he is not rejecting the gifts in the guise of “...appease him with gifts and gentle words...” heroic ritual. Surely this confirms that he has not Agamemnon’s orders do not contain such niceties, broken ‘the rules’. instead Odysseus is careful to withdraw Agamemnon’s In the previous two examples in Books 1 and 9 we explicit demand to be acnowledged as the ‘greater’ observe Achilles’ reactions to an abuse of the heroic (1.186) from his speech: code and in rejecting a ‘false’ heroic ritual. In Book 24 Let him yield to me, in as much as I am the kinglier Achilles wins praise and renown for accepting Priam’s and inasmuch as I can call myself born the elder (9.160-1). supplication (hiketeia) and gifts, according to the The emphasis on verbal deceit displays the failure of correct heroic behaviour. But here the glory is not that the words to match the ‘mind’and true intent of the gift- of a warrior, which has been a characteristic of Achilles’ giver. It supports the interpretation of Achilles’ case as prowess. Since Patrokios died, Achilles’ main resting on the rejection of any simple and direct motivation for fighting was vengeance (now stronger equation between time and material goods. ‘In such than his menis) for his phiotes directed ostensibly at ‘gift-economies’ the highest premium is placed on Hector, rather than the greatest glory and honour that generosity and display; superiorit’ in gift-giving equates he sought in Book 1. At the end of the poem, Achilles to superiority in social prestige.” The rejection of the wins honour which is profoundly different from the time merely material goods is often described by the phrase demanded in Book 1. In confronting Priam, Achilles, ‘breaking the heroic code’. Ifthis implies Achilles being through his speech, demonstrates his exercise of self- clearly in the wrong and therefore outside the confines control and will-power. “... Achilles is not changed into of his community, then this is a mistake. The gifts a new or different character” he has to motivate his themselves do not represent compensation in the 17 actions himself and is well aware of his capacity for correct context of a change of heart on the part of the (24.568-570): bearer’s wrongdoing. Agamemnon has not dismissed disobedience you must not further make my spirit move in my sorrows, his claim to be the noblest, neither does he offer any for fear, old sir, I might; not let you alone in my shelter, apology. ‘The great value of the gifts was an indicator suppliant as you are; and be guilty before the god’s orders of Agamemnon’s estimate of his own superiority.’ Scholars have observed the sharpness which Achilles Achilles correctly interprets the meaning of15the gifts and towards old But it has agreed (to uses the man. been suggests that Agamemnon ought to find: “one who is to an extent) that this is primarily a response to Priam’s his liking and is kinglier than I am” (9.392) to marry his very insistence on his wealth of gifts (no doubt daughter. Any acquiescence to Agamemnon’s reminding Achilles of Agamemnon’s words in Book 19) commands, concealed through the rhetoric of for the urgent return of his son’s body. Achilles is made Odysseus in the Embassy, would in fact constitute the to state, for all to hear, that it is mainly his decision to return Hector’s corpse. “I myself, even I, intend to release Hector to you...” (24.560-2). After all, Achilles Gill, C. (1996) Personality in Greek Epic, Tragedy and Philosophy. does imply that ‘he may reject the god’s demand Oxford: Clarendon Press, p145n,pl 65. 14 Donlan, W. (1989) ‘The Unequal Exchange Between Glaucus and Diomedes in the Light of the Homeric Gift-Economy’: Phoenix 43, 16 çPl -15. Whitman, C.H. (1958) Homer and the Heroic Tradition. Postlethwaite, N. (1995) ‘Agamemnon Best of Spearmen’: Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ppl9l-3. 17 Phoenix 49, p1 00. Schein, op.cit. p162 24
a of
it.
and
the
to the
of
not the
all
and
his
Iliad
self,
own
of
of
which
which heroic
king
death
by
an reader
create
of
action
are
comes upon
lives
Achilles
heroes’,
may
the
imposing
ritualistic The
Priam’s),
to
his
meeting
as
age
participant Engflsh
redefined.
the
Iliad
of
disagreeing
questions
society
of
the
and
apparent
by
self
unanimously
time
inadequate
record of
1.
result
the
old
questioning
the
Iliad
and
the
enemy
to
code’
be modern
The
where
a
that
beginning to
of
its
heroic Patroklos’
Exeter.
and
serves
within
the
own
‘world
in
up
standards
crisis
as
the
keep
of
Book
the
The
energy
hero
of
Achilles
will
choice
society
student
the
Homer’s the
of
our
hero,
to
in
the
only
the
crisis
accurate
especially
But
even
the
‘heroic
and
confined,
ethics
through
bound
to
take
Year
realises
heroic
the
an
learns
that
the is
about
from
host
about
every
compared
pains
society
But
University
the
battle
signals
but
emerges
of
another
the
‘self-knowledge’
of
established
time values.
he
at
heroism
he
concept
it
be
of
with
the
of
less
the
the
little
of
is
become
for
closely
Second
(episodes
poem
at
Is
by
argued us which
and
a
and
epic. the
is
to
through
can
characters.
when
much
peripheral
clearly
growth
Achaeans
even
society,
pity?
is
Achilles
the
in
when
know
prejudices
which
setting
18
can
his
heroes,
values
the
Life
of
be
search
of
Achilles
Studies
perfection
grief
it
the
and
we
ethics
in
all
by and
to
24
its
question
where
provide
the
assumption
society act
spend
his
the
other
heroic
which
values’
Book
arena
by
of
a
vital.
in
in
that
becomes
an Horrocks
but
to
opportunity
into
Roman
in
(24.650-55).
their
and
of
decline.
lest
&
society.
heroism
Book
ultimate
terms
distort
true
the
deemed displays
audience,
is
contain
The
Greek
Vanessa
greatest
epic’s
ideals
necessarily the
about
he context characters
It
his
conceptions
accepted
can
‘Homeric are
Nevertheless,
widespread
has the
reflected
gift-giving/dispersing
demonstrates
prowess
immeasurable
urgently
and
Achilles
others
important becomes
exploits;
prsoner
to
constantly
secret
warrior
25
a 6).
of
to
of
of
to
to
is
of
no
the
his
on
pity
life.
and
the
his
the
the
Press,
and
and
was
that
time
to
(Vol
Zeus’
wish,
meal,
doom
of
of
by
to
was
shows
xenos,
Clarendon
play
will
careful
he
inflicting
offered
honours
prowess
from
Apollo’s
dedicate
with
a
Generalized
summon Hector’s
although
close,
epic to
extent, this
Patroklos’
estranged
plague.” 21
he
he the
leaders
audience)
presents
far
of
bestowal
own
stress
outside
gift-receipt,
loss
distressing
decision
Priam
body
to
portrayal
to benefit that
evoking they
out
of
gifts
corpse
accentuated
the
up
the
and
Clarendon
the
the
to
(or
or has
poet’s
(as hero
Oxford:
the
his
transaction
the
for
after
here,
,,20
share
his
the
attention
or
by
him
Achilles’
xenia,
the
at a
involves
to
overcome
effort
certain
Commentaty
place
live tending
both
avoid
children.
end
society,
know
that idly
-
and
this
he
of
‘The
a
that
to
fame
Priam;
further Oxford:
led A
as
cancel
that
sympathy
narrative,
so
to
but
Agamemnon:
in
sit
to
to
reader
Hector’s
that
battle
practical
I
Homer’s
to
your treats
-
is
Greece.
said,
&
men/s
is
underlies paying
is
take
who
to
great
designed
Patroklos
and
the
and
body
to
from
that
or
indifferent
own
Iliad:
The
and
belief of
the
status
to
and
one
be
of
since
now
burial.
self
of
Essays.
fact
be
and
that
able,
includes
reconciled
return
compensate
death, showing
gift-exchange
attempt
1.
you
able
Ancient
himself
his
The
is
concern
the
his
In
the
not
takes
words,
Achilles
age,
to to
Akhille.us
quite
both
Priam
to
return
in
future
Achilles relationship
an
is
wholeheartedly
unconnected
to
death
seem it
to
gift-exchange
is
must
of
truly
Hector’s
Instead
old
hardly
for
his
to
in
material
course
in
to
finally 24.39ff
grief
Book
which
Achilles and
Collected
sympathy
tragedy
he
of
philotes
themselves, that
(1993)
pitiless
thereby
from
is
(1998)
The
the
in
distinctive
of
the Agamemnon
quite
Achilles
can
here
a ritual
1.54
gifts)
any
himself
goals.
lucid
the
. pity’ 23
decision
Priam
Peleus’
p173n,pllO.
Priam N.
and
immerses
of p99
values
of
that N.J.
both
society
humility
Reciprocity
(1983)
in
which
bringing
his
same
indifferent expect
Troy,
to
he
return
for
because him
and
ransom.
his
its
actions
in
decision
this
on
guest-host
won
C.
by
p337.
is
for
its
op.cit.
in
forever
Achilles
op.cit.
preparation
The
the part
made of
the through
as
eleos,
hardly
with
of care
shows
to
father. 22
can
facet
those
his
characters
raising
his
enemy
or
suggestion
only
in
is
the
beginning
p103.
is
owing
p162
is
glory
not
who
accepting Achilles
he
awaits
in homeland
fact
society,
the
is
assembly
Richardson,
Postlethwaite, do
Macleod,
his
3.
ibid
Schein,
the Seaford,
Priam
In
my
I
It
p 1
Press,
Reciprocity’,
Cambridge,
22
21 18
‘°
friendship (24.540-2):
Agamemnon’s
‘The
and offering that
bestowed
grieving
death,
Achilles
part notably
hero
himself
embrace his
Achilles, Priam
the at
Although
capacities
commendation.
“re-establish
account
Achilles’
and
Achilles.
which
that under
Priamf°
another
Achilles there
xenia, by
propriety
thereby
former
corpse gifts,
detailing (24.5697O,586),18
by independent through is
at B.
in
of
no
an
the [n.2
Mr.
See
175-
203-
only E.
whose
many
Roman
of
for
meters
but Roman
of
virtually
1931-33
Latin)
here.
team
(1984) (1990)
the
horses
52
in years
one
hippodrome
Maximus
late
Kraeling,
many 2000.
the
his
first (Humphrey
is
by
C.
World and World
of Humphrey, the
followed
it
ground, the by
advanced
by
the
July,
sand H.
expedition.2
244
Circus
in
J. have 495-504,
Roman
the over I
Roman
be
Ancient incorporate
with
from
in
curriculum
chariot
reports
37-39.
the
a
the
the
on
to
being
(1986)
had
Although
racing and
of
in
in
lightly
one
of
(also
restoration sufficiently
Festival
investigations (1982)
be
clues
size
Racing
have
Horse
detailed
chariot
summarised
Games
least
reveal
times.
JERASH?
best-known
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believed
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will
Jerash are The and
the surviving,
the
at
to the
and
AT
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archaeological
and
third with
of
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Sports Jerash those
annual
Horsfield
this
in a
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CIRCUS Hyland,
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Notably,
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attempted (less time complete smallest Rome), Empire
already Mujalli historical excavations Circuses: those hard Muller 11; below)
observations 2 also 77;
ROMAN
Shenfield
26
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by
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thin Larry
Mr. the
can
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in
day)
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IN
Juvenal
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thousand races
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PERSONALITY:
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theory
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are
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taken (eds),
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31
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vine Plato’s by between Aristotelian pleasure non-essential ception even the Aristotle’s maintaining model follow model; ble gularity group suaded by Gill’s argument that Irwin’sinterpretations (in having the power to convince even a moral sceptic like terms of a form of individual self-realization which pro Thrasymachus; Gill’sanswer to this involves an appeal motes concern for the good of others for their sake) are to the dialogue form — the challenge which Socrates Kantian-inspired, but feel that occasionally his criticism takes up is indeed prompted by Thrasymachus, but is is over-zealous. Regarding Plato’s Republic, for exam reformulated by Glaucon and Adeimantus, who are the ple, Irwin is responding to salient characteristics of the recipients of the rest of the dialogue and who, unlike work itself, especially to the the presentation of the Thrasymachus, are presented as men of good charac project in terms of the challenge to disprove Thrasy ter who are already receptive to the puil of ethical the machus’ view that justice benefits others rather than ory. Similarly, at the close of the main exposition, the the agent; the fundamentally other-benefiting nature of remarks which purport to demonstrate the desirability of the common conception of justice and the aim of inte justice even for the likes of Thrasymachus are not, in grating the good of self and others in a true account of fact, addressed to him, but to Glaucon (pp. 452-3). The justice are thus embedded in the work; at times, Irwin’s economy of such arguments, however, varies in in wholly justifiable notion of justice as a virtue which verse proportion to their ingenuity. benefits others is reformulated by Gill in terms of a These, then, are ways in which Gill seems to claim Kantian assumption that morality is fundamentally al too much for his approach. He claims too little, it seems truistic. Thus, although there is truth in Gill’s critique, to me, in limiting the application of his interpretative Irwin’s approach is also more Platonic than Gill sug model to Greek poetry and philosophy and their relation gests. to modern philosophical theory; indeed, at several There is also some difficulty with the claim that no points (e.g. p. 459) he deliberately eschews any wider, Greek ethical theory is intended to function as an ‘Ar cross-cultural or universal, application, and he is chimedean point’, i.e. as having an appeal to any ra somewhat coy on the question of the extent to which he tional agent whatever his/her ethical background. Irwin regards his thesis as true in its account of human ethi is taken to task for arguing the opposite with regard to cal and psychological life. But this is to ignore the cur both Plato and Aristotle. Gill’s position has substance, rency of ideas analogous to his own in many other given that Aristotle explicitly claims that ethical theory spheres of enquiry, especially in the growing consensus can only be addressed to those who have been appro of evolutionary psychology and social anthropology on priately prepared through habituation, and Plato like the fundamental importance of reciprocity in human co wise insists on proper affective training as a prerequi operation, and on the basis of the most distinctive fea site for dialectical knowledge; Gill concedes that both tures of human intellectual, ethical, and cultural life in present arguments which they believe to be true for our species’ unique forms of sociality. A striking indi anyone, but argues that they do not present them as cation of the currency of analogous6 ideas is the general accessible to anyone. The position, however, may be retreat, both within psychoanalysis and among its crit more complicated; for, on the face of it, Aristotle’s use ics, from Freud’s radical interiorization of individual psy of the argument from man’s function and Plato’s pres chological development. One can understand Gill’sde entation of his argument as a response to the Thrasy cision to focus on post-Cartesian and post-Kantian, machean challenge suggest that both do attempt to rather than Freudian models of the personality, both found their theories on arguments that both the com because his interests are philosophical and because mitted and the uncommitted would accept. Gill claims the philosophical approaches he rejects have had a that the ergon-argument is not, in fact, an appeal to disproportionate influence on classical studies, but objective, extra-ethical factors, but represents a view pace Adkins, not many of us are Kantians now, from within ethical theory; but while we can accept that whereas Freud has provided the twentieth century with the ergon-argument is, indeed, ethicized, it is by no its dominant models of the personality and of psycho means clear that Aristotle himself perceives this, or that logical development. Freud’s psychological model may he does not intend the argument to provide external, or may not be an ‘objective’ one on Gill’scriteria (there quasi-scientific support. We might accept that the ar is dialogue between psychic parts, but also strong rea gument, in so far as it is ethicized, cannot properly be son/passion dualism); but he is certainly an exponent of made to perform an Archimedean function, but this an ‘individualist’rather than a ‘participant’ approach in may be the sign of a failure on Aristotle’s part, rather than of a refusal to make the attempt. Likewise, Plato 6 For this approach in a classical context, cf. W. Burkert, Creation of seems to represent the argument of the Republic as the Sacred (1996) 138-55; it is reflected, but also distorted, in G. Herman’s paper in Reciprocity, 199-226. 32
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SOUTH-WEST BRANCH CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION Meetings of the Classical Association have not yet been planned for the 1999-2000 programme, but there will be a range of lectures, including joint meetings with the Hellenic, Roman and Devon Archaeological Societies. New members are very welcome! Subscriptions to: Mrs. H. Harvey, 53 Thornton Hill, Exeter, EX4 4NR (01392 254608) Fees: £5 pa. (life membership £50), schools £8 p.a. •