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Revitalizing Mi'kmaq Culture in Newfoundland - a Grounded Theory Discursive Analysis of Oppression and Resistance

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Revitalizing Mi'kmaq Culture in Newfoundland - a Grounded Theory Discursive Analysis of Oppression and Resistance University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2014-02-24 Resistance and Reinscription: Revitalizing Mi'kmaq Culture in Newfoundland - A Grounded Theory Discursive Analysis of Oppression and Resistance Butler, Charles WIlliam James Butler, C. WI. (2014). Resistance and Reinscription: Revitalizing Mi'kmaq Culture in Newfoundland - A Grounded Theory Discursive Analysis of Oppression and Resistance (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/27643 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/1382 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Resistance and Reinscription: Revitalizing Mi’kmaq Culture in Newfoundland A Grounded Theory Discursive Analysis of Oppression and Resistance By Charles William James Butler A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE, FACULTY OF ARTS CALGARY, ALBERTA February, 2014 © Charles William James Butler 2014 Abstract Keywords: Assimilation Prescribed Consciousness Reinscription Resistance Indigenous Oppression Marginalization This dissertation utilizes a grounded theory methodology to explore the intersection between Indigenous and multi-cultural societies. It focusses on an Indigenous people who have long been framed as fully assimilated into white society. It critiques how Canada purports to be a multi-cultural mosaic in a post-colonial state and argues that these concepts fail to account for the presence of Indigenous peoples, their interactions with the dominant settler society and the fact that the Indian Act represents the ongoing colonization of Indigenous people. Further, it argues that discussions of the place of Indigenous people in Canada often work from the assumption that in order to survive and to prosper, Indigenous people must abandon many of the key cultural practices that differentiate their worldview from that of the settlers. That is, they must choose to be assimilated and to become hyphenated-Canadians. This thesis examines how Mi’kmaq in Newfoundland are revitalizing their Indigenous culture through resistance and reinscription. It problematizes notions of hybridity and challenges the authority of governments, which seek to control Indigenous identity through a legislative framework, oppression, and marginalization. It argues for the legitimacy and authenticity of Indigenous identities that incorporate cultural practices from Pan-Indian sources in order to re-establish holistic Indigenous cultures. Finally, it presents an alternative understanding of how Indigenous identities can continue to flourish even when immersed in a society, which seeks to erase them. ii Acknowledgements While doctoral work is in many ways a solitary venture, it is not possible to complete such an undertaking without the support and guidance of many people – family, friends, and colleagues. There are so many to thank that it is not feasible to name each. There are some who must be included and I will begin with the Mi’kmaq people who are at the heart of this work. Though you may not each explicitly appear in this text, your presence is there. I especially thank all of my participants for sharing their stories and their lives. My time spent at the Bay St. George Cultural Circle will always be with me. The kindness and encouragement that I encountered there helped me through this process. Dr. Wisdom Tettey has been with me throughout my PhD program, having first called me to offer me a seat in 2007. He subsequently became my supervisor and his support, advice, and critique have carried me through some incredibly daunting moments. Dr. Brian Rusted always encouraged me to step a little closer to the edge and to trust my own voice when I might have compromised or played it safe. Dr. Heather Devine brought an historian’s critical gaze to my work and her key questions and recommendations were very much appreciated. Dr. Pam Palmater and Dr. Cora Voyageur, acting as examiners, helped to ensure that this work does not follow the historical pattern of exploitation by non-Indigenous academics. My three children, D’Arcy, Evan and Tianna and my five sisters, Rose Marie, Althea, Gwendolyn, Evelyn and Mollie have always supported and encouraged me. Finally, I thank my partner Gertie Mai Muise who first challenged, then cajoled, but iii always supported me as a non-Indigenous researcher focused on Mi’kmaq cultural revitalization. iv Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1: Being Outside the Multicultural Lens ..................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Framing the Research Problem ............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Historical Context ................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Project Goals ........................................................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Political and Cultural Divisions ............................................................................................................10 1.6 Hybridity and the Construction of Identity ........................................................................................11 1.8 Oppression and Resistance ...................................................................................................................15 1.9 Initial Research Phase and Analysis ....................................................................................................16 1.10 Dissertation Format .............................................................................................................................20 Chapter 2: The State, Indigenous Communities and Mi’kmaq in Newfoundland ................................23 2.1 Situating Identities .................................................................................................................................23 2.2 Pre-Contact Mi’kmaq History .............................................................................................................24 2.3 Post-Contact Mi’kmaq History ............................................................................................................31 2.3.1 The Fur Trade and the British-French Wars .........................................................................................38 2.3.2 Life under the British ............................................................................................................................44 2.4 Mi’kmaq in Newfoundland ...................................................................................................................50 2.4.1 Mi’kmaq in Twentieth-Century Newfoundland ...................................................................................62 v 2.4.2 The Arrival of the Americans ...............................................................................................................65 2.6 The Mi’kmaq Struggle for Recognition as Indigenous People ..........................................................67 2.6.1 Mi’kmaq and Defining Identity ............................................................................................................70 2.7 Moving from History to Theory: Resistance and Identity Construction ..........................................73 2.5 State Control and the Struggle for Identity .........................................................................................74 2.5.1 Alternatives to White Paper Liberalism................................................................................................79 2.5.2 Further Legal Complications of Identity – The Case of Indigenous Women .......................................82 Chapter 3: Theory and Identity Construction ..........................................................................................87 3.1 Identity as Discursive ............................................................................................................................87 3.2 Exploring Hybridity and Liminality ....................................................................................................90 3.3 Instrumental Ethnicity as a Strategic Choice ......................................................................................97 3.4 Positionality
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