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List of Contributors xxi About the Editors xxvii
Part A Concepts and Standards for a Secure Water Harvesting 1
1 Concept and Technology of Rainwater Harvesting 3 Fayez Abdulla, Cealeen Abdulla, and Saeid Eslamian 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Concept of Rainwater Harvesting 4 1.3 Technologies of Rainwater Harvesting 5 1.3.1 Micro-Catchment Systems 6 1.3.1.1 Rooftop System 6 k 1.3.1.2 On-Farm Systems 7 k 1.3.2 Macro-Catchment Systems 7 1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting 8 1.4.1 Advantages of Roof Rainwater Harvesting (RRWH) 8 1.4.2 Disadvantages of RRWH 10 1.5 Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting across Different Climatic Zones 10 1.5.1 Physical Feasibility 10 1.5.2 Technical Aspects 10 1.5.3 Social Aspects 11 1.5.4 Financial Aspects 11 1.6 Roof Rainwater Harvesting System Components 11 1.6.1 Catchment Area 11 1.6.2 Conveyance System 12 1.6.3 Storage Tank 12 1.6.4 First Flush 13 COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL 1.7 Calculation of Potential Harvested Water 13 1.8 Water Quality and its Health and Environmental Impacts 14 1.9 System Operation and Maintenance 14 1.10 Conclusion 15 References 15
2 Rainwater Harvesting: Recent Developments and Contemporary Measures 17 Aline Pires Veról, Marcelo Gomes Miguez, Elaine Garrido Vazquez, Fernanda Rocha Thomaz, Bruna Peres Battemarco, and Assed Naked Haddad 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Water Resource Management 18 2.2.1 Water Supply 19
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2.2.2 Water Demands 19 2.2.3 Water Scarcity 19 2.2.4 Regulatory Framework 21 2.2.5 Recent Developments 21 2.2.5.1 Water-Energy Nexus 22 2.2.5.2 Net-Zero Water Buildings 24 2.3 Water Management at the Building Scale 25 2.3.1 Design of a Rainwater Harvesting System 26 2.3.1.1 Collection Surface (or Roof Surface) 26 2.3.1.2 Gutters and Pipes 26 2.3.1.3 Storage Tanks (Reservoirs) 27 2.3.1.4 Rainwater Treatment Systems 32 2.3.1.5 Rainwater Pumping Station 33 2.3.1.6 Water Supply System (Water Pipes) 33 2.3.2 Source Control Systems 33 2.4 Analysis of Payback of Rainwater Harvesting Systems 34 2.5 Conclusion 35 Acknowledgment 35 References 36
3 Standards for Rainwater Catchment Design 39 Sisuru Sendanayake and Saeid Eslamian 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Catchment Surface 40 3.2.1 Collection Efficiency 41 k 3.2.2 Pollutants on the Catchment Surface 41 k 3.3 Conveyance System 42 3.3.1 Filtering Devices in RWH Systems 43 3.4 Storage Tank 44 3.4.1 Sizing of the Storage Tank 44 3.4.1.1 General Methods of Determining the Tank Capacities of RTRWHS 44 3.4.1.2 Sizing Based on Supply (Mass Balance Method or Rainfall Mass Curve Analysis) 44 3.4.1.3 Sizing Based on Computer Models 45 3.4.1.4 Sizing Based on Design Charts 45 3.4.2 Advanced Methods of Determining Optimum Tank Capacities of RTRWH Systems 45 3.4.2.1 Critical Period Model 45 3.4.2.2 Moran Model 45 3.4.2.3 Behavioral Models 45 3.4.3 Investigating the Performance of RTRWH System Using the Behavioral Model 45 3.4.3.1 Yield after Spillage (YAS) Operating Model 46 3.4.3.2 Predicting the Performance of the RTRWH System Using the Behavioral Model 46 3.4.3.3 Generic Curves for System Performance of a RTRWH System 47 3.4.3.4 Sample Calculation for Sizing Storage of a RWH System 48 3.4.3.5 Use of Reference Maps to Find the Effective Combinations of Roof Area and Storage Capacity 49 3.4.4 Positioning of the Storage Tank 49 3.4.5 Cascading Multi Tank Model 51 3.4.6 Tank Materials and Life Cycle Energy (LCE) of Tanks 53 3.5 Pre-treatment of Roof Collection 53 3.6 Distribution System and Related Regulations 54 3.7 Conclusion 54 References 55
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4 Water Security Using Rainwater Harvesting 57 Adebayo Eludoyin, Oyenike Eludoyin, Tanimola Martins, Mayowa Oyinloye, and Saeid Eslamian 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Concept of Rainwater Harvesting 57 4.3 Rainwater Collection Systems 58 4.4 Rainwater Storage 61 4.5 Importance of Rainwater Harvesting 61 4.6 Quality Assessment of Harvested Rainwater 64 4.7 Problems Associated with Rainwater Harvesting 64 4.8 Conclusion 65 References 65
Part B Water Harvesting Resources 69
5 Single-Family Home and Building Rainwater Harvesting Systems 71 Duygu Erten 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 Historical Development of RWH and Utilization 71 5.3 Pros and Cons of RWH Systems 72 5.3.1 Economics of RWH 73 5.3.2 Cisterns as Flood Mitigation/Control Systems 74 5.3.3 Types of RWH Systems 74 5.3.4 Water Harvesting: Water Collection Source 74 5.3.5 RWH System: System Components 74 k 5.3.6 Rooftop Material 75 k 5.3.7 Roof Washers 75 5.3.8 Maintenance 75 5.3.9 Smart Rainwater Systems 76 5.3.10 RWH Systems with Solar Electric Pump 77 5.3.11 Water Harvesting from Air 77 5.4 Current Practices Around the World 78 5.5 Health Risks of Roof-Collected Rainwater 78 5.6 Guides, Policy, and Incentives 79 5.7 Green Building Certification Systems and RWH 82 5.7.1 Code for Sustainable Homes/BREEAM Support/Points Awarded 84 5.8 Conclusion 84 References 85
6 Water Harvesting in Farmlands 87 Elena Bresci and Giulio Castelli 6.1 Introduction 87 6.2 Water Harvesting: Definitions 87 6.3 Floodwater Harvesting in Farmlands 88 6.3.1 Case Study: Spate Irrigation Systems in Raya Valley 90 6.3.1.1 Modernization of Spate Irrigation in Raya Valley 90 6.3.1.2 Water Rights and Regulation of Raya Valley Spate Irrigation Systems 91 6.4 Macro-Catchment Water Harvesting in Farmlands 91 6.4.1 Case Study: Sand Dams in Kenya 91 6.4.1.1 GIS and Local Knowledge for Selecting Best Sites for Sand Dam Constructions in Kenya 92 6.5 Micro-Catchment Water Harvesting in Farmlands 94 6.5.1 Case Study: Multiple Micro Catchment Systems in Ethiopia 94
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6.6 Rooftop Water Harvesting in Farmlands 95 6.6.1 Case Study: Rooftop Water Harvesting in Guatemala 95 6.7 Water Harvesting and Fertilization 96 6.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 96 References 97
7 Rainwater Harvesting for Livestock 101 Billy Kniffen 7.1 Introduction 101 7.2 Rainfall Harvesting on the Land 101 7.3 Animal Water Requirements 102 7.4 Harvested Rainfall as a Source for Livestock 103 7.5 Requirements for Harvesting Rainwater for Livestock 104 7.6 Distribution of Water for Livestock 107 7.7 Rainwater System Maintenance 107 7.8 Conclusion 107 References 108
8 Road Water Harvesting 109 Negin Sadeghi and Saeid Eslamian 8.1 Introduction 109 8.2 Water Harvesting Systems and Their Characteristics 110 8.2.1 Rainwater Harvest System 111 8.2.2 Necessity and Advantages of WHS 113 8.2.3 Types of Water Harvesting Systems 113 k 8.3 Road Water Harvesting 113 k 8.3.1 Rolling Dips 117 8.3.2 Water Bars 117 8.3.3 Side Drains 118 8.3.4 Miter 118 8.3.5 Culverts 118 8.3.6 Gully Prevention and Reclamation 118 8.3.6.1 Terrain 119 8.3.6.2 Climate 119 8.3.6.3 Soils 119 8.3.7 Inclusive Planning/Water-Friendly Road Design 120 8.3.8 Road WHS and Planting 122 8.3.8.1 Site Selection 123 8.4 Conclusion 123 References 124
Part C Hydroinformatic and Water Harvesting 127
9 Application of RS and GIS for Locating Rainwater Harvesting Structure Systems 129 Dhruvesh Patel, Dipak R. Samal, Cristina Prieto, and Saeid Eslamian 9.1 Introduction 129 9.2 Experimental Site 131 9.3 Methodology 131 9.3.1 Drainage Network 131 9.3.2 Digital Elevation Model and Slope 131 9.3.3 Soil Map 131
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9.3.4 Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) 132 9.3.5 Morphometric Analysis 133 9.3.6 Decision Rules for Site Selection of Water Harvesting Structures 133 9.4 Results and Discussions 137 9.4.1 Basic Parameters 137 9.4.1.1 Area (A) and Perimeter (P) 137 9.4.1.2 Total Length of Streams (L) 137 9.4.1.3 Stream Order (u) 137
9.4.1.4 Basin Length (Lb) 137 9.4.2 Linear Parameters 138
9.4.2.1 Bifurcation Ration (Rb) 138 9.4.2.2 Drainage Density (Dd) 139 9.4.2.3 Stream Frequency (Fu) 139 9.4.2.4 Texture Ratio (T) 139
9.4.2.5 Length of Overland Flow (Lo) 139 9.4.3 Shape Parameters 139
9.4.3.1 Form Factor (Rf) 139 9.4.3.2 Shape Factor (Bs) 140 9.4.3.3 Elongation Ratio (Re) 140 9.4.3.4 Compactness Coefficient (Cc) 140 9.4.3.5 Circularity Ratio (Rc) 140 9.4.4 Compound Factor and Ranking 140 9.4.5 Positioning a Water Harvesting Structure 140 9.5 Conclusion 141 References 142 k k
10 Information Technology in Water Harvesting 145 S. Sreenath Kashyap, M.V.V. Prasad Kantipudi, Saeid Eslamian, Maryam Ghashghaie, Nicolas R. Dalezios, Ioannis Faraslis, and Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari 10.1 Introduction 145 10.2 Water Harvesting Methods 145 10.2.1 Basin Method 145 10.2.2 Stream Channel Method 145 10.2.3 Ditch and Furrow Method 145 10.2.4 Flooding Method 146 10.2.5 Irrigation Method 146 10.2.6 Pit Method 146 10.2.7 Recharge Well Method 147 10.3 The Internet of Things (IoT) 147 10.3.1 Applications of the IoT in Water Harvesting 147 10.3.1.1 Estimation of the Soil Moisture Content 147 10.3.1.2 Determining the Quality of Groundwater 147 10.3.1.3 Rate of Infiltration in the Soil 148 10.3.1.4 Delineation of Aquifer Boundaries and Estimation of Storability of Aquifer 148 10.3.1.5 Depth of Aquifer from the Surface of the Earth 148 10.3.1.6 Identification of Sites for Artificial Recharge Structures 148 10.4 Assessing the Available Subsurface Resources Using the IoT 148 10.5 The IoT Devices for Efficient Agricultural/Irrigation Usage 150 10.6 Conclusions 151 References 151
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11 Global Satellite-Based Precipitation Products 153 Zhong Liu, Dana Ostrenga, Andrey Savtchenko, William Teng, Bruce Vollmer, Jennifer Wei, and David Meyer 11.1 Introduction 153 11.2 Precipitation Measurements from Space 154 11.3 Overview of NASA Satellite-Based Global Precipitation Products and Ancillary Products at GES DISC 155 11.3.1 TRMM and GPM Missions 155 11.3.2 Multi-Satellite and Multi-Sensor Merged Global Precipitation Products 156 11.3.3 Global and Regional Land Data Assimilation Products 157 11.3.4 Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2) Products 158 11.3.5 Ancillary Products at GES DISC 158 11.4 Data Services 159 11.4.1 Point-and-Click Online Tools 159 11.4.2 Data Rod Services 160 11.4.3 Subsetting and Format Conversion Services 161 11.4.4 Other Web Data Services and Information 161 11.5 Examples 163 11.5.1 Maps of Seasonal Averages of Precipitation 163 11.5.2 Time Series Analysis of Precipitation in Watersheds 164 11.5.3 Changes in Precipitation Patterns 165 11.6 Conclusion 171 Acknowledgments 172 References 172
12 Risk Analysis of Water Harvesting Systems 177 Maria Do Céu Almeida, Nelson Carriço, João Santos and Saeid Eslamian k 12.1 Introduction 177 k 12.2 Concepts and Terminology 177 12.3 General Approaches to Risk Management Applicable to RWHS 177 12.4 Supporting Risk Management for RWHS 181 12.5 Hazards and Exposure Modes 182 12.6 Rainwater Collection Reliability as Water Source 183 12.7 Specific Risk Treatment Actions 185 12.8 Process Control and Monitoring 186 12.9 Conclusion 187 References 187
Part D Hydrological Aspects of Water Harvesting 191
13 Return Period Determination for Rainwater Harvesting System Design 193 Sandeep Samantaray, Dillip K. Ghose, and Saeid Eslamian 13.1 Introduction 193 13.2 Study Area 194 13.2.1 Water Level Fluctuation 195 13.3 Overview of Rainwater Harvesting 197 13.3.1 Different Types of Water Harvesting Techniques 197 13.3.1.1 Rooftop Water Harvesting (RTWH) 197 13.3.1.2 Micro-Catchment System of Rainwater Harvesting (MiCSRWH) 197 13.3.1.3 Macro-Catchment System of Rainwater Harvesting (MaCSRWH) 197 13.3.1.4 Floodwater Harvesting (FWH) 197 13.3.1.5 Storage Structure Systems 197 13.3.1.6 Spreading of Water 198
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13.4 Methodology 198 13.4.1 Evaluation of Return Period 198 13.4.2 Design of Water Harvesting Structures 198 13.4.2.1 Design Approach 198 13.4.2.2 Estimation of Runoff Rate 198 13.4.2.3 Estimation of Runoff Volume 198 13.4.2.4 Runoff Coefficients 199 13.4.2.5 Normal Distribution Method 199 13.4.2.6 Gumbel Distribution Method 199 13.4.2.7 Extreme Value Type-I Distribution 200 13.4.2.8 Log Pearson Type-III Distribution 200 13.5 Results and Discussions 201 13.6 Conclusions 203 References 203
14 Rainwater Harvesting Impact on Urban Groundwater 207 A. Jebamalar, R. Sudharsanan, G. Ravikumar, and Saeid Eslamian 14.1 Introduction 207 14.2 State of the Art 208 14.3 Study Area and Data Collection 209 14.4 Methodology 213 14.5 Temporal Analysis of Groundwater Level 214 14.6 Spatial Analysis of Groundwater Table 215 14.7 Impact of RWH on Groundwater Recharge 215 14.8 Model Simulations for Impact of RWH Systems 217 k 14.9 Model Predictions for the Future 218 k 14.10 Conclusion 222 Acknowledgement 223 References 223
15 Effects of Water Harvesting Techniques on Sedimentation 225 Siavash Fasihi, and Saeid Eslamian 15.1 Introduction 225 15.1.1 How to Incorporate WHTs in Models 226 15.2 Qualitative Effects and Data Collection 226 15.2.1 Measurements and Data Input 227 15.3 Sedimentation in Small Check Dams 228 15.4 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 229 15.4.1 Abilities and Limitations of RUSLE 234 15.5 Limburg Soil Erosion Model (LISEM) 235 15.5.1 Model Implementation 235 15.5.2 Calibration and Modification of p-Factor 236 15.5.3 Assessing Effects of WHTs on Sedimentation Using LISEM 237 15.6 Conclusion 238 References 238
Part E Hydrometeorological Water Harvesting 243
16 Principles and Applications of Atmospheric Water Harvesting 245 Mousa Maleki, Saeid Eslamian, and Boutaghane Hamouda 16.1 Introduction 245
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16.1.1 Unconventional Water Resources 245 16.2 Atmospheric Water Harvesting Necessity 245 16.3 Methods of Atmospheric Water Harvesting 246 16.3.1 Vapor Condensing 246 16.3.2 Active Cooling of the Ambient Air 247 16.3.3 Fog Harvesting – Age-Old Practices that Still Work 247 16.4 Energy Requirements of AMH and Water Production Costs 247 16.5 Atmospheric Vapor Harvesting Systems 248 16.5.1 Water Harvesting from Air with Metal-Organic Frameworks Powered by Natural Sunlight 248 16.5.2 Atmospheric Vapor Harvesting Adsorption Materials 251 16.5.3 Applications of Superhydrophilic and Superhydrophobic Materials 252 16.5.4 Vapor Compression Refrigerating System 252 16.5.4.1 Water Generation System 252 16.5.4.2 Operation of Water Generation Systems 253 16.5.4.3 Water Treatment System 253 16.5.4.4 Water Formation in a Humid Atmosphere 254 16.5.4.5 Computations and Estimations 254 16.5.4.6 Cooling Condensation Process 254 16.5.4.7 Compressor 255 16.5.4.8 Dew Point 255 16.5.4.9 Relative Humidity 255 16.5.4.10 Comparison Between Various Compression Systems 255 16.6 Conclusion 256 References 257 k k 17 Dew Harvesting on High Emissive Natural and Artificial Passive Surfaces 261 Jose Francisco Maestre-Valero, Bernardo Martin-Gorriz, Victoriano Martínez-Alvarez, and Saeid Eslamian 17.1 Introduction 261 17.2 Passive Surfaces for the Case Studies 262 17.2.1 Optical Properties 262 17.2.2 Passive Radiative Condensers and Foils 263 17.2.3 Experimental Pan 263 17.2.4 Agricultural Pond 263 17.3 Data Collection 264 17.3.1 Climate Measurements 264 17.3.2 Dew Measurements 264 17.3.2.1 RDCs 264 17.3.2.2 Experimental Pan 264 17.3.2.3 Agricultural Pond 265 17.3.3 Statistical Analysis 265 17.4 Case Studies for Dew Collection 265 17.4.1 Dew Collection on Passive Radiative Condensers 265 17.4.2 Dew Collection on the Experimental Pan 266 17.4.3 Dew Collection on an Agricultural Pond 267 17.5 Dew Modeling 267 17.5.1 Correlation with Climatic Variables 267 17.5.2 Mass Transfer Equation 268 17.6 Conclusion 270 Acknowledgments 271 References 271
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18 Atmospheric Water Harvesting Using Waste Energy from Landfills and Oilfields 273 Enakshi Wikramanayake, Onur Ozkan, Aritra Kar, and Vaibhav Bahadur 18.1 Introduction 273 18.2 Refrigeration-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting Systems 275 18.3 Modeling Waste Natural Gas-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting 276 18.4 Landfill Gas-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting 277 18.4.1 Modeling LFG-Based AWH in the Barnett Shale 277 18.4.2 Benefits of LFG-Based AWH for the Barnett Shale 278 18.4.3 Techno-Economic Analysis of LFG-Powered AWH 279 18.4.4 Environmental Benefits of LFG-Powered AWH 282 18.5 Oilfield Gas-Based Atmospheric Water Harvesting 283 18.6 Sensitivity of the Water Harvest to Various Parameters 284 18.7 Comparison of AWH to Other Techniques for Producing Water 285 18.8 Perspectives on Atmospheric Water Harvesting 285 18.9 Conclusions 286 Acknowledgements 286 References 286
Part F Environmental Aspects of Water Harvesting 289
19 Treatment Techniques in Water Harvesting 291 Brandon Reyneke, Monique Waso, Thando Ndlovu, Tanya Clements, Sehaam Khan, and Wesaal Khan 19.1 Introduction 291 19.2 Pretreatment of Harvested Rainwater: Prevention of Debris Entry and Sedimentation 292 k 19.3 Chemical Disinfection 293 k 19.3.1 Chlorination 293 19.3.2 Non-Chlorine Disinfectants 294 19.4 Physical Disinfection 295 19.4.1 Filtration Techniques 295 19.4.2 SODIS/UV Treatment 296 19.4.3 Thermal Disinfection 297 19.5 Biological Treatment 298 19.5.1 Slow-Sand and Granular Activated Carbon Filters 298 19.5.2 Coagulation and Bioflocculants 299 19.5.3 Bacteriophages and Bacteriophage Proteins 300 19.6 Conclusion 300 References 301
20 Water Recycling from Palm Oil Mill Effluent 307 Hossein Farraji, Irvan Dahlan, and Saeid Eslamian 20.1 Introduction 307 20.2 Problem Statement 307 20.3 Palm Oil Production 308 20.4 POME as an Agro-Industry Wastewater 308 20.5 Characteristics of POME 308 20.5.1 Total Suspended Solids 310 20.5.1.1 Volatile Suspended Solids 310 20.5.2 Biological Oxygen Demand 310 20.5.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand 311 20.5.4 Color 311 20.5.5 Biodegradability of POME 311
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20.6 POME Treatment Methods 312 20.6.1 Commercial Treatment Method 312 20.6.2 Non-Commercial Treatment Method 312 20.7 Water Recycling by Membrane Technique 313 20.7.1 Benefits and Drawbacks of Membrane Treatment Method for POME 314 20.8 Application of the SBR in POME Treatment 314 20.8.1 Factors Affecting the SBR System 315 20.8.2 Microbial Augmentation for POME 315 20.9 Discussions 316 20.10 Conclusion 316 References 316
Part G Green Water Harvesting 321
21 Vegetation Advantages for Water and Soil Conservation 323 Hadis Salehi Gahrizsangi, Saeid Eslamian, Nicolas R. Dalezios, Anna Blanta, and Mohadaseh Madadi 21.1 Introduction 323 21.2 Background 323 21.2.1 Soil Erosion Concepts 323 21.2.2 Water-Induced Erosion 324 21.2.3 Water-Induced Erosion in the Slope and Agricultural Farms 325 21.2.4 Soil and Water Conservation by Crop Management 326 21.2.5 Conservation by Vetiver Grass 328 21.3 Vegetation Advantage for Soil and Water Conservation in Artificial Plots 329 k 21.3.1 Soil Erosion in Malaysia 329 k 21.3.2 Soil and Water Conservation in Malaysia 331 21.3.3 Case Study: Application of Vetiver Grass for Soil and Water Conservation in Artificial Plots 331 21.4 Conclusions 334 References 335
22 Water Harvesting in Forests: An Important Step in Water-Food-Energy Nexus 337 Rina Kumari and Saeid Eslamian 22.1 Introduction 337 22.2 Global Water Scarcity 337 22.3 Change in Land Use-Land Cover and its Impact on Forest and Water Resources 339 22.4 Forest Hydrology 339 22.4.1 Hydrologic Processes in Forest 339 22.4.2 Effects of Forest Structure on Hydrological Processes 340 22.4.2.1 Stemflow 340 22.4.2.2 Litterfall 341 22.4.3 Preconditions for Rainwater Infiltration 341 22.4.3.1 Vegetative Cover 342 22.4.3.2 Soil Type 342 22.4.4 Groundwater Conditions 342 22.4.5 Dimensions of Hydrological Services Governed by Forest 342 22.4.5.1 Water Quantity and Forests 342 22.4.5.2 Water Quality and Forests 342 22.4.5.3 Evapotranspiration, Precipitation, and Water Loss 342 22.4.5.4 Erosion/Sediment Control and Forests 343 22.4.5.5 Forests and Flood Control, Drought, and Fire Risks 343 22.4.5.6 Forests and Groundwater 343
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22.4.5.7 Forests and Their Effect on Rainfall 343 22.4.5.8 Forests and Riparian Management 343 22.5 Rainwater Harvesting in Forests 343 22.5.1 Definition and Typology of Rainwater Harvesting Systems 343 22.6 Deforestation and its Impact 345 22.7 Forest Management and Watershed Development 346 22.8 Knowledge Gaps 347 22.9 Forests and Water in International Agreements 348 22.10 Role of Geospatial Technologies 348 22.11 Managing the Climate-Water-Forest Nexus for Sustainable Development 349 22.12 Case Studies 350 22.12.1 Combating Water Scarcity in Latin America 350 22.12.2 Amazon River 350 22.12.3 Case Study of Southeast Asia 350 22.13 Conclusions 350 References 351
23 Rainwater and Green Roofs 355 Sara Nazif, Seyed Ghasem Razavi, Pouria Soleimani, and Saeid Eslamian 23.1 Introduction 355 23.2 Green Roof Components 355 23.2.1 Vegetation 356 23.2.2 Growth Substrate 357 23.2.3 Filter Layer 357 23.2.4 Drainage Layer 358 k 23.2.5 Root Barrier 358 k 23.2.6 Waterproof Layer 358 23.2.7 Insulation Layer 358 23.2.8 Protection Layer 358 23.3 Green Roof Types 358 23.4 Green Roof Irrigation 359 23.5 Green Roof Standards 359 23.6 Green Roofs for Rainwater Collection and Storage 360 23.6.1 Hydrologic Modeling of Green Roof Performance 360 23.6.2 Green Roof Rainwater Retention Potential 362 23.6.3 Green Roof Characteristics and Rainwater Retention Potential 362 23.7 Green Roof Effect on Runoff Quality 363 23.8 Other Functions of Green Roofs 364 23.8.1 Improving Energy Usage Efficiency 365 23.8.2 Air Pollution Reduction 365 23.8.3 Human Feelings 366 23.8.4 Green Roof Effect on Urban Heat Island 366 23.8.5 Interior Noise Pollution Reduction 367 23.9 Cost and Benefit Analysis of Green Roofs 367 23.10 Conclusion 369 References 369
24 Green Landscaping and Plant Production with Water Harvesting Solutions 373 Saeid Eslamian, Saeideh Parvizi, and Sayed Salman Ghaziaskar 24.1 Introduction 373 24.2 Water Harvesting 374 24.3 Rainwater Harvesting 374
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24.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting in the Past 374 24.3.2 Modern Rainwater Harvesting 375 24.4 The Goals and Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting 376 24.5 Impact of RWHR on Infiltration and Surface Runoff Processes 376 24.5.1 Groundwater Recharge 376 24.5.2 Surface Runoff Estimation 376 24.6 Climate Change and RWH 376 24.7 Landscape Functions and RWH 377 24.8 Hydrological Functions and RWH 377 24.8.1 Infiltration 377 24.8.2 Groundwater Recharge 377 24.8.3 Water Competition 378 24.9 Soil Fertility and Biomass Production 378 24.9.1 Soil Fertility 378 24.9.2 Crop Yields and Biomass Production 378 24.9.3 Biodiversity Conservation 378 24.9.3.1 Changes in Floral Diversity 378 24.9.3.2 Changes in Structural Heterogeneity/Patchiness 378 24.9.3.3 Changes in Animal Diversity 379 24.9.4 Sustainable Livelihoods 379 24.9.4.1 Food Security 379 24.9.4.2 Conflicts Concerning Water Resources 379 24.9.4.3 Income/Social Balance 379 24.10 Discussions 380 24.11 Conclusions 381 381 k References k
Part H Reliable Rainwater Harvesting and Storage Systems 385
25 Comparing Rainwater Storage Options 387 Sara Nazif, Hamed Tavakolifar, Hossein Abbasizadeh, and Saeid Eslamian 25.1 Introduction 387 25.2 History of Rainwater Harvesting 387 25.3 Benefits of Rainwater Storage 388 25.4 Main Rainwater Storage Options 389 25.4.1 Surface Runoff Harvesting 389 25.4.1.1 Surface Runoff Harvesting Using Surface and Underground Structures 389 25.4.1.2 Surface Runoff Harvesting Using Paved and Unpaved Roads 390 25.4.2 Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting 390 25.4.2.1 Components of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting 390 25.4.2.2 The Usage of Harvested Water 394 25.4.3 Rainwater Harvesting In Situ 394 25.4.3.1 Use of Topographic Depressions as Rainfall Harvesting Areas 394 25.4.3.2 Use of Furrows as Rainwater Storage Areas 395 25.5 Comparing Rainwater Storage Options 395 25.6 Conclusion 398 References 398
26 Rainwater Harvesting Storage-Yield-Reliability Relationships 401 John Ndiritu 26.1 Introduction 401 26.2 The Rainwater Harvesting Storage-Yield-Reliability Problem 401
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26.3 Modeling Storage-Yield-Reliability Relationships 402 26.3.1 Modeling Approaches and Methods 402 26.3.2 Behavior Analysis (Continuous Simulation) Method 405 26.3.3 Sequent Peak Algorithm and Rippl’s Method 407 26.3.4 Generalized Storage-Yield-Reliability Relationships 409 26.4 Key Considerations 411 26.4.1 How Is the Adequacy of the Rainfall Time Series Assessed? 411 26.4.2 What Modeling Methods are Best Suited for Use? 411 26.4.3 When Is It Essential to Apply Statistically-Based Reliability? How Is this Done? 412 26.4.4 When Do Generalized Storage-Yield-Reliability Relationships Need to Be Used? 412 26.5 Conclusions 412 References 413
27 Towards Developing Generalized Equations for Calculating Potential Rainwater Savings 417 Monzur A. Imteaz, Muhammad Moniruzzaman and, Abdullah Yilmaz 27.1 Introduction 417 27.2 State of the Art 418 27.3 Methodology 419 27.4 Study Area and Data 420 27.5 Results 421 27.6 Conclusions 423 Acknowledgement 424 References 424
k Part I Sustainable Water Harvesting and Conservation in a Changing Climate 427 k
28 Water Harvesting, Climate Change, and Variability 429 Jew Das, Manish Kumar Goyal, and N.V. Umamahesh 28.1 Introduction 429 28.2 Water Harvesting 431 28.2.1 Trans-Himalayan Region 431 28.2.1.1 Zing 431 28.2.2 Western Himalaya 432 28.2.2.1 Kul 432 28.2.2.2 Naula 432 28.2.2.3 Khatri 432 28.2.3 Eastern Himalaya 432 28.2.3.1 Apatani 432 28.2.4 North Eastern Hill Ranges 432 28.2.4.1 Zabo 432 28.2.4.2 Bamboo Drip Irrigation 432 28.2.5 Brahmaputra Valley 433 28.2.5.1 Dongs 433 28.2.5.2 Dungs 433 28.2.6 Indo-Gangetic Plains 433 28.2.6.1 Ahar and Pynes 433 28.2.6.2 Bengal’s Inundation Channel 433 28.2.6.3 Dighis 433 28.2.6.4 Baolis 433 28.2.7 Thar Desert 433 28.2.7.1 Kunds 433
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28.2.7.2 Kuis/Beris 433 28.2.7.3 Baoris/Bers 433 28.2.7.4 Jhalaras 434 28.2.7.5 Nadis 434 28.2.7.6 Tobas 434 28.2.7.7 Tankas 434 28.2.7.8 Khadin 434 28.2.7.9 Virdas 434 28.2.7.10 Paar System 434 28.2.8 Central Highlands 434 28.2.8.1 Talab 434 28.2.8.2 Saza Kuva 434 28.2.8.3 Johad 434 28.2.8.4 Naada/Bandha 434 28.2.8.5 Pat 434 28.2.8.6 Repat 434 28.2.8.7 Chandela Tank 435 28.2.8.8 Bundela Tank 435 28.2.9 Eastern Highlands 435 28.2.9.1 Katas /Mundas/Bandhas 435 28.2.10 Deccan Plateau 435 28.2.10.1 Cheruvu 435 28.2.10.2 Kohli Tanks 435 28.2.10.3 Bhanadaras 435 k 28.2.10.4 Phad 435 k 28.2.10.5 Kere 435 28.2.10.6 The Ramtek Model 435 28.2.11 Western Ghats 435 28.2.11.1 Surangam 435 28.2.12 Western Coastal Plains 435 28.2.12.1 Virdas 435 28.2.13 Eastern Ghats 435 28.2.13.1 Korambus 435 28.2.14 Eastern Coastal Plains 435 28.2.14.1 Eri 435 28.2.14.2 Ooranis 435 28.2.15 Rooftop Harvesting 436 28.2.16 Perforated Pavements 436 28.2.17 Infiltration Pits 436 28.2.18 Swale 436 28.3 Case Study 437 28.3.1 Study Area 437 28.3.2 Climate and Rainfall 437 28.3.3 GCM Projection and Scenarios 438 28.3.4 Surplus Intensity 439 28.4 Results and Discussion 439 28.4.1 Understanding the Uncertainty 441 28.5 Conclusion 443 References 444
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29 Water Harvesting and Sustainable Tourism 447 Neda Torabi Farsani, Homa Moazzen Jamshidi, Mohammad Mortazavi, and Saeid Eslamian 29.1 Introduction 447 29.2 Water Management: An Approach to Sustainable Tourism 447 29.2.1 Water Harvesting and Museums 449 29.3 Tourism and Water Harvesting Economy 451 29.3.1 The Impact of Tourism on Water Demand 451 29.3.2 Water Harvesting as a Supply-Side Water Management Strategy 451 29.3.3 Financial and Economic Analysis of Rainwater Harvesting Projects 452 29.3.4 Raising Revenue for Financing Rainwater Harvesting Projects 452 29.3.5 Rainwater Harvesting in Modern Tourism 452 29.4 Conclusion 453 References 453
30 Rainwater Harvesting Policy Issues in the MENA Region: Lessons Learned, Challenges, and Sustainable Recommendations 457 Muna Yacoub Hindiyeh, Mohammed Matouq, and Saeid Eslamian 30.1 Introduction 457 30.2 Definitions of RWH 457 30.3 Rainwater Harvesting Toward Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals 458 30.4 Water Administration and Legislation 459 30.5 Policy and Regulatory Approaches to RWH Use 459 30.5.1 The Need for Policy 459 30.5.2 Key Characteristics of Good Policy 461 30.5.3 Framework for a Policy 461 k 30.5.3.1 Policy Must Balance the Risks from Controlled RWH Use with the Alternatives 461 k 30.5.3.2 Policy Must Be Integrated 461 30.5.3.3 Policy Should Be Simple and Incentivize RWH Use 461 30.5.3.4 Risk Management Should Be Behavior Based, Rather than Technology or Water-Quality Based 462 30.5.3.5 Policy Development Should Include Stakeholders 462 30.5.3.6 Policy Must Be Clear Regarding Implementation 462 30.5.3.7 Policy Should Not Place Undue Financial Burdens on Users 462 30.5.3.8 Privately Owned RWH Systems and Use Should Be Considered for Poor Communities 462 30.5.3.9 Policy Should Differentiate with Regard to Scale 463 30.6 Considerations When Establishing a Municipal Rainwater Harvesting Program 463 30.7 Regulatory Approaches in Other Countries 464 30.7.1 Australia 464 30.7.2 Germany 465 30.7.3 United Kingdom 465 30.7.4 Bermuda 465 30.7.5 The Netherlands 465 30.7.6 India 465 30.7.7 Indonesia 466 30.7.8 Brazil 466 30.7.9 China 466 30.7.10 Capiz Province, The Philippines 466 30.7.11 United States 466 30.7.12 St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands 467 30.7.13 Portland 468 30.7.14 Singapore 468 30.7.15 Kenya 468 30.7.16 Namibia 469
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30.7.17 Middle East 469 30.8 Challenges and Limitations 469 30.9 Future Recommendations for the MENA Region 470 30.10 Conclusion 470 References 471
Index 475
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