Department of Political Science Master’s Degree in International Relations Chair of History of the Americas TOMORROW THE STARS Italian Space Policy between the US and Europe 1954 - 1988 SUPERVISOR: CANDIDATE: Prof. Gregory Alegi Andrea Urbano ASSISTANT SUPERVISOR: Student ID 623972 Prof. Federico Niglia ACADEMIC YEAR 2014/2015 2 “The Space adventure is no more an episode of a single nation. Supranational collaboration and multidisciplinary research are increasingly necessary” Luigi Broglio 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 6 Chapter I - Space: The new front in the Cold War ............................................... 14 1 . The United States toward the Moon Conquest ..................................... 15 2. Eastern Block Strategy in the “Space Race” ...................................... 36 Chapter II – The Beginning of the Italian Space Policy: “The Broglio Era” ........ 54 1. Relations between the US and Italy in the San Marco Project ............. 55 2. San Marco 2 - The beginning of the Italian Equatorial Space Launches ................................................................................................. 68 3. From San Marco 3 to the end of the Santa Rita Space Launches ........ 74 Chapter III – The difficult dialogue between Academics and Industries The new European concepts of Space .............................................. 81 1. The new European Element, Space: ESRO and ELDO ........................ 82 2. From STV to SIRIO – the Italian Industrial Protagonists .................... 95 3. SIRIO 2 and the Italian Attempt to regain Prestige in European Space Policy .......................................................................... 106 Chapter IV – Towards a National Space Policy –Collaboration in Space between the United States and Others ............................................ 110 1. NASA and ESA on the Space Shuttle: the Spacelab Project .............. 111 2. From “Piano Spaziale Nazionale” to ASI – the End of Pioneering Phase of the Italian Space Program .................................................... 121 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 129 Acronyms ............................................................................................................... 135 Annex 1 – Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including Moon and Other Celestial Bodies ...................................................................... 137 Annex 2 – Exchanges of notes (with Memorandum of Understanding dated 31 May 1962) constituting an agreement relating to a space Science research program. Rome, 5 September 1962 ..................... 145 4 Annex 3 – Press kit San Marco 1 Launch (Released 7 December 1964) ........ 149 Annex 4 – Exchanges of notes (with Memorandum of Understanding dated 18 February 1969) constituting an agreement for the use of San Marco range by NASA, Rome, 30 April and 12 June 1969 ............ 164 Interviews ............................................................................................................... 171 Websites ................................................................................................................. 172 Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 174 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the support of those who positively contributed to the drafting of the present thesis. The first appreciation goes to the Supervisor, Professor Gregory Alegi, for his constant help, inexhaustible patience and noticeable enthusiasm shown in the early phase of orientation, as well as in the phase of documents and contributions collection. His spontaneous interest in the subject has been a further stimulus in the given opportunity and privilege to work with him. A strong appreciation also goes to the Italian Air Force, in the person of the Major General Alberto Rosso, Director of the Logistic Department of the Defence General Staff and Military Member in the Board of the Italian Space Agency. He gave me an important point of view, from a military perspective, on the past space programs, together with a precious updating on the future ones. The author wishes also to acknowledge the support of Professor Paolo Teofilatto, Dean of the aerospace Engineer School of the University “La Sapienza” in Rome, for his contribution on the history of the Italian space policy from the Broglio’s heirs point of view. Special thank go also to him for his time e for the given opportunity to visit the Research Centre of the San Marco Project. Special thanks go to Professor Engineer Roberto Somma, Thales Alenia Space, who offered the industrial point of view on the space programs initiad by our Country. The author wishes to underline the particular contribution of Giorgio di Bernardo, capable to portray, with warmth, Broglio’s visions, hopes and emotions, sharing the intimate human aspect of Officer Engineer who led Italy to the stars. To all this persons is due a deep gratitude for the personal interpretations, really useful to complete and enrich this thesis, and for the precious help given with interest, availability and accuracy throughout the drafting of the work. Last but not list an affectionate thanks go to my family, who never denied technical and affective support in this important step. 6 INTRODUCTION The peace conferences1, that preceded and followed the end of the Second World War2, pointed out the two nations that mostly contributed to the complete defeat to the Axis nations, with their power and determination. They had nothing in common, except the war against Nazi German, these were the United States (US) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, hereinafter called the Soviet Union). The Marshall Plan overcame the development of a multilateral approach to international relations, preferring a bilateral solution with every single country participating in the given program. In this way the United States became the country offering benefits, in response to the assistance deemed necessary, in specific fields, by the other nation. Binding agreements were signed with the aided state that, in many aspects, produced a bilateral collaboration that was not only political. In the field of science and technology, specifically, the continuous exchange of know-how and technology contributed to the control and limitation of a possible indiscriminate use of the new scientific discoveries, with the enhancement of national prestige. The Soviet refusal of the Marshall Plan3 and the consequent formation of COMINFORM4 contributed to the division of the world into two different blocks, one under the influence of the United States and the other in close contact to the 1 During and after the Second World War, many meetings were held during which the Allied members met to decide the fate of the defeated nations. The most important were the Teheran Conference on 1 December 1943, the Yalta Conference on 4 February 1945 and the Potsdam Conference on 18 July 1945. 2 The Second World War officially ended when the last member nation of the Axis, the Japanese Empire, surrendered on 2 September 1945. 3 The Marshall Plan was named after the American Secretary of State, under the Truman administration. It was the plan under which aid was provided to rebuild Europe, addressed to all nations fighting during the Second World War with the hidden intent of preventing communist build up in Europe. 4 The Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM), was the Soviet response to the Marshall Plan. It met for the first time on 22 September 1947, to form an umbrella organization for all the Soviet Republics. 7 decisions coming out from Moscow. The London Conference in November and December 1947, called: “…the last possibility” saw the four Foreign Ministers of France, United States, United Kingdom and Soviet Union meet, but showed that it was impossible to reach any agreement with USSR, especially in the post war accommodation of Germany, especially in resolving the after-war German situation, thus ending up in a complete failure5. The Berlin Blockade from 24 June 1948 to May 1949, put the entire world into a long phase where the United States and the Soviet Union fought each other in every possible field and theatre, under the constant threat of using atomic weapons. This phase notoriously became known as the “Cold War”. During this phase of history, which was characterized by an atypical struggle, the two blocks never openly or directly fought each other, the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union was not only emerging in cases of conventional conflicts between nations aligned in the two blocks, often fought over territorial claims or political supremacy, but through disputes related to every aspect of technological and scientific discovery. A struggle for supremacy that touched every aspect and area putting the two major winners of the Second World War in open competition, even in a field never explored before: the Space. The Soviet Union inaugurated the level of competition in this new field, starting the “Space Race” launching the first artificial satellite6 into space on 4 October 1957 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome7.