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MONEY and the EARLY GREEK MIND: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy

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MONEY and the EARLY GREEK MIND: Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy This page intentionally left blank MONEY AND THE EARLY GREEK MIND How were the Greeks of the sixth century bc able to invent philosophy and tragedy? In this book Richard Seaford argues that a large part of the answer can be found in another momentous development, the invention and rapid spread of coinage, which produced the first ever thoroughly monetised society. By transforming social relations, monetisation contributed to the ideas of the universe as an impersonal system (presocratic philosophy) and of the individual alienated from his own kin and from the gods (in tragedy). Seaford argues that an important precondition for this monetisation was the Greek practice of animal sacrifice, as represented in Homeric epic, which describes a premonetary world on the point of producing money. This book combines social history, economic anthropology, numismatics and the close reading of literary, inscriptional, and philosophical texts. Questioning the origins and shaping force of Greek philosophy, this is a major book with wide appeal. richard seaford is Professor of Greek Literature at the University of Exeter. He is the author of commentaries on Euripides’ Cyclops (1984) and Bacchae (1996) and of Reciprocity and Ritual: Homer and Tragedy in the Developing City-State (1994). MONEY AND THE EARLY GREEK MIND Homer, Philosophy, Tragedy RICHARD SEAFORD cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521832281 © Richard Seaford 2004 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2004 isbn-13 978-0-511-18678-3 eBook (EBL) isbn-10 0-511-18678-9 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 978-0-521-83228-1 hardback isbn-10 0-521-83228-4 hardback isbn-13 978-0-521-53992-0 paperback isbn-10 0-521-53992-7 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. For Yana Hoc non desinit incipitque semper Contents Preface page xi List of abbreviations xii 1 Introduction 1 a Introduction: Primitive and modern money 1 b Overview of the argument 9 c What is money? 16 part one: the genesis of coined money 2 Homeric transactions 23 a Forms of economic transaction in Homer 23 b The marginality of trade and the absence of money 26 c Gold and silver in Homer 30 d Reciprocity in crisis 34 e The contrast between the (re)distribution of booty and of sacrificial meat 39 3 Sacrifice and distribution 48 a Homeric sacrifice: subjective continuity 48 b Homeric sacrifice: the lack of objective continuity 52 c Sacrifice and durable wealth 60 4 Greece and the ancient Near East 68 a The economies of the ancient Near East 68 b Homer and Mesopotamian epic 70 c Mesopotamian food offerings 73 d Greek food offerings: the monetisation of cult 75 5 Greek money 88 a The earliest Greek money 88 b Money in the fifth century 95 vii viii Contents 6 The preconditions of coinage 102 a Sacrificial spits 102 b From spit to coin 109 c From seal to coin 115 d Seals, coinage, writing 122 7 The earliest coinage 125 a Who invented coinage? 125 b When was coinage invented? 129 c Why was coinage invented? 131 d Fiduciarity 136 8 The features of money 147 a Walking on the textiles in Aeschylus’ Agamennon 147 b Money is homogeneous 149 c Money is impersonal 152 d Money is a universal aim 157 e Money is a universal means 162 f Money is unlimited 165 g Money unites opposites 170 h Money is both concrete and abstract 171 i Money is distinct from all else 172 part two: the making of metaphysics 9 Did politics produce philosophy? 175 a Law, public space, free debate 175 b The style and content of the earliest philosophy 184 10 Anaximander and Xenophanes 190 a The fragment of Anaximander 190 b Reciprocity and commodity 193 c Anaximander and Miletus 198 d Xenophanes 209 11 The many and the one 217 a Why monism? 217 b Myth, psychoanalysis, politics, money, mystery cult 219 12 Heraclitus and Parmenides 231 a Heraclitus 231 b The development of abstract being 242 c Is Parmenidean metaphysics really influenced by money? 255 Contents ix 13 Pythagoreanism and Protagoras 266 a Early Pythagoreanism 266 b Philolaus 275 c Protagoras 283 14 Individualisation 292 a Individualism 292 b Individualism and communality 298 c Incommensurability 301 d Tragic individualism 305 e Creon and Oedipus 311 f Conclusion 315 15 Appendix: was money used in the early Near East? 318 a Introduction 318 b Did the early Near East have coinage? 319 c What forms did ‘money’ take in ancient Mesopotamia? 321 d The Kanish texts 326 e Egypt 331 f The Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods 332 g Conclusions 333 References 338 Index 363 Preface This book argues that the monetisation of the Greek polis in the sixth and fifth centuries bc contributed to a radical transformation in thought that is, in a sense, still with us. Academics – perhaps because they are more interested in texts than in money – have emphasised rather the role of alphabetic literacy in the radical intellectual changes of this period. They are often also emotionally invested in the autonomy of their various specialisms, an investment encouraged by the institutional division of academic labour. For most presocratic scholars, to allow that any kind of social process might illuminate their texts would threaten their control of their subject and the autonomy of ‘doing philosophy’. The consequent subconscious policing of the boundaries can be simultaneously sincere and brutal. For embarking on such a fundamental question I make no apology, and hope that others will be inspired to remedy the inadequacies of my answers. I thank all those who have over many years, in formal and informal settings, discussed with me a theme – the western genesis of money and its consequences – that seems to be of interest to everybody. Further, the book has benefited from the reading of chapters 2–8 by Jack Kroll, 2–7 by Henry Kim, 4d–5a by Robert Parker, 6 by Peter Haarer, 9 and 10 by Geoffrey Lloyd, 9–13 by Malcolm Schofield, 13b by Carl Huffman, 13c by Paul Woodruff, and the whole book by Christopher Gill and by Robin Osborne. I am also grateful for numismatic discussion to Chris Howgego and Ute Wartenberg, and to Paul Curtis for checking the references. I continue to owe much to the stimulating and collegiate atmosphere of the Department of Classics and Ancient History in the University of Exeter. Thanks go finally to my publisher for courteous efficiency and for openness to radically new ideas. xi Abbreviations ABV J. D. Beazley, Attic Black-Figure Vase Painting. Oxford, 1956. ARV 2 J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-Figure Vase Painting. 2nd. ed., Oxford, 1963. DK Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, ed. H. Diels and W. Kranz, 6th ed. (with subsequent impressions), Berlin, 1951. FGrH Die Fragmente der Griechische Historiker, ed. F. Jacoby. Berlin and Leiden, 1923–58. KRS G. S. Kirk, J. E. Raven, and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philoso- phers. 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1983. PMG Poetae Melici Graeci, ed. D. L. Page. Oxford, 1962. RE Pauly’s Real-Encyclopadie¨ der Klassischen Altertumswissenschaft. Stuttgart, 1894–1919. SIG 3 Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum, ed. W. Dittenberger. 3rd. ed., Leipzig, 1915–24. Comic fragments are cited in Poetae Comici Graeci (Berlin), edited by R. Kassel and C. Austin. Tragic fragments are cited in the volumes of Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, (edited by B. Snell and S. Radt, Gottingen),¨ except for Euripides, which is cited in the old edition of A. Nauck. Presocratics are cited in DK (see above). Help in understanding abbreviations of ancient authors and works is to be found in the Greek–English Lexicon edited by Liddell and Scott, and of periodicals in Ann´ee Philologique. xii chapter one Introduction a introduction: primitive and modern money Money is central to our lives. But what exactly is it? A definition is sur- prisingly elusive. Money is, puzzlingly, both a thing and a relation. And the relation – because it is one of power that is interpersonal and unspe- cific, over the labour not of another but of others in general – tends to be mystified, to be disguised as a thing. Further, different kinds of thing, used in different kinds of transaction in different kinds of society, have all been called ‘money’: mediaeval coinage, the silver of second millennium bc Mesopotamia, large stone discs on the Pacific island of Yap, the shells circulated on the Trobriand islands, the money used in advanced industrial societies (‘modern money’), and so on. A detailed analysis of ‘money’ will be provided in due course (1c). I begin here with modern money, which – unlike some other kinds of money – is a mere token, without use-value or even (sometimes) physical embodi- ment. If imagined nevertheless – as it generally is – as a thing, intangible yet promiscuous, what sort of thing is it? Apparently a token or symbol, commanding the labour of others. But a symbol of what? Not, surely, of all or any one of the numerous goods and services that it can be exchanged for, but rather of the homogeneous, numerical exchange-value abstracted from – so as to embody command over – goods and services.1 And be- cause this value is too abstract to be embodied in money in the way that the abstraction of strength may seem embodied in a symbolic lion, we should perhaps call modern money not even a mere symbol but a mere sign, whose meaning is exhausted in its function as a means of payment or exchange.
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