An Introduction to Intercultural Communication
跨跨文文化化交交际际导导论论
主 编： 严 明 副主编： 王 瑞 张丽娇 参编人员： 陈庆斌 刘 丹
目录
目录 ...... 2
Preface ...... 7 Introduction ...... 1 0.1 Globalization：An Overview ...... 1 0.1.1 Globalization Defined ...... 1 0.1.2 Historical Origin of Globalization ...... 2 0.1.3 Modern Concept of Globalization ...... 2 0.1.4 Elements Contributing to the Globalization ...... 3 0.2 Culture Merge ...... 3 0.2.1 Culture Diversity Defined ...... 4 0.2.2 Workforce Diversity Defined ...... 4 0.2.3 Disadvantages of Culture Diversity ...... 4 0.3 Intercultural Communication ...... 5 0.3.1 Intercultural Communication Defined ...... 5 0.3.2 The Need for Intercultural Communication ...... 5 0.3.3 Key Strategies for Effective Intercultural Communication ...... 5 0.3.4 Tips for Intercultural Training ...... 6 ChapterⅠ Culture ...... 10 1.1 Culture Defined ...... 10 1.1.1 Edward Tylor‘s Definition ...... 10 1.1.2 Kroeber and Kluckholn‘s Definition ...... 10 1.1.3 Samovar and Porter‘s Definition ...... 11 1.1.4 Other Definitions ...... 11 1.2 Characteristics of Culture ...... 12 1.2.1 Culture Is Learned ...... 12 1.2.2 Culture Is Based on Symbols ...... 12 1.2.3 Culture Is Not the Same as Nature ...... 13 1.2.4 Culture Is Subject to Change ...... 14 1.2.5 Culture Is Ethnocentric ...... 15 1.3 Cultural Identity ...... 15 1.3.1 Formation of Cultural Identity ...... 16 1.3.2 Characteristics of Cultural Identity ...... 17 1.4 Subculture, Co-culture, and Subgroup ...... 17 1.4.1 Subculture ...... 17 1.4.2 Co-culture ...... 18 1.4.3 Subgroup...... 18 1.5 Rules, Roles, and Networks ...... 19 1.5.1 Rules ...... 19 1.5.2 Roles ...... 19 1.5.3 Networks ...... 20
ii ChapterⅡ Cultural Dynamics ...... 23 2.1 Enculturation ...... 23 2.2 Acculturation ...... 23 2.2.1 Predictors of Acculturation ...... 23 2.2.2 Categories of Acculturation ...... 24 2.3 Culture Shock ...... 27 2.3.1 Symptoms of Culture Shock ...... 28 2.3.2 Aspects of Culture Shock ...... 29 2.3.3 Stages of Culture Shock ...... 31 2.3.4 Strategies for Managing Culture Shock ...... 31 ChapterⅢ Communication ...... 35 3.1 Communication Defined ...... 35 3.1.1 Communication as an Element of Culture ...... 35 3.1.2 Western Perspective on Communication ...... 35 3.1.3 Eastern Perspective on Communication ...... 35 3.1.4 Perception and Communication ...... 36 3.1.5 Communication Defined by Samovar and Porter ...... 36 3.1.6 Simmel‘s Perspective on Communication ...... 36 3.2 Components of Communication...... 36 3.3 Characteristics of Communication ...... 39 3.3.1 Communication Is Dynamic ...... 39 3.3.2 Communication Is Irreversible ...... 40 3.3.3 Communication Is Symbolic ...... 40 3.3.4 Communication Is Systematic ...... 40 3.3.5 Communication Is Self-reflective ...... 41 3.3.6 Communication Is Transactional ...... 41 3.3.7 Communication Is Contextual ...... 42 ChapterⅣ Intercultural Communication ...... 44 4.1 Intercultural Communication ...... 44 4.1.1 Intercultural Communication Defined ...... 44 4.1.2 Forms of Intercultural Communication ...... 45 4.1.3 Intercultural Communication Ethics...... 48 4.2 Intercultural Communication Competence ...... 50 4.2.1 Intercultural Communication Competence Defined ...... 50 4.2.1 Components of Intercultural Communication Competence ...... 51 4.2.2 Intercultural Communication Competence in Certain Context ...... 52 ChapterⅤ Cultural Values ...... 57 5.1 Worldview and Religion ...... 57 5.1.1 Worldview and Religion Defined ...... 57 5.1.2 Major Religions ...... 57 5.2 Cultural Values and Patterns of Behaviors ...... 62 5.2.1 Priorities of Cultural Values ...... 62 5.2.2 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s Value Orientations ...... 63 5.2.3 Hofstede‘s Cultural Dimensions ...... 66
ii 5.3 Implications of Cultural Values for Intercultural Communication ...... 72 5.3.1 Value Orientations ...... 72 5.3.2 The Importance of People‘s Attitude in Intercultural Communication ...... 73 ChapterⅥ Culture‘s Influence on Perception ...... 76 6.1 Sensing ...... 76 6.1.1 People‘s Senses and Their Limitations ...... 77 6.1.2 Effects of Culture on Sensing ...... 78 6.2 Perceiving ...... 79 6.2.1 The Process of Perception ...... 80 6.2.2 Effects of Culture on Perceiving ...... 81 6.2.3 Cross-cultural Difference in Sensation and Perception ...... 82 6.3 High Versus Low Context ...... 83 ChapterⅦ Intercultural Communication Barriers ...... 87 7.1 Common Problems and Barriers in Intercultural Communication ...... 87 7.1.1 Anxiety ...... 87 7.1.2 Assuming Similarity Instead of Difference ...... 88 7.1.3 Ethnocentrism ...... 88 7.1.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice ...... 90 7.1.5 Language Problems ...... 95 7.2 Overcome Intercultural Communication Barriers...... 97 7.2.1 Raise Awareness ...... 97 7.2.2 Obtain Knowledge ...... 98 7.2.3 Enhance Motivation ...... 98 7.2.4 Master Skills ...... 98 ChapterⅧ Verbal Intercultural Communication (I) ...... 101 8.1 Language and Culture ...... 101 8.1.1 Culture and Word Meaning ...... 101 8.1.2 Culture and the Way of Saying Things ...... 102 8.2 Culture and Communication Style ...... 106 8.2.1 Culture and Conversation Pattern ...... 106 8.2.2 Direct vs. Indirect Communication Style ...... 107 8.2.3 Elaborate, Exacting, and Succinct Communication Style ...... 109 8.2.4 Personal and Contextual Communication Style ...... 109 8.2.5 Instrumental and Affective Communication Style ...... 111 ChapterⅨ Verbal Intercultural Communication (Ⅱ) ...... 115 9.1 The Importance of Writing in Intercultural Business Communication ...... 115 9.1.1 The Importance of Writing ...... 115 9.1.2 Characteristic Comparison of Written Communication Convention ...... 115 9.1.3 Cultural Contrasts in Written Business Communication ...... 116 9.2 Cultural Consideration in Planning Business Messages ...... 117 9.2.1 Defining Purposes ...... 117 9.2.2 Analyzing Intercultural Audiences ...... 117 9.2.3 Selecting a Channel and Medium ...... 118 9.3 Cultural Consideration in Organizing Business Messages...... 119
ii 9.3.1 Organizing Routine, Good-news, and Goodwill Messages ...... 119 9.3.2 Organizing Bad-news Messages ...... 119 9.3.3 Organizing Persuasive Messages...... 120 9.3.4 Organizing Reports ...... 121 9.3.5 Cultural Consideration in Resume Writing ...... 122 ChapterⅩ Nonverbal Communication ...... 127 10.1 Nonverbal Communication Defined ...... 127 10. 2 Culture and Nonverbal Communication ...... 127 10.2.1 The Alliance Between Culture and Nonverbals...... 127 10.2.2 The Functions of Nonverbal Communication ...... 127 10.3 Categories of Nonverbal Communication ...... 129 10.3.1 Paralanguage / Metacommunication...... 129 10.3.2 Chronemics ...... 130 10.3.3 Proxemics ...... 132 10.3.4 Oculesics ...... 135 10.3.5 Olfactics ...... 135 10.3.6 Haptics ...... 136 10.3.7 Kinesics ...... 136 10.3.8 Chromatics ...... 139 10.3.9 Silence ...... 140 10.3.10 Clothing and Physical Appearance ...... 141 10.4 Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory ...... 142 ChapterⅪ Global Social Customs and Business Etiquette ...... 146 11.1 Greeting Customs ...... 146 11.1.1 Handshake ...... 146 11.1.2 Embracing ...... 147 11.1.3 Bowing ...... 147 11.2 Dining Practices ...... 148 11.2.1 Drinking Glasses ...... 148 11.2.2 Tableware ...... 148 11.2.3 Manners at the Table ...... 149 11.3 Male and Female Relationship...... 150 11.3.1 Stereotypes of Male/Female Relationship ...... 151 11.3.2 Male/Female Relationship in the Workplace ...... 151 11.3.3 Female Roles in International Business ...... 151 11.4 Position and Status ...... 152 11.4.1 Social Status ...... 152 11.4.2 Status and Education ...... 153 11.4.3 Status and Age ...... 153 11.4.4. Status and Rank ...... 154 11.5 Customs Associated with Holidays and Holy Days...... 155 11.5.1 In the United States ...... 155 11.5.2 In the Catholic Countries ...... 155 11.6 Business Etiquette: Business Card Exchanges, Tipping, and Gift Giving ...... 155
ii 11.6.1 Business Card Exchanges ...... 156 11.6.2 Tipping ...... 156 11.6.3 Gift Giving ...... 156 ChapterⅫ Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication Competence ...... 160 12.1 Know Yourself ...... 160 12.1.1 Know Your Culture ...... 160 12.1.2 Know Your Personal Attitudes ...... 160 12.1.3 Know Your Communication Style ...... 161 12.1.4 Monitor Yourself ...... 162 12.2 Consider the Physical and Human Settings ...... 162 12.2.1 Timing ...... 162 12.2.2 Physical Setting ...... 162 12.2.3 Customs ...... 163 12.3 Seek to Understand Diverse Message Systems ...... 163 12.3.1 Try to Learn the Languages of Other Cultures ...... 164 12.3.2 Understand Cultural Variations in the Use of Language ...... 164 12.3.3 Remember That Words Are ―Cultural Bound‖ ...... 164 12.3.4 Be Aware of Nonverbal Codes ...... 165 12.3.5 Achieve Clarity ...... 165 12.4 Develop Empathy ...... 166 12.4.1 Hindrances to Empathy ...... 166 12.4.2 Improve Empathy ...... 167 12.4.3 Be Aware of Cultural Differences in Listening ...... 168 12.4.4 Encourage Feedback ...... 168 12.4.5 Develop Communication Flexibility ...... 169 12.4.6 Learn to Tolerate Ambiguity ...... 170 12.4.7 Learn to Manage Conflict ...... 170 Glossary of Terms ...... 173
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Preface Since 1960s, the study of intercultural communication has progressed rapidly. It was introduced to China in 1980s. Chinese scholars mainly focus on Chinese-Western culture comparison from cross-cultural perspective, paying less attention to basic theories of intercultural communication. With the development of foreign language teaching profession, intercultural communication competence is listed officially as one of the most important goals of FLT. However, what intercultural communication competence covers remains cloudy to most teachers of FLT, though the relation between language and culture has been broadly aware of. To design curriculums or develop courses for intercultural communication competence training calls for the knowledge in this domain. The problem is that there are so many different theories and schools of scholars working in this domain from various perspectives and holding different ideas. Some of their books are barely found in China; moreover, it is time-consuming to read them all. This book, introducing basic theories of intercultural communication, is written not as an academic research work that offer, develop new theories or correct, promote old ones, for we are teachers of foreign language and not professional scholars of intercultural communication. Instead, the book serves as a summary or literature review of the general theories of intercultural communication for those who want to scan the basic knowledge involved in the subject. In terms of material selection, we are greatly indebted to those scholars, home and abroad, whose efforts contribute so much to the theoretical development of intercultural communication. We select passages from their classical works which make this book a shortcut to overview the most up-to-date theories. In addition to the careful selection of the contents, we do some editing work to make the book easy to understand, so that some English majors or English fans can share too. In fact, this book has been taken as the textbook for the course of intercultural communication in Heilongjiang University. The rapid process of globalization sees the urgent necessity of the competence of intercultural communication. This book is dedicated to FL teachers to develop new approaches for intercultural communication competence training in FLT class.
YAN Ming October 6th, 2006
ii Introduction
Intercultural communication is the circumstance in which people from diverse cultural backgrounds interact with one another. The uniqueness of intercultural communication is the cultural diversities of communicators that lead to communicative failure. In this chapter, globalization is introduced to explain the current situation of intercultural communication.
0.1 Globalization：An Overview In the past, most human beings were born, lived, and died within a limited geographical area, never encountering people of other races and/or cultural backgrounds. Such an existence, however, no longer prevails in the world. Even members of once isolated groups of people now frequently have contact with members of other cultural groups. McLuhan characterized today's world as a "global village " because of the rapid expansion of worldwide transportation and communication networks. We can now board a plane and fly anywhere in the world in a matter of hours. Communication satellites, sophisticated television transmission equipment, and the Internet now allow people throughout the world to share information and ideas at the same time.
0.1.1 Globalization Defined The phenomenon of globalization means different things to different people. A review of literature suggests different ways of looking at this phenomenon. a. Economic standpoint Viewed purely from an economic standpoint, globalization is considered as a process of increasing involvement in international business operations. Thus, globalization is a worldwide business trend for expanding beyond domestic boundaries. This, in turn, creates an interconnected world economy in which companies do their business and compete with each other anywhere in the world, regardless of national boundaries. Within this economic interpretation of globalization, nations and their home firms elect to trade with each other in their attempts to increase wealth and economic prosperity for their nations, firms, and ultimately their citizens. b. Sociological view of globalization The sociological view of globalization defines it as a more pervasive force throughout the world. That is, globalization occurs when the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede as people around the world become increasingly aware that they are receding. c. Marxist philosophy on globalization A more critical view of globalization, based on Marxist philosophy, argues that globalization is what people in the Third World have already experienced for several centuries. It is called colonization. Proponents of this school of thought maintain that capitalist western countries exploit raw materials and cheap labor found in the Third World countries at the enormous expense of the peoples of the Third World countries.
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0.1.2 Historical Origin of Globalization Broadly speaking, there is a common misconception in various academic and professional circles that globalization, which is rapidly transforming the landscape of the world economy, is a "new" phenomenon. However, this claim of globalization being a "new" phenomenon in human history is not justified in the light of historical evidence. Even before there was the colonialism that Karl Marx and his followers addressed, human societies have always traded among themselves for thousands of years. a. Barter system Throughout history, and particularly since the establishment of agriculture as a mode of production in human civilization, local marketplaces emerged in which farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money. This type of commercial activity was referred to as the barter system. b. International trade The growth of population and formation of cities gave rise to new social classes of petty bourgeois and mercantile classes who set out on a voyage across national and then international frontiers in their attempts to maximize the rate of return for their commercial activities. Archaeological evidences support the notion that human society has always traded goods across great distances. A large-scale transactional form of international trade between producers, middlemen, and purchasers emerged in different marketplaces, both national and international, in the 18th century. This trend was observed in the 1780s by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, who coined the term "International" to describe the emerging reality of his day, namely, the rise of nation states and the cross-border transactions taking place between them.
0.1.3 Modern Concept of Globalization Globalization today describes a far more pervasive and deep phenomenon than has never existed before. Thousands of goods, services, and even ideas are produced globally, creating complex interconnections between states. A book, for example, can be written in Sydney, copyedited in the United States, typeset in India, printed in China, and then distributed globally via an international company like Amazon.com. The Internet has made global supply chain management, including manufacturing, distribution, and communication, simple and cheap. a. Theory of modernization According to some writers, the onset of interpreting what modern globalization really begins is in the mid-nineteenth century. Baylis and Smith (1997) discuss several precursors to the modern concept. First, it is argued that globalization has many features in common with the Theory of Modernization. Increasing industrialization brought into existence a whole new set of contacts between societies that changed the political, economic, and social processes that characterized the preindustrialized world. Thus, modernization is a part of globalization. b. Economic growth theory of industrialization The Economic Growth Theory, originally developed by Rostow, advocated that economic growth followed a pattern in all economies as they went through industrialization. This implies that for any national economy to grow around the world, it has to adopt a free market economy, and it has to, like western developed economies, undergo different stages of economic
2 development before it can reach its full potential, namely, the status of a developed economy. c. Global village There have been notable similarities in the picture of the world painted by globalization theorists who have been influenced by the world portrayed in Marshall McLuhan's concept of the "global village". According to McLuhan (1989), advances in electronic communications resulted in a world in which we could see real time events that were occurring in distant parts of the world. The main effect of this development is that time and space become compressed to such an extent that everything loses its traditional "isolated" identity.
0.1.4 Elements Contributing to the Globalization The current era of globalization — the world saw a similar global business push on the eve of World War I, but technology and communication restraints were obvious limitations on the scope of globalization then — began shortly after the end of World War II with the victorious western powers supporting a worldwide "open" trade and investment policy. a. Technology rules Technology is one reason for the globalization phenomenon. Computers, which have eased telecommunication burdens, are cheaper now than they have ever been — and more powerful, too. New technology will lead to even further global business integration, as the Internet becomes more accepted as a business medium worldwide. Technology has helped small-and-medium-sized companies take advantage of the new markets that globalization presents. It is these companies, unencumbered by large head offices and bureaucracies, that can exploit global niche markets. Computers, faxes and e-mail have replaced large parts of the traditional office structures. Smaller companies can operate more efficiently on a much wider geographical basis with fewer overheads than ever before. b. Market open Those who argue that globalization is a good thing say that companies dealing on the world stage will eventually become much more efficient as they benefit from large economies of scale. Productivity will be boosted and living standards everywhere have the potential to rise as the world becomes richer and more prosperous because of globalization. c. Global quality Globalization creates more jobs than it actually destroys, but they are in different sectors and in different geographic regions. It takes more skill, education and mobility to be employable. The jobs lost in Europe and North America over the decades have generally been those requiring relatively uneducated workers. Indeed, wage differences between the skilled and unskilled will likely increase. Both sides can point to ample examples to support their cases. What is irrefutable is that the world economic pie is indeed bigger because of globalization — and it is being sliced differently than before.
0.2 Culture Merge The workplace includes people with different backgrounds, from different nations, and from different culture. Men, women, Caucasians, Hispanics, African Americans, and others with diverse racial, national, and ethnic backgrounds often have very different perceptions about the same situations. Organizational success often requires strong organizational culture and group cohesiveness.
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0.2.1 Culture Diversity Defined With the increased globalization of the economy and interaction of different cultures, the concept of culture diversity has emerged. a. World culture A world culture, emphasizing the commonality of human needs, is the idea that as traditional barriers among people of different cultures break down, one culture will emerge, a new culture to which all people will adhere. b. Macroculture The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming one large society. For example, the United States continues to welcome a large number of immigrants each year and has been referred to as a melting-pot society. Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities. c. Microculture While the idea of everyone's being the same may sound ideal, the problem with this concept is that many citizens wish to maintain their ethnic-cultural heritage rather than being one melting-pot society, therefore, the reality is that many cities in the migrating countries are made up of neighborhoods of people with a common heritage who strive to retain their original culture and language. If you travel to San Francisco, a visit to Chinatown with its signs in Chinese and people speaking Chinese will verify this reality. Many street signs in other U.S. cities such as New York, Miami, or Honolulu, are in another language in addition to English. The result has not been the melting of various cultures into one cultural group as idealists believed would happen because we have cultures within cultures (microcultures).
0.2.2 Workforce Diversity Defined Diversity refers to the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force. Closely connected to the globalization of business has been the globalization of the labor market. Just as goods and services flow relatively freely across national boundaries, so do human resources. No longer does the workplace include only individuals who are very similar to one another (that is, white men); now it includes individuals of both sexes, as well as people of various races, nationalities, and ethnic backgrounds. The result is increased diversity of the population and increased diversity in the workplace. Within an organization, there is a full mix of cultures and subcultures to which members belong. These subcultures are based on religion, education, ethnicity, marital and family status, sexual orientation, and other unifying life experiences.
0.2.3 Disadvantages of Culture Diversity Problems most frequently occur in convergence situations, when the organization needs employees to think and act in similar ways. Communication and integration become more difficult. There are potentials for increased ambiguity, complexity, and confusion when single agreement has to be reached or when overall procedures have to be developed. a. Attitudinal problems Problems may be attitudinal. For example, the attitudes that American managers have when they perceive a problem is different from those of Chinese managers. In the United States, life is seen as a set of problems to be solved. For the Chinese, however, life is seen as a set of
4 situations to be accepted. Americans, then, perceive problems much earlier than Chinese and thus prevent an actual problem from happening. On the other hand, for Chinese problem solvers, the problem exists when it has already happened. b. Perceptual problems Cultural diversity within an organization, without any strategies or attitudes to accommodate it, may create perceptual (stereotyping, status-related problems, gender role conflicts) and communicative (language and misinterpretation) problems. It can engender increased anxiety among managers because they worry that they lack information essential for effective intercultural interactions. They are afraid that they cannot possibly catch up and learn all cultural differences; and intercultural encounters might lead them to make expensive and embarrassing mistakes.
0.3 Intercultural Communication As we move or are driven toward a global village and increasingly frequent cultural contact, we need more than simply greater factual knowledge of each other. We need, more specifically, to identify what distinguishes one culture from another. For to grasp the way in which other cultures perceive the world, and the assumptions and values that are the foundation of these perceptions, is to gain access to the experience of other human beings. Access to the worldview and the communicative style of other cultures may not only enlarge our own way of experiencing the world but also enable us to maintain constructive relationships with societies that operate according to a different logic than our own.
0.3.1 Intercultural Communication Defined Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. In a world of international interdependence, the ability to understand and communicate effectively with people from other cultures takes on extreme urgency. However, we may find intercultural communication different from the communication within our own cultural group.
0.3.2 The Need for Intercultural Communication With the increased globalization of the economy and interaction of different cultures, the concept of a world culture has emerged. And traditional barriers among people of different cultures break down, the new world culture emphasizes the commonality of human needs, and addresses procedural, substantive, and informational global problems. Intercultural business communication allows us to work on the procedural issues of country-to-country contacts, diplomacy, and legal contexts; it allows us to become involved with the substantive, cultural level and helps sensitize us to differences. Cultural differences don't prevent us from working with each other or communicating with each other. Indeed, we must learn to work with each other. The future of any organization depends on it.
0.3.3 Key Strategies for Effective Intercultural Communication When people communicate between cultures, where communicative rules as well as the substance of experience differ, the problems multiply. So does the number of interpretations and
5 alternatives. If it is true that the more people differ, the harder it is for them to understand each other, it is equally true that the more they differ, the more they have to teach and learn from each other. To do so, of course, they must have mutual respect and sufficient curiosity to overcome the frustrations that occur as they flounder from one misunderstanding to another. a. The understanding and acceptance of differences The first step in effective intercultural communication is the understanding and acceptance of differences. That does not mean we have to agree with another culture's viewpoint, or that we have to adopt values of another culture. It does mean we and they should examine our and their priorities and determine how we all can best work together despite the differences. b. High priority of equality In the process, we will realize that a person entering another culture will always have to adapt to a number of cultural conditions. That doesn't mean turning one's back on one's own culture or denying its priorities. Rather, it means learning what motivates others and how other cultural priorities inform the behaviors, attitudes, and values of business colleagues. This approach means adding to one's own culture, not subtracting from it. c. Developing tolerance and acceptance People need to develop tolerance and acceptance of cultural diversity. The organizational culture (assumptions about people, taken for granted norms, the way work gets done) is pluralistic in that it recognizes and appreciates diversity. It acknowledges both the need for "being the same" in some ways to work together effectively and the need for "being different" in some ways to recognize individual and group interests, concerns, and backgrounds. d. Developing culture sensitivity In attempting to understand another culture's perspective, we will be further ahead if we take off our own cultural blinders and develop sensitivity in the way we speak and behave. That is not always easy. We are all culturally based and culturally biased. e. No stifle and ignore on the diversity Management should actively seek to capitalize on the advantages of its organization's cultural diversity, rather than attempting to stifle or ignore the diversity, and to minimize the barriers that can develop as a result of people having different backgrounds, attitudes, values, behavior styles, and concerns. f. Equal distribution of organizational resources Organizational resources, such as key jobs, income, prerequisite, access to information, and the like, should be distributed equally and not determined or affected by cultural characteristics such as ethnic background. g. Shared decision-making Decision-making should be shared widely by employees with different cultural characteristics. h. Flexible institutional policies, practices, and procedures Institutional policies, practices, and procedures should be flexible and responsive to the needs of all employees, regardless of cultural differences.
0.3.4 Tips for Intercultural Training As a consequence, it may be more difficult for diverse groups to reach a consensus on common goals and on the methods for achieving those goals. Many organizations today have
6 established training programs to help employees develop an appreciation for diversity and to foster cooperation among culturally diverse groups. These programs focus on valuing, perhaps even celebrating diversity and the breadth of thought and experience resulting from diverse work groups. Issues of diversity will continue to influence the activities of organizations and the behaviors of managers long in the future. a. The concept of “individual culture” The concept of "individual culture‖ incorporates one's image of self and role. The inner "self" is very much influenced by the social and organizational culture enveloping people in systems. Interculturally competent managers, therefore, understand the impact of cultural factors on human relationships and communication, and are willing to adapt to changing "intercultures" as part of their process of growth. b. The concept of “cultural sensitivity” The concept of "cultural sensitivity" involves integrating the characteristics of corporate culture, with experiences of individuals or minority groups in the workplace. Managers who are interculturally competent, therefore, need to develop sensitivity of how cultural diversity can influence individual behavior and communication. Global managers need to apply such cultural awareness to developing effective professional relationships with those who are culturally different. c. The concept of “acculturation” The concept of "acculturation" refers to effectively adjusting and adapting to a specific culture or subculture. Interculturally competent managers understand what is involved in self and group identity, and are alert to the impact of culture shock or differences upon an individual's sense of identity. When dealing with multicultural employees, these managers make it a basic rule to avoid any hint of ethnocentric values. d. The concept of “effective intercultural performance” The concept of "effective intercultural performance" assumes the ability of managers to apply intercultural communication research findings and principles to specific intercultural work situations that affect people's performance on the job. e. The concept of “problem-solving” in multicultural context Harris and Moran (1991) suggest a five-step method of problem solving across cultures: 1. Describe the problem as understood in both cultures. 2. Analyze the problem from two (or all) cultural perspectives. 3. Identify the basis for the problem from both (or all) viewpoints. 4. Solve the problem through synergistic strategies. 5. Determine if the solution is working multiculturally.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Globalization has become a major trend in contemporary society. The world is becoming a global village as the technology of transportation and communication develops. Globalization has long been existing. Its history could be traced to the trading system in human societies thousands of years ago. Globalization may be defined from different perspectives, namely economic standpoint, sociological standpoint and Marxist philosophical standpoint. On the whole, globalization is conceived as a process of increasing involvement in international operations. The supporters of globalization
7 argue that this is the most efficient and democratic system the world has ever known. While the opponents argue that globalization reinforces the wealth and dominance of some countries and local cultures are undermined. Whether the trend of globalization is positive or negative, it is irreversible. In our era, modernization, industrialization and global village form the modern concept of globalization. New-high technology, open market and overseas job opportunities also contribute to the pace of globalization. Under the global circumstances, business, politics and immigration all bring different cultures together; culture diversity thus comes into being. Macroculture and microculture are two words introduced to define culture diversity. The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming one large society. While microcultures refer to cultures within cultures. Rather than being one melting-pot society, people with a common heritage who strive to retain their original culture and language form cultures within cultures. Culture diversity makes the world more colorful, however, it sometimes brings troubles and disadvantages in workforce or business life. Attitudinal problems and perceptual problems are two major kinds of problems caused by cultural diversity. Managers‘ attitudes towards employees, mistakes, work and relationship may vary from culture to culture. Some perceptual problems such as stereotyping, status-related problems, gender role conflicts and communicative problems may also lead to failure of business. So in the global village, to communicate with people from different cultures more effectively, we must learn intercultural communication skills. Experience and knowledge will surely help us accommodate to another culture, but some key strategies may quicken the process: (1) the understanding and acceptance of differences; (2) high priority of equality; (3) developing tolerance and acceptance; (4) developing culture sensitivity; (5) no stifle and ignore on the diversity; (6) equal distribution of organizational resources; (7) shared decision-making; (8) flexible institutional policies, practices, and procedures. Today, many organizations have established training programs to help employees develop an appreciation for culture diversity and to foster cooperation among culturally diverse groups. In the future, intercultural communication will become a more popular issue and influence the activities of people in various cultures.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How has globalization changed your life?
2. What is the relation or difference among globalization, modernization and industrialization?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of globalization for the nations involved in globalization?
4. How do you understand the idea that globalization is a new form of colonization of the developing nations?
5. In what ways has globalization affected business practices of a nation participating in
8 globalization?
9 ChapterⅠ Culture
It seems that there is no need to define the term culture, for even the worst-educated one may give you some examples about culture. However, it is one of the most controversial terms for scholars to come to agreement. People raise different examples about culture based on their own knowledge and experience. Scholars define the term from their academic domains. The definition of culture is very important for us to understand culture, so, in this chapter, we introduce different definitions of culture, explain the characteristics of culture, and discuss cultural identity.
1.1 Culture Defined Culture is a large and inclusive concept, and it is not easy to define. By 1952, American anthropologists Alfred Louis Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn had compiled a list of 164 definitions. These definitions are from different perspectives and range from all-encompassing ones to narrower ones. In the following section, several definitions are examined in order to help you better understand the term—culture.
1.1.1 Edward Tylor’s Definition The first definition was proposed by British anthropologist Edward Tylor in 1871. Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The phrase ―that complex whole‖ is the most longstanding feature of this proposition. However two other features of Tylor‘s definition have not stood the test of time. First, most anthropologists now avoid use of ―man‖ to refer to all humans and instead use genetic words such as ―humans‖ and ―people‖. Although the word ―man‖ can be used generically according to its linguistic roots, many studies indicate that this usage can be confusing. Second, most anthropologists no longer equate culture with civilization. The term civilization implies a sense of ―highness‖ versus noncivilized ―lowness‖.
1.1.2 Kroeber and Kluckholn’s Definition Kroeber and Kluckholn are major American anthropologists, they defined culture as follows： Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the other hand as conditioning elements of future action. This descriptive definition is inclusive of almost every aspect of a human being's life. This culture guides people's actions and feeling toward numerous things. Kluckhohn states specifically, "Each specific culture constitutes a kind of blueprint of all life's activities." Since culture is the blueprint of all life‘s activities, are there superior culture and
10 inferior one? Kroeber believed in the principal of cultural relativism, the idea that what is morally wrong or socially undesirable in one culture may be fine in another and that individual choices and actions must be understood within the context of the individual's own culture.
1.1.3 Samovar and Porter’s Definition Samovar and Porter work on many definitions of culture, among which they took Bates and Plog‘s definition as a ―starting point‖. Bates and Plog‘s definition: Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning. This definition includes not only patterns of behavior but also patterns of thought (shared meanings that the members of a society attach to various phenomena, natural and intellectual, including religion and ideologies), artifacts (tools, pottery, houses, machines, works of art), and the culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifacts. Their definition includes most of the major territory of culture on which scholars currently agree. Samovar and Porter advance their own definition: Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanings, behaviors, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul.
1.1.4 Other Definitions It is so impossible to collect all the definitions, most of which describe culture from certain specific perspective and fail to cover all the aspects of culture. According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, culture is ―the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively”. It refers to intellectual perspective, such as music, art, exhibition, dance, etc. When you talk about Picasso, Beethoven, etc., you are talking about culture. Edward Sapir defines culture from social perspective. He notes "Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. Language is a particular way of thought". That's to say, culture covers everything of a society. He also adds “Culture is the socially inherited assemblage of practices and beliefs that determines the texture of our lives”. Geert Hofstede (1997) views culture from a psychological perspective, defining it as "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another". Culture is "software of the mind". Hall‘s definition concerns much about intercultural communication ―culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.‖ Based on Hall‘s definition, culture is defined in brief from the intercultural communication perspective in this book:
11 Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. Gail Robinson, from the Center for Language and Cross-cultural Skills in San Francisco, has grouped the various definitions into two basic levels: external and internal. The external level refers to the behaviors such as language, gestures, custom/habits and so on, and products of our behaviors include literature, folklore, art, music, artifacts and so on. The internal level refers to ideas such as beliefs, values and so on. Defining culture is of great significance for foreign language learner and teacher, for they decide what courses they may take or design.
1.2 Characteristics of Culture Although researchers don‘t agree with each other on the definition of culture, they reach an agreement on what the major characteristics of culture are. This section provides some characteristics of culture in order to help you get closer to this elusive concept.
1.2.1 Culture Is Learned Culture is not something we are born with, but rather it is learned. Humans are not born with the genetic imprint of a particular culture. Instead, people learn about their culture through interactions with parents, other family members, friends, and even strangers who are part of the culture. This learning can be unconscious or conscious. A large but unknown amount of people‘s cultural learning is unconscious, occurring as a normal part of life through observation. Culture is also learned from the people we interact with as we are socialized, and is taught by the explanations people receive for the natural and human events around them. People learn their culture in every way and from a variety of sources. They learn their culture from folk tales, legends, myths, art and mass media, etc.
1.2.2 Culture Is Based on Symbols The making of money, creating art, or practicing religion is all based on symbols. People use symbols to represent something concrete or abstract. Symbols are arbitrary, unpredictable, diverse, and take a variety of forms. Cultures can use the spoken word as a symbol and tell people about the importance of freedom. They can use the written word as a symbol and let others read about the War of Independence. They can use nonverbal actions, such as shaking hands or bowing, as symbols to greet one another. They can use flags as symbols to claim territory or demonstrate loyalty. They have the means to use automobiles or jewelry as symbols of success and status. They can use a cross, crescent, or six-pointed star to show the love for God. However, because symbols are arbitrary, people cannot predict how a particular culture will symbolize any particular thing. The meanings of symbols exist in the minds of the individual communicators; when those symbolic ideas are shared with others, they form the basis for culture. Not all of an individual‘s symbolic ideas are necessarily shared with other people, and some symbols will be shared only with a few. A kind of culture can form only if symbolic ideas are shared with a relatively large group of people. People in a given culture share symbols of that culture. The most obvious set of
12 symbols is language. Cultures also share visual symbols. Company logos, icons, religious images, money and national flags are examples of visual symbols.
Case Analysis: White Dress
In India, a white sari (women‘s garment) symbolizes widowhood. What might these women think about the Western custom of a bride wearing white?
1.2.3 Culture Is Not the Same as Nature The universal human functions that everyone must perform to stay alive are eating, drinking, sleeping, and eliminating. Requirements for shelter and clothing vary, depending on the climate. Procreation is not necessary for individual survival, so it is not included here. Natural demands are such that, if they are not met in a certain time period, a person will die. Thus, nature dictates that in all cultures, people will eat, drink, sleep, and eliminate. Beyond this, we cannot predict how, when, or where these functions will be fulfilled because culture plays a part in defining them. a. Eating Culture shapes what one eats, how one eats, and when one eats, and influences ideas about eating. Meat is acceptable food in many cultures, but many vegetarian cultures have avoided meat eating of any sort for centuries. Preferences about what tastes good vary markedly. In China, most people think that cheese is disgusting, but in France, most people love cheese. How to eat is also an important area of food behavior. Rules about eating are one of the first things you will confront when entering another culture. Proper dining manners in India require that a person eat using only the right hand because the left hand is reserved for assisting in elimination. b. Drinking Every culture defines the appropriate substances to drink, when to drink, and with whom. French culture allows for consumption of relatively large amounts of table wine with meals. In the United States, water is commonly consumed during meals, but in India one takes water only after the meal. Different categories of people drink different beverages. In cultures where alcoholic beverages are consumed, males tend to consume more than women. Social drinking, whether the beverage is coffee, beer, or vodka, creates and reinforces bonds. c. Sleeping Going without sleep for an extended period would eventually lead to insanity and even death. Common sense might say that sleep is the natural function that is not shaped by
13 culture, because people tent to do it everyday. However, there are many cultural aspects to sleep, including the question of who sleeps with whom. Cross-cultural research reveals varying rules about where infants and children should sleep: with the mother, with either parents, or themselves in a separate room. Among the indigenous cultures of the Amazon, mothers and babies share the same hammock for many months, and breastfeeding occurs whenever the baby is hungry, not on a schedule. Culture also shapes the amount of time a person sleeps. In rural India, women sleep fewer hours than men since they have to get up earlier to start the fire for the morning meal. d. Elimination This subject takes the discussion into more private territory, but it cannot be overlooked, as it is one of the major biological functions of humans. Anyone who has traveled internationally knows that there is much to learn about elimination when you leave familiar territory. The first question is: where to eliminate? Differences emerge in the degree to which elimination is a private act or can be done in more or less public areas. Public options include street urinals for males but not for females, as in Paris. Cultures tend to allow males to urinate in public, but not females. In many cultures, the products of elimination are considered dirty, polluting, and disgusting. In Papua New Guinea, in the South Pacific, people take great care to bury or otherwise hide their fecal matter. They fear that someone will find it and use it for magic against them.
1.2.4 Culture Is Subject to Change Cultures are dynamic systems that do not exist in a vacuum, so they are subject to change. Cultures are constantly being confronted with ideas and information from outside sources, through trade networks, telecommunications, education, migration, and tourism. Although cultures change through several mechanisms, the three most common forms are innovation, diffusion, and acculturation. a. Innovation Innovation is usually defined as the discovery of new practices, tools, or concepts that many members of the culture eventually accept and that may produce slight changes in social habits and behaviors. In the United States, television, the computer, and women‘s rights movement are good examples of products and concepts that reshaped culture. The invention and popularity of mobile phone is another case in point explaining how invention affects and changes people‘s behaviors and even social customs. Instead of writing letters, more and more people send short messages with their mobile phones to exchange information and greetings. b. Diffusion Diffusion refers to the borrowing by one culture from another. In the process of interaction among cultures, diffusion happens. McDonald‘s hamburger is sold throughout the world along with its fast-food principles. The fast-food principles are those of rationalization: a studied programmable system which attempts to standardize both the process and the product, including efficiency (product ordered and consumed in minimum time), quantity (good supply for a good price), predictability (product range identical at
14 home and abroad and reproducible worldwide), and control (of both employees and customers in terms of standardized practices, e.g. waiting and sitting times, operational checklist). George Ritzer coined the word ―McDonaldization‖ to indicate the influence of McDonald on the behaviors of consumers worldwide. With the further development of globalization, cultures interact more frequently. Diffusion goes broader and deeper, national differences are blurred. American hamburger, jeans and Hollywood entertainment have, superficially, united the world. c. Acculturation Acculturation is another type of cultural change. According to Haviland, ―Acculturation occurs when groups having different cultures come into intensive first hand contact, with subsequent massive changes in the original cultural patterns of both groups. This type of change is common to international immigrants, who begin to detect new patterns of thinking and behavior and to structure a personality relevant to adaptation to the host society. There are many forms or degrees of acculturation, which will be discussed in details in Chapter Two. The immigrants not only adapt to the host culture, but also influence the host culture in certain way with their original culture including customs, values, food and so on. For example, in the United States, Chinatown as well as Chinese restaurants has become part of American life. The President of the United States delivers speech on TV to celebrate Chinese Spring Festival. From this aspect, acculturation contributes to cultural change at great level.
1.2.5 Culture Is Ethnocentric One culture views the eating of animals as barbarous and abnormal; the people with such habits are apt to consider the custom of confining the elderly to convalescent homes just as cruel and unnatural—this is ethnocentrism. Sumner defines ethnocentrism as ―the technical name for the view of things in which one‘s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it‖. Anthropologists generally agree that ethnocentrism is founded in every culture. There are positive effects, for example, ethnocentrism is often a source of cultural and personal identity. Keesing says that nearly always the folklore of a people includes myths of origin which give priority to themselves, and place the stamp of supernatural approval upon their particular customs. Ethnocentrism takes on a negative condition and becomes destructive when it is used to shut others out, provide the bases for derogatory evaluations, and rebuff change. In more subtle ways, ethnocentrism can cause the alienation of co-cultures from the dominant culture, or one group from another. For instance, the white-collar workers isolate from blue-collar ones, or certain ethnic groups are considered inferior by the dominant culture. As one of the barriers of intercultural communication, ethnocentrism is to be further discussed in Chapter 7.
1.3 Cultural Identity Culture is what we identify with. At the highest level mankind is a culture that we all belong to, though there are many, particularly those at war, who choose to focus on other levels of identification and identify the enemy as ―non-human‖.
15 Cultural identity refers to one‘s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People consciously identify themselves with a group that has a shared system of symbols and meanings as well as norms for conduct. Cultural identity is formed in a process that results from membership in a particular culture, and involves learning about and accepting the traditions, heritage, language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking pattern, and social structures of a culture. That is, people internalize the beliefs, values, and norms of their culture and identify with that culture as part of their self-concept. To be a member of a culture, one will need to share beliefs at every level of culture. Below is a sample set of beliefs congruent with being British:
Table 1-1 British Beliefs
Belief at the level of … Belief in … Value: fair play democracy compromise privacy Strategy: internalization of feelings Behavior: queuing Environment: an Englishman‘s home is his castle a little bit of dirt never did anyone any harm there‘s nothing like a good cup of tea
Knowing another‘s cultural identity does, however, help people understand the opportunities and challenges that each individual in that culture had to deal with.
1.3.1 Formation of Cultural Identity Cultural identities often develop through a process involving three stages: unexamined cultural identity, cultural identity search, and cultural identity achievement. a. Unexamined cultural identity During the unexamined cultural identity stage, one‘s cultural characteristics are taken for granted, and consequently there is little interest in exploring cultural issues. Young children, for instance, typically lack an awareness of cultural differences and the distinguishing characteristics that differentiate one culture from another. b. Cultural identity search Cultural identity search involves a process exploring a process of exploration and questioning about one‘ s culture in order to learn more about it and to understand the implications of membership in that culture. By exploring the culture, individuals can learn about its strengths and may come to a point of acceptance both for their culture and themselves. c. Cultural identity achievement Cultural identity achievement is characterized by a clear, confident acceptance of
16 oneself and an internalization of one‘s cultural identity. Such acceptance can calmly and securely be used to guide one‘s future actions. People in this stage have developed ways of dealing with stereotypes and discrimination so that they do not internalize other‘s negative perception and are clear about the personal meanings of their culture.
1.3.2 Characteristics of Cultural Identity Once formed, cultural identities provide an essential framework, organizing and interpreting people‘s experience of others. This is because cultural identities are central, dynamic, and multifaceted components of one‘s self-concept. Cultural identity is central to a person‘s sense of self. Like gender and race, one‘s culture is more ―basic‖ because it is broadly influential and is linked to a great number of other aspects of one‘s self-concept. These core aspects of one‘s identity are likely to be important among most of people‘s interactions with others. Most components of one‘s identity, however, become important only when they are activated by specific circumstances. Cultural identity is dynamic, and one‘s cultural identity—one‘s sense of the culture to which one belongs and who one is in light of this cultural membership—exists within a changing social context. Consequently, one‘s cultural identity is not static, fixed, and enduring; rather, it is dynamic and changeable with one‘s ongoing life experiences. Cultural identity is also multifaceted components of their self-concept. At any moment, people have many ―components‖ that make up one‘s identity. For instance, a specific person may simultaneously view herself as a student, an employee, a friend, a woman, a southerner, a daughter, a baby boomer, and more. Similarly, there are typically many facets to or components of one‘s cultural identity.
1.4 Subculture, Co-culture, and Subgroup Subculture and co-culture both exist within the cultures. Although there are some slight differences between these two terms, they may pose similar communication problems as cultures.
1.4.1 Subculture Subculture refers to different cultural traditions associated with subgroups in the same complex society. Subcultures are formed by groups of people possessing characteristic traits that set apart and distinguish them from others within a larger society or dominant culture. The subculture members will have the same self-perception and agree that they belong to the subculture. A subculture resembles a culture in that it usually encompasses a relatively large number of people and represents the accumulation of generations of human striving. However, subcultures have some important differences: they exist within dominant cultures and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. Examples of subcultures in the United States include senior citizens, teenagers, baby boomers, African Americans, Latin Americans, Catholics, Jews, disabled individuals, trade associations, and self-help groups. All these groups will have similarities to the macroculture but will also have some differences. The subculture members will have the
17 same self-perception and agree that they belong to the subculture.
1.4.2 Co-culture Whereas subculture has been defined as ―a part of the whole‖, in the same sense that subdivision is part of—but no less important than—the whole city, other scholars reject the use of the prefix ―sub‖ as applied to the term culture because it seems to imply being under or beneath and being inferior or secondary. As an alternative, the word co-culture is suggested to convey the idea that no one culture is inherently superior to other coexisting cultures. Examples of co-cultures in China are Tibetan culture, Buddhist culture, youth culture, and women culture.
1.4.3 Subgroup Subgroups, although also part of the dominant culture, are groups with which the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communication problems. Members of these groups often engage in communication behavior that is distinctively different from that of the dominant culture. Subgroups exist within a dominant culture and are dependant on that culture. Subgroups can be as small as a few people or as large as a major religion. One important category is occupation. Think of large organizations and of occupations in which most people dress alike, share a common vocabulary and similar values, and are in frequent communication as through magazines and newsletters. These subgroups include nurses and doctors, police officers, and employees of large organizations such as Eastman Kodak and IBM. However, people can be members of many different subgroups at the same time, so a person might identify with being a Buddhist, a football player, and a member of drama club. Subgroups usually do not involve the same large number of people and are not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. However, like cultures, subgroups provide the members with relatively complete sets of values and patterns of behavior and many ways pose similar communication problems as cultures. Subgroup indicators include: argot, values, media and segmented marketing. Members of subgroups may communicate with each other through special media like magazines and newspapers. However, the most important element of a subgroup is that it provides its members with a set of values and norms for behaviors. The following are the characteristics of subgroups: a. “Deviant” label The term subgroup has at times been unfortunately linked to the word ―deviant‖. Actually, however, deviant simply means differing from the cultural norm, such as vegetarians in a meat-eating society. Unfortunately, in normal discourse most people associate deviance with undesirable activities. To understand what is meant by subgroups, it is important that people should recognize that vegetarians are as deviant as prostitutes – both groups deviate from the norm and both are considered subgroups. b. Temporality Membership in some subgroups is temporary; that is, members may participate for a
18 time and later become inactive or separate from it altogether. For example, a person can be a member of drama club, but later relinquish the membership in the group. However, it is a mistake to think of membership in a culture or subgroup as being so exclusive that it precludes participation in other groups. All the people are and have been members of a variety of subgroups. c. “Wanna-be” behavior Recognize too, that individuals can adhere to values and attitudes and behaviors of groups of which they are not a member. This behavior is identified in contemporary slang as the ―wanna-be‖, an individual who imitates the behavior of a group he or she desires to belong to. Some people dress like and talk like gang members but not members of any gang.
1.5 Rules, Roles, and Networks Rules, roles, and networks are situational factors that influence encoding and decoding of both verbal and nonverbal messages within a culture.
1.5.1 Rules Rules may refer to socially agreed-on behavior or to individual guidelines for behavior. Rules are formed to clarify cloudy areas of norms. The U.S. Supreme Court is an excellent example of an organization that looks at the intent of a rule and determines how strongly or loosely it should be followed.
1.5.2 Roles A role includes the behavioral expectations of a position within a culture and is affected by norms and rules. Cultural roles revolve around categories of people and their expected pattern of performance or activity. People in various roles often must play prescribed scripts and expected behaviors in these roles. Each culture has its expectations of various roles, such as age roles, occupational roles, gender roles, friendship roles, etc.
Case Analysis: Student/Teacher Role Position
Because roles prescribe with whom, about what, and how people communicate, differences in the role dimensions manifest themselves in communication. Below are two intercultural interactions between a student and a teacher. Scenario A is between a student and a teacher in the United States. Scenario B is between a student and a teacher in Korea. Note the differences in formality and personalness and the degree to which the students recognize the hierarchical difference between themselves and the teacher. In each case the student wishes to speak to the teacher about an assignment. Scenario A Jeff: (approaches Dr. Neuliep‘s office unannounced) Hey, Dr. N., how‘s it goin‘? Dr. Neuliep: Hey, Jeff, what‘s up? Jeff: (Steps into the office) I thought I would stop by an‘see if I could talk to ya about my paper assignment. Dr. Neuliep: Sure, c‘mon in, have a seat. What are you thinking about?
19 Jeff: Well … I‘m kinda havin‘ some trouble coming up with a topic. Do you have any ideas? Dr. Neuliep: I suggest doing something that‘s very interesting to you, otherwise the assignment might bore you to death. Stay away from topics that have very little research associated with them. Also … you might try doing a search on the Internet. Sometimes you‘ll find topics that you might not ever have thought of yourself. Jeff: Yeah … that‘s a good idea. If I find somethin‘, can I stop by and show it to you before I get started? Dr. Neuliep: Sure, just stop by or leave a message on my voice mail. Jeff: OK, yeah. OK, well … thanks a lot. Dr. Neuliep: Sure.
Scenario B Mino: (approaches Dr. Choi‘s office and knocks on the door) Good morning, Professor Choi. Dr. Choi: Hello, Mino. Mino: I am here for my appointment. Dr. Choi: Yes. Mino: May I come in? Dr. Choi: Yes. Mino: Thank you (enters Dr. Choi‘s office). I am here to approve my topic for the research paper assignment, as you requested. Dr. Choi: Yes, what have you decided? Mino: I would like to research the natural resources of northern India, if that is acceptable. Dr. Choi: Yes, that topic is fine. Mino: Thank you. Thank you for seeing me this morning. Dr. Choi: Yes, you are welcome. Good day.
The conversation between Jeff and Dr. Neuliep was generally smooth and coordinated. The situation was informal enough that Jeff shows up unannounced, without an appointment. Jeff uses informal dialect (e.g., ―havin‖, ―ya,‖ and so on.) and Dr. Neuliep invites Jeff to sit down, reducing the hierarchical distance between them. Generally, their conversation, though perfectly respectful, was informal. In Scenario B, Mino has set up an appointment with Dr. Choi prior to the meeting, shows up at the appointed time, and asks permission to enter the office. The conversation was rather formal and impersonal. Mino did not engage in any slang or informal vocabulary, did not sit down, and kept the conversation as short as possible. Unlike Jeff, Mino was prepared to state his choice of subject. To ask the professor for a suggestion, as Jeff did in Scenario A, would be impolite in Korean culture, where responsibility rests entirely on the student.
1.5.3 Networks
20 Networks are formed with personal ties and involve an exchange of assistance. Networks and the need to belong to are the bases of friendship and subgroups. An example of a political network is the exchange of votes between US legislators needed to support their projects. The ability to develop networks in intercultural situations can enable people to do business more effectively in multicultural environments. In some cultures such as the Arab, Spanish, and Japanese, networking is essential since they prefer to conduct business with people they know or with associates of people they know.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Many of us take our culture for granted. The only time when we may ever think about it is when we leave our own country to travel abroad or when we encounter someone with a culture so different from ours that we have to examine our own beliefs. Much of what we think is the ―right‖ or ―correct‖ way to act or do something is actually part of the knowledge that we have learned from our culture. Culture is a large and inclusive concept. The first definition of culture, by Tylor, involves knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Although this definition has tried to cover more aspects that may direct human behavior, more definitions, more inclusive, come into being. However, in this book, culture is defined from the intercultural communication perspective: Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values and norms, which affects the behavior of a relatively large group of people. Comparing with the different ideas on what culture is, scholars agree on the characteristics of culture. Generally speaking it includes that culture is learned; culture is based on symbols; culture is not the same as nature; culture is subject to change and culture is ethnocentric. People identify with being a member of a group. Being a member of a group helps to define who we are. We are all members of groups of different sizes. One of the largest groups that a person can belong to is a culture. Everyone belongs to a culture. Other groups that people may be a member of are subcultures (sometimes called co-culture) and subgroups. Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region. Corporate culture is an example of subculture. Subgroups, although also part of the dominant culture, are groups with which the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communication problems. Subgroups can be as small as a few people or as large as a major religion. Subgroups provide their members with norms that tell people how to behave and think. Examples of subgroup include: yappies, vegetarians, AIDS patients, drug users, etc. Rules, roles and networks are ingredients of culture. The knowledge of rules, roles and networks of different cultures can help people better communicate across cultures.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are the cultural features that you share just with members of your hometown?
21 2. What do you think about culture? Are there cultures superior or inferior?
3. How many cultures do you belong to? Do you participate in an international culture and a subculture in addition to a national culture?
4. What is the significance of the definition of culture to foreign language teaching?
5. Give some examples of cultural practices that have changed in your country.
22 ChapterⅡ Cultural Dynamics
Vertically, culture is transmitted from generation to generation, while horizontally, people learn not only their own culture but also other cultures. The process of interaction tells us that cultures are dynamic and ever changing. In this chapter, we introduce enculturation, the process that we adapt to our own culture, acculturation, the process we adapt to a new culture, and culture shock, the traumatic experience when entering a new culture.
2.1 Enculturation Enculturation is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society. When you grow up in one culture, you learn one way of classifying, coding, prioritizing, and justifying reality. All the activities of learning one‘s culture are called enculturation. Cultural information that you are willing to share with outsiders is considered frontstage culture, while cultural information that is concealed from outsiders is considered backstage culture. An example of frontstage culture would be a sales representative who loudly announces: ―We got the Hunter Fan account.‖ This information is readily shared. An example of backstage culture would be the sales representative who conceals the fact that his child is mentally retarded. Frontstage and backstage culture vary by culture and by individuals within the culture because some people are inherently more open than others. Datan, Rodeheaver, and Hughes use the concept of scripts to explain the cognitive imprinting that happens during enculturation. Individuals experience events in their lives as ―scenes‖—organized wholes combining people, places, time, actions, and in particular, affects that amplify these experiences and provide a sense of urgency about understanding them. Out of early scenes, the individual develops sets of rules for interpreting, evaluating, producing, predicting, or controlling future scenes. These rules—―scripts‖—are initially innate but are supplemented and replaced by learned scripts. Higher-order scripts are created when scenes are combined and instilled with fresh affect—―psychological magnification‖… The order in personality development, then, derives from the individual‘s need to impose order—the scripts—on the critical events or scenes, in life. And, finally, scripts that initially arise from scenes begin to give rise to scenes instead, as the individual‘s construction of experience affects experience itself. Examples of such scripts are the inability of the Japanese to say the word ―no‖ directly but instead to say ―it would be difficult‖, and the difficulty for someone of a strong Christian background to lie to save face for a Christian lying is never condoned.
2.2 Acculturation Acculturation, or cultural adaptation, refers to an individual‘s learning and adapting to the norms and values of the new host culture. The individual must find a new source of livelihood and build a new life. This adapting to the new host culture is called acculturation.
2.2.1 Predictors of Acculturation
23 Young Yun Kim (1986, 1988) has identified background characteristics that are accurate predictors of a person‘s success in acculturation. a. Similarity of culture The similarity of the original culture to the new host culture is one of the most important factors in successful acculturation. For example, an immigrant from Canada to the United States finds acculturation easier than a Vietnamese immigrant from Southeast Asia does. There can be differences among immigrants from the same country—depending on, for example, whether they grew up in a cosmopolitan urban center or in a rural area where there existed relatively less outside influence. b. Personal characteristics and experiences Younger people adapt more easily than older ones. Education background also plays a part, and a person‘s personality (such as risktaking or being gregarious and curious or not) can determine how readily they will desire to blend in with a new culture. Finally, previous travel, contact with overseas friends or family, and mass media influence also come into play. c. The effects of media and transportation advances Today people who come to a new culture can easily return to his home country for visits. And people can watch television programs from home countries and be in easy telephone contact. There is not as great a pressure to assimilate. It is quite possible to maintain original cultural identity and participate in a meaningful way in the larger society.
2.2.2 Categories of Acculturation Acculturation has four categories: separation and segregation, integration, assimilation, and marginalization. When a minority moves into a majority culture, he or she will choose one of these models either consciously or subconsciously.
Table 2-1 Categories of Acculturation
VALUE TO MAINTAIN ORIGINAL CULTURAL IDENTITY VALUE TO Yes No MAINTAIN Yes Integration Assimilation RELATIONSHIP No Separation or Marginalization WITH OTHER Segregation GROUP Dimensions of acculturation include original cultural identity and relationship with other groups. a. Separation and segregation Separation and segregation refer to maintaining one‘s original culture and not participating in the new culture. When individuals or groups do not want to maintain positive relationships with members of other groups, the outcomes are completely different. If a culture does not want positive relationships with another culture and if it also wishes to retain its cultural characteristics, separation may result. If the separation occurs because the more
24 politically and economically powerful culture does not want the intercultural contact, the result of the forced separation is called segregation. The history of the United States provides numerous examples of segregation in its treatment to the African Americans. To some, segregation connotes a judgment of superiority, inferiority, prejudice and hatred between groups. Others use the term ―insularity‖ to connote ―separation‖ only.
Case Analysis: Separation—The Amish
The Amish and Mennonites grew out of the Anabaptist movement that developed in Switzerland during the 1500s. As Anabaptists, the Amish believe in adult baptism and living apart from the world, preferring a simple, agrarian lifestyle. The Amish people believe in complete submission to God and do not separate religion and life. The Amish home serves as the church. Every moment in Amish life is a religious one. Humility, obedience, simplicity, sharing, and community cooperation are valued. They do not pay or accept Social Security; elderly Amish remain in the family‘s home. Pride is a sin in the Amish community. Pride is the evil face of individualism that is believed to be the death of the community and family. They do not condone technology unless it is clearly beneficial to the community by making it possible to continue as a community. Work is important to Amish life. Work is preferred over idleness, which is believed to breed laziness, a trait of the outside world. Work also becomes a way to bring generations together on the farm: grand parents, and children all work together. Any change that decreases the amount of family or community solidarity, increases visibility, promotes individualism, or threatens the values of the Amish in any way is rejected. If a change will better the life of the community without threatening the Amish society as a whole, it may be gradually adopted into Amish life.
b. Integration Integration takes place when individuals become an integral part of the new culture while maintaining their cultural integrity. Integration ensures a continuity of culture. The words biculturalism and pluralism have also been used to describe integration. The person feels as loyal to the country as to any ethnic group. Integration is supported by the dual-nationality trends, which allows expatriates from immigration-sending nations to retain rights as nationals while taking on citizenship status in the host countries. Integration produces distinguishable cultural groups that cooperatively ensure that the society and the individuals continue to function well.
25 Case Analysis: From Separation to Integration—The Asian-American Cultures
In 2000, the Asian-American population was counted at about 11.9 million, or about 4% of the U.S. population. The first Chinese immigrants arrived in San Francisco in the 1840s and provided labor for Gold Rush mining and for building the transcontinental railroad completed in 1869. The Naturalization Act of 1870 excluded Chinese from citizenship and prohibited wives of Chinese laborers from entering the United States. In response to China being a World War Ⅱ ally, Congress repealed the ban of Chinese immigration and naturalization in 1943. In contrast to the immigrants arriving at Ellis Island from Europe, immigrants from Asia were more likely to be treated as sojourners or as separates. Acculturation requires overcoming barriers both of communication and values. Asian Americans are good example of integration for they adapt to the host culture successfully and maintain their own culture at the same time. Some important values have been maintained in Asian-American families. For instance, Asian-American children are more likely to be raised in families with two parents, which may be attributed in part to the traditional family-oriented Asian cultures from which Asian-Americans come. Traditional values are also supported in the specialized media and segmented marketing. In the New York metropolitan area alone, there are five Chinese-language magazines imported from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Mainland China are available. Besides, there are also Chinese-language radio programs and television programs. In Los Angeles, there are at least nine Chinese-language television companies and six radio stations. Three stations broadcast in Korean to an estimated audience of 600,000, and there is one full-time Vietnamese radio station. Historically, Asian immigrants to the United States experienced separation. However, recently, Asian-Americans have experienced more integration. Two areas that have helped Asian-Americans have stronger cultural identities are specialized media and segmented marketing. Segmented marketing is done by businesses that want to sell their products to Asian-Americans. These businesses use their knowledge of Asian languages to help them advertise and do business in Asian American communities.
c. Assimilation Assimilation is the degree to which an individual relinquishes an original culture for another. When individuals are assimilated into a mainstream culture, they lose their previous culture. The assimilation process usually occurs as immigrants become increasingly exposed to the mass media of the host nation, and gradually cuts ties and identification with original homeland. Assimilation means taking on the new culture‘s beliefs, norms and values. Both integration and assimilation promote harmony and result in an appropriate fit of individuals and groups to the larger culture. The phrase ―melting pot‖ most often used to describe the assimilation of the early
26 immigrants into the Unites States. The melting pot of old included English, German, Irish, French, and Italian immigrants and encouraged ethnic uniformity. Patriotic significance was placed on learning English and becoming ―American‖. People seldom think of those of English, German, Irish, French, and Italian descent as ―ethnic groups‖ because throughout the generations these groups have become assimilated into somewhat ―homogenized‖ society. d. Marginalization Marginalization, or deculturation, refers to losing one‘s cultural identity and not having any psychological contact with the larger society. The person has feelings of ―not belonging anywhere‖. Marginalization may lead to confusion and anxiety. The choice of marginalization is the reactions against other cultures.
Case Analysis: Marginalization—The Hmong
The Hmong (pronounced MONG and literally meaning ―freeman‖), also known as Montagnards, are an ancient Asian hill tribe that has resisted assimilation for millennia. A people long persecuted, the Hmong written language was destroyed centuries ago. The Hmong are thought to have originated in the Russian steppes and to have been pushed out of China in the early 1800s for refusing to discard unique ways. The Hmong kept migrating south to the highlands of northern Laos. As mercenaries for the Central Intelligence Agency in the 1960s and 1970s, the Hmong fought the Communists in Laos. More than 40,000 died in that war. After the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, Hmong villages in Laos were attacked by the Laotians and Vietnamese. Many Hmong fled to refugee camps in Thailand. Hmong refugees migrated to Australia, Canada, France, the United States, and other parts of the world. Hmong culture is evident in the United States: grocery stores with familiar food, radio programs with familiar music and community news, Lao family centers and festivals, and traditional farming and funeral practices. The Hmong continue religious practices that blend ancestor worship, animal sacrifice, and shaman healing. The Hmong are among recent immigrants who have been called the most ill-prepared ever to immigrate to the United States. The extent of differences to dominant U.S. cultural patterns places these immigrants in a state of marginalization and raises the question of whether this group will maintain a separate identity in the United States or will someday assimilate into the dominant culture. Because of war, the Hmong were isolated from their home culture. Since they did not speak English they were also isolated from the U. S. culture.
2.3 Culture Shock The term culture shock was coined by an anthropologist, Cora DuBois, in 1951. Culture shock refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture. Culture shock happens to students who study abroad, Peace Corps volunteers, or anyone who spends a significant amount of time living and
27 participating in another culture. Culture shock is basically a communication problem that involves the frustrations accompanying a lack of understanding of the verbal and nonverbal communication of the host culture, its customs, and its value systems. Frustrations may include lack of food, unacceptable standards of cleanliness, different bathroom facilities, and fear for personal safety. A Chinese anthologist who came to the United States (Shu-Min) said American food never gave him a ―full‖ feeling. An American anthologist (Ward), who went to an island in the Pacific named Pohnpei, found that language caused the most serious adjustment problems. She spent much time in the early stages of her research learning basic phrases and vocabulary, and she reported on the frustration she felt: When even dogs understood more than I did … the subtleties and innuendo I wanted to express (and could in English) were impossible. For months, I sweated profusely when I had to carry on a full conversation in Pohnpeian. It was no gentle perspiration, either; it was the sweat of hard, dirty work. Nonetheless, I will never forget the elation of deciphering and using relative clauses and personal pronouns. Nor will forget the agony of stepping on a woman‘s toes. Instead of asking for forgiveness, I blurted out, “His canoe is blue”. People often become anxious when they lose their familiar surroundings. However, if a person has adjusted exceptionally well to the host culture, reverse culture shock may occur upon returning to the home country. This type of culture shock may cause greater distress and confusion than the original had. In reverse culture shock, the home culture is compared adversely to the admired aspects of the new culture. Both culture shock and reverse culture shock show us that culture has an important influence on human behavior. The anthropologist, Kalvero Oberg, describes some of the reasons why culture shock occurs: Culture shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. These signs or cues include the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situations of daily life: when to shake hands and what to say when we meet people, when and how to give tips, how to give orders, how to make purchases, when to accept and when to refuse invitations, when to take statements seriously and when not. Now these cues, which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, norms, are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend on our peace of mind and our efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we are not consciously aware.
2.3.1 Symptoms of Culture Shock Culture shock is said to occur when people must deal with a barrage of new perceptual stimuli that are difficult to interpret because the cultural context has changed. Things taken for granted at home require virtually constant monitoring in the new culture to assure some degree of understanding. The loss of predictability, coupled with fatigue that results from the need to stay consciously focused on what would normally be taken for granted, produces the symptoms of culture shock. The symptoms of culture shock are pervasive and vary in intensity, duration, and severity among individuals. Individuals can
28 experience both physical and psychological symptoms. a. Physical symptoms Physical symptoms are over-concerned about cleanliness of food, bedding, and dishes, extreme stress on health and safety; fear of physical contact with anyone in the new country; great concern over minor pains and skin eruptions; craving ―home cooking‖; use of alcohol and drugs; and a decline in work quality. b. Psychological symptoms Psychological symptoms are insomnia, fatigue, isolation and loneliness, disorientation, frustration, criticism of new country, nervousness, self-doubt, irritability, depression, anger, and emotional and intellectual withdrawal.
2.3.2 Aspects of Culture Shock Aspects of culture shock include cultural stress, social alienation, social class and poverty-wealth extremes, financial matters, and relationships and family considerations. a. Cultural stress Entering an unfamiliar culture is stressful; in fact, transitions of any type are both psychologically and physically stressful. The stress of getting ready for the move, of unpacking and getting settled upon arrival, and of adjusting to new foods can be so stressful that people become physically ill. Problems with housing, climate, services, or communication in another language bring additional stress.
Case Analysis: The Lades’ Room Upon her arrival in La Paz, Bolivia, from Atlanta, Georgia, Katherine Montague asked directions to the ladies' room at the local university. Upon entering, she observed three males using urinals and made a hasty retreat. Her U.S. colleagues explained that all restrooms were unisex; Katherine decided to take a taxi to her hotel. b. Social alienation An aspect of culture shock that can have adverse effects upon the newcomers to a culture is social alienation and the feelings of loneliness that are associated with being isolated from friends and the home culture. Feelings of alienation may be delayed somewhat since the concern over such basic matters as housing, transportation, and work may buffer these feelings initially. As the months pass, however, you may feel more isolated as you experience numerous cultural differences such as what is considered an appropriate topic of social conversation. The concern of people in the United States with fitness, exercise, and healthful eating is not shared by persons of many cultures and is, therefore, an inappropriate topic of conversation. You also may feel uncomfortable during political discussions because persons of other cultures cannot understand the logic behind such decisions as voting for a person for president who is inexperienced in the international arena rather than for a seasoned politician who is respected in the international community. c. Social class and poverty-wealth extremes In many developing countries, no ―middle class‖ exists. Social classes and extremes in poverty and wealth are readily apparent.
29 The mention of social class in the United States is greeted with uncertain responses since many U.S. citizens prefer to believe that no social class exists in the United States. Class distinctions do exist in the United States but are so complicated and subtle that visitors from other countries often miss the nuances and even the existence of a class structure. Therefore, the official propaganda of social equality is basically a myth. According to people in the lower stratum, class is related to the amount of money you have. People in the middle stratum acknowledge that money has something to do with it but believe that the kind of work you do and your education are almost as important. People in the top stratum believe that your tastes, values, style, and behavior indicate your class, regardless of your education, occupation, or money. Since U.S. personnel are accustomed to perpetuating this "fable of equality", the obvious existence of social class in other societies may make Americans quite uncomfortable. In cultures with virtually no middle class, U.S. persons are usually forced into the upper class of the host culture and may, at least temporarily, feel quite ill at ease in a social role in which numerous servants are the norm and distinctions are made between acceptable and unacceptable friends. The informality of Americans such as greeting strangers on the streets with "Hi!" and calling people they scarcely know by their first name, is a source of cultural shock for many visitors to the United States. In many cultures, starting a conversation with a stranger in a shop or on a bus is considered unacceptable; in the United States, this behavior is commonplace. Other sources of shock to foreigners is the discovery that not all Americans are wealthy and well educated—that they have large numbers of homeless persons and people who have not graduated from high school. The poverty of the lower class in other cultures often makes Americans so uncomfortable that they feel compelled to help but may do so in socially unacceptable ways such as paying a gardener twice the usual rate simply because the person is poor. Mentors in the host culture can be very helpful in advising people regarding acceptable ways of dealing with poverty-wealth extremes and of gaining an insight into the class structure of the culture. d. Financial matters Adapting to a new culture and reentering the home culture involve financial adjustments, such as cost and availability of housing, banking practices, use of credit cards and checks, and costs of schooling. e. Relationships and family considerations Problems related with relationships such as failure of the spouse and other family members to adapt to the new culture are a major factor in the early return of expatriates. Family and personal issues can be disruptive to acculturation, especially for families with children ages 3 to 5 and 14 to 16. The 3-to 5-year-olds often have emotional problems being uprooted from familiar surroundings; the 14- to 16-year-olds may have problems ranging from adapting socially to making adjustments to a different educational system. Adolescents in particular need social continuity and often feel resentment toward their parents for uprooting them. Care must be taken to prepare children for the move by discussing openly their anxieties and fears and by providing them with information concerning expected changes in their lives. Being separated from family members and friends in the United States may cause loneliness. In addition, the spouse is experiencing
30 his or her own problems in adjusting to an alien work environment and is unable to provide the time and emotional support needed during this difficult period of adjustment.
2.3.3 Stages of Culture Shock Adler (1975), Pedersen (1995), and others have described culture shock as a five-stage process. a. The first stage The first stage of initial contact, sometimes called the ―honeymoon‖ stage or initial euphoria, is where everything is new and exciting. The person is basically a tourist with her or his basic identity rooted in the home culture. b. The second stage The second stage involves disintegration of familiar cues and irritation and hostility with the differences experienced in the new culture. During the second stage, the crisis or disenchantment period, the ―honeymoon‖ is over; your excitement has turned to disappointment as you encounter more and more differences between your own culture and the new culture. Problems with transportation, unfamiliar foods, and people who do not speak English now seem overwhelming. The practice of bargaining over the purchase price of everything, an exercise you originally found amusing, is now a constant source of irritation. People at this stage often cope with the situation by making disparaging remarks about the culture; it is sometimes referred to as the "fight-back" technique. Others deal with this stage by leaving, either physically or psychologically. Those who remain may withdraw from people in the culture, refuse to learn the language, and develop coping behaviors of excessive drinking or drug use. Some individuals actually deny differences and will speak in glowing terms of the new culture. c. The third stage The third stage involves a reintegration of new cues and an increased ability to function in the new culture. In the third stage, the adjustment phase, you begin to accept the new culture. You try new foods and make adjustments in behavior to accommodate the shopping lines and the long waits for public transportation. You begin to see the humor in situations and realize that a change in attitude toward the host culture will make the stay abroad more rewarding. d. The fourth stage In the fourth stage, gradual adjustment continues toward gradual autonomy and seeing ―good‖ and ―bad‖ elements in both the home and new cultures. The individual becomes more comfortable in the new culture as more things are predictable. There are fewer feelings of isolation and people feel more in control and more comfortable. e. The fifth stage The final, fifth stage is described as reciprocal interdependence where the person has achieved biculturalism by becoming able to cope comfortably in both home and new cultures. Full adjustment can take years.
2.3.4 Strategies for Managing Culture Shock If you are traveling to a new culture for the first time, it is likely that you will experience some kind of culture shock. The level of intensity you experience will vary. In addition, the
31 duration of your culture shock will depend on your ability to manage it. Probably the best piece of commonsense advice is to do your homework and be prepared. Successful management of culture shock depends on an awareness of its symptoms and the degree of its severity. Sometimes people falsely attribute their problems to sources other than culture shock. There is a tendency to deny that one is experiencing it. It is advised that one should accept the fact that virtually all atypical problems that occur during acculturation are caused by or exacerbated by culture shock. Please keep in mind that everyone experiences some degree of culture shock when entering a new culture for some length of time. However, if managed appropriately, most culture shock is significantly reduced after a year. a. Study the host culture Read about your new culture, attend seminars, rent films, and socialize with host nationals about their culture. Popular "Hollywood" films may distort the reality of the culture, so be careful interpreting them. Most embassies have web pages that include information about the geography, population, climate, government, and education system of their country. If possible, interview friends or colleagues who have traveled or lived in the culture. b. Study the local environment In addition to studying about the general culture, try to learn as much as you can about the local environment in which you will live—such as where to buy favorite foods, where to find physicians in the United States, where schools are located, how public transportation operates (if there is any), or how to fill prescriptions. Taken-for-granted operations that we unconsciously perform in our day-to-day lives will be different in your host culture. c. Learn basic verbal and nonverbal language skills If you are not fluent in the language of your host culture, or even if its members speak English, it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with their verbal and nonverbal language. Attach labels to the various items of your home in the language of the host culture. Practicing functional and frequently used phrases will help you perform basic survival tactics. Keep in mind that common verbal colloquialisms can be wildly misinterpreted across cultures. Find out non-verbal mannerisms and expectations for personal space, time, paralanguage, kinesics, haptics, and so forth. Learn some appropriate verbal and nonverbal formalities of greeting rituals. d. Develop intercultural relationships A common mistake made by many expatriates is remaining within a network of intracultural relationships. The best way to get to know and understand another culture is to establish relationships with host nationals. You will learn more about another culture by initiating and developing relationships with host nationals in your own country than you will by traveling to their country and staying in Western hotels and seeing the countryside on a tour bus with a translator. Host nationals know the norms and subtleties of their culture and can be of immense help in assisting you to learn and understand them. e. Maintain an intimate social network Although this may sound contradictory to the above recommendation, if possible, maintain your intimate intracultural relational network. Close interpersonal relations can provide positive feedback on matters related to one's self-esteem and emotional needs.
32 Venting your problems to understanding and empathetic others can be an effective outlet for stress and frustration. f. Assume the principle of difference / Remember your perceptual context Try to understand that things are simply going to be different in your new culture and that the way you are accustomed to doing things is not the only way. Remember that your perceptual context is biased in favor of your culture and your ingroup. How you perceive your host culture is not objective or neutral. All of the verbal and nonverbal messages encoded and decoded are filtered through your cultural, microcultural, environmental, socio-relational, and perceptual filters. These filters bias and color your expectations, which will certainly be violated as you interact with your host culture. g. Anticipate failure events Regardless of how well you prepare for your journey, there will be moments when you are unsuccessful at accomplishing your goals. Before you depart, anticipate failure events. No doubt you will engage in acts that are unintentional, intentionally performed but inappropriate for the situation, or incorrectly executed.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective We are not born with culture. We learn our culture. The socialization process we go through to adapt to our own culture is called enculturation. We learn how to think and how to behave in our own culture. All the activities of learning one‘s own culture are called enculturation. Cultures are dynamic and ever-changing. We live in a global village today, and we have more opportunities to experience different cultures than our ancestors. What will happen when we meet another culture different from our own? Cultural adaptation takes place in order to communicate effectively. Cultural adaptation, or acculturation, refers to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture. So acculturation simply means the socialization process we go through when we learn another culture other than our own. There are several things that affect how well a person may acculturate. When a person‘s home culture is similar to the new culture, it is easier to adjust to the new culture. Generally younger and better-educated people adjust more quickly to the new culture. Also, a person‘s personality can affect acculturation. Outgoing, curious, and talkative people are often very successful at acculturating. People who have had contact with the culture before, such as through travel, on television, or in movies, also may acculturate better. There are four possible results of acculturation. When an individual maintains his or her original culture and not participating in the new culture, it is called separation and segregation. And the forced separation, that is, the more politically and economically powerful culture does not want intercultural contact, is called segregation. When individuals become an integral part of the new culture while maintaining their culture integrity, it is called integration. The degree to which an individual relinquishes an original culture for another is called assimilation. When an individual loses his or her cultural identity and not having any psychological contact with the larger society, he or she is marginalized.
33 However, the cultural adaptation is not smooth. If a person lives in a new culture for some time (typically a few months or more), that Individual usually experiences culture shock, which refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture. Symptoms of culture shock can be physical, such as skin eruption, and it can be psychological, such as insomnia and frustration. Culture shock can be described as a five-stage process: honeymoon stage, crisis stage, reintegration stage, gradual adjustment stage and full adjustment stage. Full adjustment may take years. However, some strategies may help us manage culture shock.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How does multiculturalism differ from assimilation?
2. Give one or two examples of the failure of acculturation in your country.
3. Describe your own experience entering a new culture.
4. What is the similarity between the process of culture shock and that of making friends?
5. Do you have some special strategies overcoming the negative feelings of culture shock? Please share with us, if you have.
34 ChapterⅢ Communication
Communication—your ability to share beliefs, values, ideas, and feelings—is the basis of all human contact. In this chapter, different definitions of communication are reviewed, ten components of communication: source, encoding, message, channel, noise, receiver, decoding, receiver response, feedback and context, are examined, and the characteristics of communication are introduced.
3.1 Communication Defined Communication, the basis of all human contact, is our ability to share ideas and feelings. People engage in communication so that they can share their realities with other human being. Communication is everywhere. Everywhere, every day, people are communicating with each other. Even when they are alone, people are engaged in communication. It is estimated that Americans are exposed to more than 5000 persuasive messages every day. Communication—the ability to symbolize and use language—separates humans from animals. Communication is the basis of all human contact, but it‘s difficult to find a single definition due to its complexity. Many definitions have been formulated for communication. Comparing different interpretations of communication may contribute a lot to comprehending the role of communication in our social life and communication as an element of culture.
3.1.1 Communication as an Element of Culture Communication is derived from the Latin word communicare, meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge. Because communication is an element of culture, it has often been said that communication and culture are inseparable. Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication. Communication requires coding and symbols that must be learned and shared. Every cultural pattern and every single act of social behavior involve communication. Culture cannot be known without a study of communication, and communication can only be understood with an understanding of the culture it supports. The way communication is defined reflects important cultural values. Cultural beliefs affect how the process of communication is defined.
3.1.2 Western Perspective on Communication The study of communication is said to have begun some 2,500 years ago in Greece with Aristotle‘s Rhetoric and Poetics, which described the process of communication as involving a speaker, the speech act, an audience, and a purpose. In Western cultures, communication is studied as the means of transmitting ideas. Western cultures emphasize the instrumental function of communication; that is, effectiveness is evaluated in terms of success in the manipulation of others to achieve one‘s personal goal.
3.1.3 Eastern Perspective on Communication Definitions of communication from many Asian countries stress harmony, which is
35 most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition. In addition to sending and receiving messages, Eastern cultures also emphasize the relationships between the communicators. According to Eastern cultures, respecting the relationship through communication is more important than exchanging information. Eastern cultures‘ understanding would define communication as an infinite interpretive process where all parties are searching to develop and maintain a social relationship.
3.1.4 Perception and Communication Communication is the perception of verbal (worded) and nonverbal (without words) behaviors and the assignment of meaning to them. Communication takes place whether the sending of signals is intentional or unintentional. It even takes place when the verbal or nonverbal behavior is unconscious, as long as it is observed and the meaning is assigned to it. When a receiver of signals perceives those signals, decides to pay attention to them as meaningful, categorizes them according to categories in his or her own mind, and finally assigns meaning to them, communication has occurred. Communication is a process that can falter at any one of these steps when it takes place between members who share values, attitudes, experiences, behavioral expectations, and even a history together.
3.1.5 Communication Defined by Samovar and Porter Samovar and Porter (1997) defined communication as ―Communication occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior‖. This means that when someone perceives behavior or its residue and attributes meaning to it, communication has taken place regardless of whether that behavior is conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional. Samovar and Porter (1997) further defined communication as “a dynamic transactional behavior-affecting process in which people behave intentionally to induce or elicit a particular response from another person‖.
3.1.6 Simmel’s Perspective on Communication Simmel defines communication from social perspective. According to Simmel, society consists of communication among individuals. All human communication consists of information-exchange that has reciprocal effects on the individuals involved. Communication occurs among individuals who are at varying degrees of social distance from one another. Communication satisfies certain basic human needs, such as for companionship. Certain types of communication become relatively stable over time, and thus represent culture and social structure.
3.2 Components of Communication There are ten components of communication: source, encoding, message, channel, noise, receiver, decoding, receiver response, feedback, and context.
Source: The source or the sender is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate. The source is the creator of the message. Because communication usually
36 involves more than one person, more than one source of communication can exist at one time.
Encoding: Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. The symbols in which you encode your thoughts vary. You can encode thoughts into words, and you can also encode thoughts into nonspoken symbols.
Message: The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object. The message is made up of the ideas and feelings that the source wants to share. It is comprised of words, grammar, organization of thoughts, physical appearance, body movement, voice, aspects of the person‘s personality and self-concept, and personal style. Each message is unique. Even if the same message were to be created over and over again, it would differ in each instance because messages cannot be repeated or received in exactly the same way or in the same context.
Channel: The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication. For example, when two people are talking face to face, light and sound waves in the air serve as the channels. If a letter is sent from one person to another, light waves serve as the channel, but the paper and writing itself serve as the means by which the message is conveyed. Books, films, videotapes, television sets, computers, radios, magazines, newspapers, and pictures are channels through which messages may be conveyed. In addition, people receive communication by smelling, touching and tasting. All five senses contribute to communication.
Noise: The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.
Noise can be of many forms:
External noise can be the sights, sounds, and other stimuli that draw your attention away from the message. External noise comes from the environment and keeps the message from being heard or understood. Your heart-to-heart talk with your roommate can be interrupted by a group of people yelling in the hall, or a helicopter passing overhead. External noise does not always come from sound. You could be standing and talking to someone in the hot sun and become so uncomfortable that you can‘t concentrate.
Internal noise refers to your thoughts and feelings that can interfere with the message. Internal noise occurs in the minds of the sender or receiver when their thoughts or feelings are focused on something other than the communication at hand. For example, a student
37 doesn‘t hear the lecture because he is thinking about lunch; a wife can‘t pay attention to her husband because she is upset by a problem in the office. Sometimes, beliefs or prejudices may also become internal noises.
Semantic noise refers to how alternative meanings of the source‘s message symbols can be distracting. Many people tune out a speaker who uses profanity because the words are so offensive to them. However, they may wonder why the speaker used profanity and their attention was drawn away from the message itself.
Receiver: The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receivers may be intentional; that is, they may be the people the source desired to communicate with, or they may be any person who comes upon and attends to the message. Sometimes, communication occurs when one person sends ideas and the other receives them, and then the process is reversed. In that case, people are senders and receivers—both sending and receiving at the same time.
Decoding: Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process. The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.
Receiver response: Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message. That response can range from doing nothing to taking some action or actions that may or may not be the action desired by the source.
Feedback: Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning. A reader of this text may have many responses, but only when the reader responds to a survey or writes a letter to the author does feedback occur. When a radio interview show host receives enthusiastic telephone calls and invites a guest back, feedback has occurred. Feedback is vital to communication because it lets the participants in the communication see whether ideas and feelings have been shared in the way they were intended. People who are having face-to-face communication have the greatest opportunity for feedback, especially if there are no distractions. Feedback makes communication two-way or interactive.
Context: The final component of communication is context. The context can be physical, social, and interpersonal. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication. If you know the physical context, you can predict with a high degree of accuracy much of the communication. The choice of the environment, the context, helps assign the desired meaning to the communicated words.
38
Figure 3.1 Components of Communication
Case Analysis: Components in Action
Let‘s use this textbook as an example of the first eight components of communication. As the author of the text, I am the source; I have ideas about intercultural communication I want to communicate. My selecting the words, figures, and pictures to communicate my ideas is encoding. The message is those words, figures, and pictures before you. The channel is the print medium of a book. You are the receiver who decodes as you read. Your decoding might be affected by the noise around you or competing thoughts and feelings. Your responses as the receiver might include highlighting sections for later study and discussing the material with classmates. These eight components can be conceptualized as a linear model. Communication seems to start with the source and end with a receiver response. These eight components alone describe communication as a one-way process. And much of communication is a one-way process: some communicators can have no knowledge of the receiver‘s response. The author of a text may not get information back from readers. A guest on a radio interview show may have no knowledge of audience response.
3.3 Characteristics of Communication Besides the above components of communication, when we consider communication as a process, several characteristics help us understand how communication actually works.
3.3.1 Communication Is Dynamic Communication is an ongoing, ever-changing activity. It is not fixed. Communication
39 is like a motion picture, not a single snapshot. A word or action does not stay frozen when you communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action. As participants in communication, we are constantly affected by each other‘s messages and, as a consequence, we undergo continual changes.
3.3.2 Communication Is Irreversible Once we have said something and someone else has received and decoded the message, the original sender cannot take it back. Once a communication event takes place, it is a done event. You cannot have it again—perhaps you can experience a similar event, but not an identical one. The words are spoken, and they cannot be unspoken.
3.3.3 Communication Is Symbolic Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated. Symbols are vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to anther person. Symbols can be verbal and nonverbal. A symbol is a word, action, or object that stands for or represents a unit of meaning. Humans are symbol-making creatures. It is this symbol-making ability that allows for everyday interaction. Other animals may participate in the communication process, but none of them has the unique communication capabilities of humans. In terms of intercultural communication, it is important for you to keep in mind the fact that the symbols you use are discretionary and subjective. Although all cultures use symbols, they usually assign their own meanings to the symbols. Symbols have no natural relationship with what they represent. For example, the verbal symbol ―cat‖ has no natural connection with cute, fuzzy animals that purr and like to be scratched. The symbol ―cat‖ has no meaning in other languages.
Chat (French) Neiko (Japanese) Gato (Spanish) Katze (German) Koska (Russian)
Figure 3.2 Different languages use different codes
3.3.4 Communication Is Systematic Communication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a larger system. And this large system includes: setting, location, occasion, time, and the number of people. People send and receive messages not in isolation but in a specific setting. The setting or context helps determine the words and actions you generate and the meanings you give to the symbols produced by other people. The context, physical or social,
40 establishes the rules that govern the interaction. Dress, language, topic selection, and the like are all adapted to the context. For example, under most circumstances, males would not, even in hot weather, attend a university lecture without wearing a shirt. People do not act the same way in every environment. Whether in an auditorium, restaurant, or office, the location of your interaction provides guidelines for your behavior. Either consciously or unconsciously, you know the prevailing rules, many of which are rooted in your culture. For example, nearly all cultures have religious building, but the rules of behavior in those buildings are culturally based. The occasion of a communication encounter also controls the behavior of the participants. You know from your own experience that an auditorium can be the occasion for a graduation ceremony, play, dance or memorial service. Each of these occasions calls for distinctly different forms of behavior, and each culture has its own specifications for these behaviors. The influence of time on communication is so subtle that its impact is often overlooked. Every communication event takes place on a time-space continuum, and the amount of time allotted, whether it is for social conversation or a formal speech affects that event. Cultures and people use time to communicate. For example, in the United States, schedules and time constraints are ever present. The number of people with whom you communicate also affects the flow of communication. You know from personal experience that you feel and act differently if you are speaking with one person, in a group, or before a great many people.
3.3.5 Communication Is Self-reflective Just as we use symbols to reflect on what goes on outside of us, we also use them to reflect on ourselves. This unique endowment lets you be participant and observer simultaneously: you can watch, evaluate, and alter your performance as a communicator at the very instant you are engaged in the act. There is an intercultural dimension to your capacity to be self-reflective. Some cultures are much more concerned with the self than with others and therefore devote a great deal of energy to watching and even worrying about the self. Cultures that are more group-oriented focus on other people, so although they can engage in self-reflective activity during communication, their main concern is with the other not with the self.
3.3.6 Communication Is Transactional To suggest that communication is transactional implies that all participants in the communication process work together to create and sustain the meanings that develop. A transactional view holds that communicators are simultaneously sending and receiving messages at every instant that they are involved in conversations. A transactional view advocates that all communications have a past, a present, and a future. People respond to every situation from their own experiences, their own moods, and their own expectations. Such factors complicate the communication situation. For example, when we know someone well, we can make predictions about what to do in the future on the basis of what you know about the past. The future also influences communication. If we want a relationship to continue, we will say and do things in the
41 present to make sure it does.
Message Person 1 Person 2
Figure 3.3
3.3.7 Communication Is Contextual All communication takes place within a setting or situation called a context. By context, we mean the place where people meet, the social purpose for being together, and the nature of the relationship. Thus the context includes the physical, social, and interpersonal settings within which messages are exchanged. The physical context include the actual location of the interactants: indoors or outdoors, crowded or quiet, public or private, close together or far apart, warm or cold, bright or dark. The social context refers to the widely shared expectations people have about the kinds of interactions that normally should occur given different kinds of social events, for example, at the funeral, at a party, in classroom, or at a soccer match. The interpersonal context refers to the expectations people have about the behaviors of others as a result of differences in the relationships between them. Communication between teachers and students, even outside the classroom context, differs from the communication between close friends. Communication among friends differs from communication among acquaintances, co-workers or family members.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication. Communication requires coding and symbols that must be learned and shared. Communication and culture are inseparable and strongly connected. Communication is an element of culture. It is believed that every culture pattern and every single act of social behavior involves communication. When a baby is just born, he usually cries. His crying communicates something. When you graduate, your friends usually say ―Congratulations!‖ to you. When a driver sees the red light, he/she will stop. All these are cases of communication. However, like culture, the term ―communication‖ has been defined from different perspectives. In fact, the way that people view communication—what it is, how to do it, and reasons for doing it—is part of their culture. Western culture emphasizes the instrumental function of communication. The prior consideration is to achieve the source‘s personal goal. While in Eastern culture, in addition to sending and receiving messages simultaneously, communicators take their relationship into account. The process of communication has ten components: source, encoding, message, channel, noise, receiver, decoding, receiver response, feedback, and context. The source encodes a message (information that the source wants to share with
42 other people) by putting it into symbols (usually words or nonverbal gestures) and then sending it through a channel. A channel can be printed media such as magazines and newspapers; electronic media such as television, radio, and the Internet; or sounds traveling through the air when two people speak face to face. Sometimes, things make it difficult for the message to reach the receiver. These things are called ―noise‖. Noise can be physical (e.g., loud sound), emotional (e.g., strong feelings like sadness, anxiety), or biological (e.g., being hungry or sick). When receivers get the message, they must ―decode‖ or try to understand it. For example, if the source encodes a message using English, the receivers must use their knowledge of English language to understand it. Often, the source pays attention to the reactions of the receivers. The information or feedback from the receiver is called ―receiver response‖. The communication takes place within a setting or situation called context. Any communication process demonstrates seven characteristics, that is, dynamic, irreversible, symbolic, systematic, self-reflective, transactional, and contextual.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How and why are communication and culture linked?
2. Think out of two examples of communication in your everyday activity.
3. What does it mean to say that communication is a systematic, transactional, contextual process in which people create shared meanings?
4. People frequently communicate with each other by sending short messages. Try to analyze the communication process and the components.
5. How does culture influence communication?
43 ChapterⅣ Intercultural Communication
As the science and technology of communication and transportation advances, contacts between people from different cultures are more frequent. There is an urgent need for intercultural communication in this global village. In this chapter, intercultural communication and intercultural communication competence are defined, different forms of intercultural communication are discussed, the components of intercultural communication are introduced, and some specific competence required in different contexts are also illustrated to help you get a general idea about intercultural communication.
4.1 Intercultural Communication Culture and communication are so inextricably linked that more anthropologists believe that the two terms are virtually synonymous. This relationship is the key factor to understand intercultural communication. Since the content of our communication behaviors depends largely on the culture in which we have been raised, when cultures differ, communication practices also differ. In the context of globalization, people from various cultural backgrounds meet and interact frequently. Cultural diversity makes the communication even more complicated, so, in this section, intercultural communication is introduced.
4.1.1 Intercultural Communication Defined Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Differences in communication and social style, worldview, customs, expectations, rules, roles and myths illustrate a few of the elements that explain how culture shapes the communication process. The following critical incident written by a Finnish student is a good case to demonstrate intercultural communication:
Case Analysis: What Is Wrong?
Six years ago I was in the USA for a year as an exchange student. I lived in an American family there. I'm the kind of person who needs to have some time for herself every day so I would stay in my room in the evenings for an hour or two and do my homework or write letters or just relax and listen to music. I didn't think there was anything wrong with it—to me it was just normal. One day my host-Mom came to me and asked if I was ok. She said that they had thought that I was sad and homesick, or maybe not be happy with the host family because I would go to my room and stay there for a couple of hours every evening. I was really surprised to hear this.
In the United States, communicating is a way to nurture oneself and one's
44 interpersonal relationships. Those who don't communicate are seen as closed, nonsupportive and lacking the key element of healthy relationships. In this case, being alone must have been seen as not communicating and therefore the host family got worried. They thought that the Finnish girl was homesick but wasn't able to talk about it. The host-Mother tried to make her open up about her sadness, because in the U.S. white American culture, it is believed that communication is a way to nurture oneself. She thought that after talking about it, the Finnish exchange student would feel better. The problem was that, the Finnish girl was not homesick at all. One of the most used stereotypes about Finns is that they are very silent and shy. Various explanations have been given for such national characteristics: race, cold weather and lack of communication. To the Finnish student who wrote this critical incident it is a Finnish characteristic to enjoy being alone in silence. Silence to a Finn is a way to nurture oneself, and to Americans that seems odd because they are not used to spending time alone. Frequently, the term cross-cultural communication is used when referring to communication between people from different cultures. But it is typically used to refer to the study of a particular idea or concept within many cultures. The goal of such investigations is to conduct a series of intercultural analysis in order to compare one culture with another on the attributes of interests. Because this term implies a comparison between cultures, we find it too restrictive. There are, however, other terms that we can use to focus on various dimensions and forms of intercultural communication.
4.1.2 Forms of Intercultural Communication Intercultural communication is the term first used by Edward T. Hall in 1959 and is simply defined as interpersonal communication between members of different cultures. It can include interpersonal communication, intracultural communication, international, interethnic, interracial, and interregional communication. a. Interpersonal communication The informal exchange of information between two or more people is referred to as interpersonal communication, and it can be intercultural communication or not the case. Interpersonal communication is a form of communication that involves a small number of individuals who are interacting exclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability to adapt their messages specifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretations from them. Interpersonal communication helps us share information, solve problems, resolve conflicts, understand our perception of self and of others, and establish relationships with others. We can't not communicate. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Through not only words, but through tones of voice and through gestures, postures, facial expressions, etc., we constantly communicate to those around us. Through these channels, we constantly receive communication from others. To communicate effectively, practice using these interpersonal communication skills.
I-statements help you express the way you feel and what you want with great clarity. Sometimes people use "you" statements, such as "You never call when
45 you are going to be late." This type of statement can make others feel angry and defensive immediately. When you use I-statements, such as, "I really need to know when you're going to be here so I can make plans," you express your concern in terms of you. A respectful tone of voice conveys that you are taking others seriously and that you also expect to be taken seriously. In addition, people with good communication skills are assertive without being aggressive or manipulative. Eye contact is vital for good communication. For example, how would you feel if the person you were talking to kept looking around the hallway or out the window? Appropriate body language encourages conversation. Nodding your head, smiling, laughing, using words such as "uh-huh" and "yeah" and asking questions at appropriate times assure the person that you are really listening. Clear, organized ideas help you accurately and honestly describe your feelings and contribute to conversations and to decisions that need to be made. Good communicators are also specific. For example, a good communicator would say, "I need to use the computer from 7 to 9," as opposed to "I'll need the computer tonight." b. Intracultural communication Intracultural communication is the ―least intercultural‖ end of the continuum. Intracultural communication is defined as communication between and among members of the same culture. Generally, people who are of the same race, political persuasion, and religion or who share the same interests communicate intraculturally. Having the same beliefs, values, and constructs facilitates communication and defines a particular culture. However, due to distance, cultural differences may exist within a culture such as differences in the pace of life and regional speech patterns between residents of New York City and Mississippi. Distance is also a factor in the differences in the dialects, such as in northern and southern China. ―Intracultural communication‖ is often a trigger for stereotypes. First a definition of ―intracultural communication‖ is ―the type of communication that takes place between members of the same dominant culture, but with slightly different values‖, as opposed to ―intercultural communication‖ which is the communication between two distinct cultures. An example of intracultural communication triggering a stereotype would be if a person in the dominant culture, say of the United States, spoke Ebonics, a dialect of English with slang. If a non-Ebonics speaking person hears Ebonics, they may assume the person is of low intelligence, and is a criminal or violent in nature. These initial thoughts are unfounded and more than likely incorrect. c. International communication International communication takes place between nations and governments rather than individuals; it is quite formal and ritualized. The dialogue at the United Nations, for example, would be termed international communication. If Chinese Prime Minister communicates with Russian President, it is international communication, because the communication is between two nations or countries.
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United Nations Conference d. Interethnic communication Ethnic groups usually form their own communities in a country or culture. These groups share a common origin or heritage that is apt to influence family names, language, religion, values, and the like. Interethnic communication refers to communication between people of the same race but different ethnic backgrounds. For example, in China, if a Tibetan communicates with a Han, it is interethnic communication, because they are from different ethnic groups.
Beijing: Children from 56 ethnics in their traditional clothes. It is the same that Cubans living in Miami, Mexicans in San Diego, Haitians in New York City, and the Chinese in San Francisco might all be citizens of the United States, yet their ethnic cultures are transferred from generation to generation. This transfer enables the members of these, and other ethnic groups, to preserve their identity to some degree while living within the dominant culture. e. Interracial communication Interracial communication occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging
47 messages are from different races that pertain to different physical characteristics. For instance, if an Afro-American interacts with a white American, it is interracial communication, which may or may not be intercultural. Most scholars now reserve the word ―race‖ for physical features rather than cultural traits. There are even some arguments supporting the notion that because physical traits are beginning to blend, race will not be distinct enough to warrant separate categories. But for now it needs to be remembered that physical differences frequently do influence communication. This influence is often in the form of strong prejudices and leads to stereotyping and discrimination. f. Interregional communication This term refers to the exchange of messages between members, from different regions, of the dominant culture within a country. If a northerner interacts with a southerner, we have what is called interregional communication. These are members of a culture who share common messages and experiences over a long period of time; but who live in different regions of the same country.
4.1.3 Intercultural Communication Ethics Ethics address the question of how we ought to lead our lives. Ethic is an individual‘s system of moral principle. Ethic refers to judgments that focus ―on degrees of rightness and wrongness, virtue and vice, and obligation in human behavior. Ethic has to do with the gray areas of our lives. All societies hold certain ethical standards—ideas concerning what are right and what is wrong. Ethical standards tend to reflect the culture in which they were produced. a. The diversity Ethical standards are products of particular culture. So it is not surprising that basic appropriate and inappropriate behavior important to a group varies from place to place. Consequently, it is not surprising that one way of behaving has a high moral value—rightness—in one culture, has no ethical significance in second culture, and in the third culture may be negatively moral, that is, considered by the majority of the population to be ethically wrong. Therefore, to be an ethical communicator, one needs to know ethical standards in different culture. In the following part major ethics will be examined including Western, African, Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic. Western ethics May and Sharratt identify four values fundamental to Western ethics: 1. Autonomy Being free to act consistent with one‘s own principles. 2. Justice Impartiality; giving each person his or her legitimate due or portion of the whole. 3. Responsibility Accountability for the consequences of one‘s actions, including a failure to act. 4. Care Partiality to those who cannot protect themselves and to whom we are in special relationships. African ethics
48 African ethics stress the well-being of the community and economic considerations over political rights. The well-being of the individual derives from the well-being of the community. Man is defined by reference to the environing community. The reality of the community takes precedence over the reality of individual life histories, whatever these may be, because persons become persons only after a process of incorporation. Without incorporation into this or that community, individuals are considered to be mere danglers, to whom the description ―person‖ does not fully apply. Buddhist ethics The Buddhist ethical perspective is individualistic: the ultimate responsibility for any act rests with the individual. Value is placed on patience, compassion, self-sacrifice, kindness, and love, which are to be pursued for the betterment of the person if not in this life, then in the next. The emphasis is on the next life and the rejection of the world as an illusion isolates the individual from family and society. Hindu ethics Central to Indian Hindu perspectives is ending human suffering through active intervention in this world to make it better. Whereas Buddhism values patience and a passive approach, for Indian philosophers the path to take in ending suffering is as important as the ending of suffering. Hinduism strives for the oneness of reality, for the obliteration of all distinctions including individualism, to merge with the absolute. Islamic ethics Traditional Islamic perspectives on ethics are based on its religious concepts. There are different rules of ethical conduct for women and for men. Non-Muslims are to be treated differently than Muslims. Islamic ethics, like some Hindu ethics, are highly activist and interventionist. b. The similarity People from different cultures have different ethics, but there are values that are common to all cultures. Philosophical values bind us together. One of the most important of the common values is what Kale refers to as ―the worth and dignity of the human spirit.‖ Granting this value would demand that we try to adopt an interpersonal ―Golden Rule.‖ The ethical notion of the Golden Rule is found in every culture. Although the words are different, the wisdom contained within the words is universal. Buddhism: ―Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.‖ UdanaVirga Christianity: ―All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them.‖ Matthew Confucianism: ―Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you.‖ Analect Hinduism: ―This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you.‖ Mahabharata Islam: ―No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself.‖ Sunnah Jainism: ―In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self.‖ Lord Mahavir, 24th Tirthankara Judaism: ―What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. That is the law: all the rest is commentary.‖ Talmud, Shabbat
49 If it were not for space constraints, we could have included an even longer list of those cultures that exhort their members to the ―oneness of the human family.‖ So, from this brief sample, we may infer that we are alike in many aspects of culture. Peace is the fundamental human value. The use of peace applies not only to relationships among countries but to ―the right of all people to live in peace with themselves and their surroundings‖. From this fundamental value, he developed four ethical principles to guide intercultural interactions:
Ethical communicators address people of other cultures with the same respect that they would like to receive themselves. Intercultural communicators should not demean or belittle the cultural identity of others through verbal or nonverbal communication. Ethical communicators seek to describe the world, as they perceive it as accurately as possible. What is perceived to be the truth may vary from one culture to another; truth is socially constructed. This principle means that ethical communicators do not deliberately mislead or deceive. Ethical communicators encourage people of other cultures to express themselves in their uniqueness. This principle respects the right of people to expression regardless of how popular or unpopular their ideas may be. Ethical communicators strive for identification with people of other cultures. Intercultural communicators should emphasize the commonalities of cultural beliefs and values rather than their differences.
4.2 Intercultural Communication Competence Whether Westerners, who believe that the purpose of communication is to transmitted information, or Easterners, who believe that the purpose of communication is to keep or develop good relationship, both want to achieve their goal by means of communication. In that case, they need certain communication competence. Since they are involved in intercultural communication they need intercultural communication competence.
4.2.1 Intercultural Communication Competence Defined The term intercultural communication competence involves the competence of effective communication in intercultural context. Brian Spitzberg defined competent communication as interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to the context in which the interaction occurs. Y. Y. Kim defined the term in a more detailed way: intercultural communication competence is the overall internal capability of an individual to manage key challenging features of intercultural communication: namely, cultural differences and unfamiliarity, inter-group posture, and the accompanying experience of stress. What these two definitions, one general and one specific, are telling you is that being a competent communicator means analyzing the situation and selecting the correct mode of behavior. In another word, the actions of the communicators fit the expectations and demands of the intercultural situation. However, since the communication competence is a social judgment that people make about others, the intercultural communication
50 competence is even more difficult to achieve considering the cultural differences and the interference of one‘s own culture with the target culture.
4.2.1 Components of Intercultural Communication Competence Most of the research in the area of communication competence maintains that in selecting the most appropriate course of action, effective communicators are those who are motivated, have a fund of knowledge to draw upon, and possess certain communication skills. The three kinds of competence are our competence of affect, cognition, and behavior. a. Affect Affect involves the emotional factors that influence intercultural communication, including adaptation motivation, identity flexibility, and aesthetic co-orientation: Adaptation motivation, the speaker‘s self-motivation of adaptation willingness or emotional and motivational drives towards the target culture, and emotional and motivational capacity to deal with the various challenges. Identity flexibility, the willingness to make some changes in original cultural habits, helping to engender greater openness and lessened new prejudicial criticism toward new cultural experiences so that the personal and social goals would be met. Aesthetic co-orientation, the capacity to participate in such experiences when communicating with natives of the target culture, with which the communicator are better able to empathize with the cultural products, including art, music, sports, as well as to appreciate the culture‘s everyday experiences of fun, joy, humor and happiness, and of anger, despair, frustration, and disappointment. Affect, as one of the component of intercultural communication competence, contributes a lot to effective intercultural communication. To process of developing this competence is a process of internalization with the help of knowledge input. b. Cognition Dealing with the intercultural communication situation effectively requires intercultural knowledge. According to Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge you need two kinds of knowledge to be competent—content knowledge and procedural knowledge. Content knowledge involves knowing what topics, words, meanings and so forth, are required in a situation. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to assemble, plan and perform content knowledge in a particular situation. Knowledge, as a component of intercultural competence, refers to the competence of cognition. The cognitive aspects of intercultural communication competence are the mental capacities of comprehension and ability to understand the meanings of various verbal and nonverbal codes. It reflects the capacity to identify and understand messages. There are three aspects as following. The knowledge of host communication system, which refers mainly to the knowledge of the host country‘s language including both linguistic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge. Cultural understanding, which means deeper-level understanding of the target culture, involves knowing its history, politics, religion as well as its values, attitudes,
51 beliefs etc. Cognitive complexity, dealing with the structure of information processing, the ability to identify the nuance and subtleness of the target culture and the speaker‘s own culture. Both affect/motivation, cognition/knowledge are the inner preparation for intercultural communication. The aspects are interrelated to each other. The knowledge of cultural difference helps communicators to develop the competence of affection, so they may be more motivated to communicate with foreigners with less negative feelings toward cultural difference. Both of the two components will be shown in the process of communication, so there is another component—behavior. c. Behavior Individuals‘ capacity to express cognitive and affective experiences outwardly is shown through specific behaviors. Technical skills ranging from basic language skills, job skills, and academic skills to skills in locating appropriate information sources and solving the various day-to-day problems. Synchrony, which means that the interlocutor has to behave in a synchronized manner so as to communicate with the natives in ways that are compatible and harmonious. Resourcefulness, the individual has the ability to reconcile cultural differences and come up with creative action plans to solve various problems and to accomplish personal and social goals. Skills are the specific behaviors that communicators engage to accomplish their goals. We are skillful enough in our own culture to deal with daily routines and situations, while, in the intercultural context, we may have to adjust our skills to make our behavior appropriate to that situation.
4.2.2 Intercultural Communication Competence in Certain Context Effective intercultural communication involves more than understanding a group‘s norms. There have been many attempts to identify the skills needed to be more effective in intercultural communication. a. Business approach One group concerned with the success of individuals abroad is international business. As far as business context is concerned, three skill areas are identified: 1. Skills related to the maintenance of self (mental health, psychological well-being, stress reduction, feelings of self-confidence). 2. Skills related to the fostering of relationships with host nationals. 3. Cognitive skills that promote a correct perception of the host environment and its social systems.
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Case Analysis: Business Communication
Consider the exchange between Arab businessman Hashim Abdu Hashim and his American counterpart Steve Jones. The scene: Mr. Jones is sitting (on the floor) in the hallway of a building in Saudi Arabia, waiting to meet with his Saudi counterpart, Hashim Abdu Hashim. The hallway is noisy, cluttered with people moving quickly from room to room. Mr. Jones arrived in Saudi Arabia two days earlier for a scheduled meeting. Since then his meeting has been postponed and rescheduled several times. After several hours of waiting in the hallway, Mr. Jones is called into Hashim's office. The office has no chairs, but instead, elaborate and ornate pillows on the floor. The walls are draped with embellished afghans. Mr. Jones enters.
Jones: Hello, Hashim. Gosh, I finally get to see you. I've been waiting for two days! Hashim: Hello, Mr. Jones. It is good to see you. Jones: Thanks. It's good to see you too. How's Mrs. Hashim? Hashim: Was your trip to our country all right? Jones: Yes, everything is fine. (At this point the two are interrupted by a servant pouring tea. Jones refuses… then reluctantly accepts) No... no... thanks, I've had enough tea. Well... OK, thanks. So... Hashim. I came all the way over here to see if I could get you to speed things up with our order. See, our supplies have been sitting at some dock along the coast for two weeks. I was wondering if you could sign this petition (hands it to Hashim using his left hand) to hurry up the process. Hashim: Hmmm. . . this is a problem? Jones: Yes. Gosh, Hashim, I understand that sometimes supplies sit on ships for weeks at a time! Your people could really use these computers you've ordered. I need to have them released to your custody as soon as possible. Hashim: I see. Well... we have been without computers for thousands of years. Waiting is no problem. Do you think Mr. Hashim perceived Mr. Jones as competent? Do you think Mr. Hashim perceived Mr. Jones's behaviors as appropriate and effective? Probably not. Mr. Jones commits at least five cultural blunders that severely jeopardize any possible future contract with Hashim. First, he mentions that he's been waiting for two days to see Hashim. Jones has not recognized the polychronic nature of Saudi Arabia. Business gets done on its own time. Second, Jones refuses the tea that has been offered to him in hospitality. Then, in a gross error of etiquette, he inquires about Hashim's wife. In Saudi, a man's wife is for his eyes only. Continuing on his blundering way, Jones hands Hashim the contract with his left hand. In many Muslim cultures the left hand is the "dirty" hand—that is, used for cleaning the body and handling waste. Finally, Jones demonstrates the urgency of his mission and getting the computers off the supply ship. His emphasis on schedules and deadlines communicates to Hashim that he is either insane or irreligious. Many Arabs believe literally in the phrase "Insha
53 Allah," meaning "God willing." To them, the nature of things, especially time, is controlled by God. Events, meetings, and happenings are completed only if God wills them. Mr. Jones' behavior was neither appropriate nor effective. Mr. Hashim was probably offended and might never do business with Mr. Jones again.
b. Military Approach Another group concerned with the success of individuals overseas is the military. The United States Navy attempted to assess readiness to serve overseas. The navy identified eight skills needed for success: 1. Self-awareness Ability to use information about yourself in puzzling situations, to understand how others see you and use that information to cope with difficult situations. 2. Self-respect Self-confidence or due respect for yourself, your character, and your conduct. 3. Interaction How effectively you communicate with people. 4. Empathy Viewing things through another person‘s eyes or being aware of other people‘s feelings. 5. Adaptability How fast you adjust to unfamiliar environments or to norms other than your own. 6. Certainty Ability to deal with situations that demand you act in one way even though your feelings tell you something else; the greater your capacity to accept contradictory situations, the more you are able to deal with them. 7. Initiative Being open to new experiences. 8. Acceptance Tolerance or a willingness to accept things that vary from what you are familiar with. c. Communication Approach Definitions of intercultural communication competence more grounded in communication have tended to stress the development of skills that transform one from a monocultural person into a multicultural person. The multicultural person is one who respects cultures and has tolerance for differences. Four skill areas are identified: personality strength, communication skills, psychological adjustment, and cultural awareness. 1. Personality strength The main personal traits that affect intercultural communication are self- concept, self-disclosure, self-monitoring, and social relaxation. Self-concept refers to the way in which a person views the self. Self-disclosure refers to willingness of individuals to openly and appropriately reveal information about themselves to their counterparts. Self-monitoring refers to using social comparison information to control and modify
54 your self-presentation and expressive behavior. Social relaxation is the ability to reveal little anxiety in communication. Effective communicators must know themselves well and, through their self-awareness, initiate positive attitudes. Individuals must express a friendly personality to be competent in intercultural communication. 2. Communication skills Individuals must be competent in verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Intercultural communication skills require message skills, behavioral flexibility, interaction management, and social skills. Message skills refer to the ability to understand and use the language and feedback. Behavioral flexibility is the ability to select an appropriate behavior in diverse contexts. Interaction management means handling the procedural aspects of conversation, such as the ability to initiate a conversation. Interaction management emphasizes a person‘s other-oriented ability to interaction, such as attentiveness and responsiveness. Social skills are empathy and identity maintenance. Empathy is the ability to think the same thoughts and feel the same emotions as the other person. Identity maintenance is the ability to maintain a counterpart‘s identity by communicating back an accurate understanding of that person‘s identity. In other words, a competent communicator must be able to deal with diverse people in different situations. 3. Psychological adjustment Effective communicators must be able to acclimate to new environments. They must be able to handle the feelings of ―culture shock‖, such as frustration, stress, and alienation in ambiguous situations caused by new environments. 4. Cultural awareness To be competent in intercultural communication, individuals must understand the social customs and social systems of the host culture. Understanding how people think and behave is essential for effective communication with them.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective In the former chapters, the close relation between culture and communication has been introduced. In the process of intercultural communication, the diversity of culture makes it even more difficult for people to achieve their communicative goals. Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. We human beings are social animals, we communicate with each other all the time. When two more individuals exchange information formally or informally, interpersonal communication happens. If the communicators, though come from the same cultural background, have something different culturally, intracultural communication happens. If the communicators represent their government, the communication is called international communication. The intercultural communication also happens when people from the
55 same community but different ethnic groups communicate—interethnic communication, or people from different races communicate— interracial communication—or people from the same dominant culture but different regions communicate—interregional communication. To dealing with the intercultural communication situation successfully, one needs intercultural communication competence. Communicators are supposed to get ready emotionally with good motivation and other competence of affect, grasp the knowledge concerning the competence of cognition, and practice the communicative skills in real communication situation. Communication is contextual, so different aspects of intercultural communication competence are required in different context.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are the links between intercultural communication and interpersonal communication?
2. What is intercultural communication? Give examples to illustrate its different types.
3. What makes an effective intercultural communicator?
4. What does intercultural communication competence involve according to your understanding?
5. Can you think of some ways to improve intercultural communication that are not discussed in this chapter?
56 ChapterⅤ Cultural Values
Values serve as one of the most important features of culture. The connection between values and culture is so strong that it is hard to talk about one without mentioning the other. Culture determines people‘s behavior, and values play an important role. In this chapter, we introduce worldview and religions, cultural values and patterns of behaviors, and implications of cultural values to give a general idea of the diverse value orientations.
5.1 Worldview and Religion We humans have value systems to judge what is right or wrong. The value systems develop from certain belief （something believed or accepted as true, especially a particular tenet or a body of tenets accepted by a group of persons）and worldview.
5.1.1 Worldview and Religion Defined Since childhood of human civilization, we have been thinking and seeking some truth, for example: Who are we? Why are we on this earth? What is the meaning of life? Why do we die? Is there eternal life? What is the origin of universe? How do we understand the world? Worldview is the belief that we hold explaining the cosmos, God, the nature of humanity and nature. It deals with a culture‘s most fundamental beliefs, from which values develop. Segregated geographically, the worldview of each community has been immeasurably shaped by its cultural orientations. In that case, understanding a culture‘s worldview contributes a lot to predicting people‘s behaviors and motivations. Worldviews are shaped by a number of cultural channels. The one channel that has a predominant role in transmitting and preserving a worldview is religion. Religion refers to belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers regarded as creator and governor of the universe. Research shows that 80 percent of the world population claim religious affiliation. As one of the most important worldviews, religion is a socially shared of beliefs, ideas, and actions that relate to reality, so people‘s belief systems receiving from their religion condition their motivations and priorities, which, in turn, affect their actions. Thus, a sympathetic understanding of religion gives insight into everyday practice of life in a particular culture.
5.1.2 Major Religions There are numerous religious groups in the world, which understand the world differently though share many similar features. Major religions, such as Christianity, Buddhism and Islam, have sacred writings as a record of the history as well as teachings, authority figures providing guidance and counsel and traditional rituals.
57 a. Christianity
Crucifixion Ascension
The Christian religion is founded on the life and teachings of Jesus. In the two millennia of its history Christianity has been divided by schism, based on doctrinal and organizational differences. Christian Religious Groups Roman Catholic: It refers to the traditional form of Christianity with belief in the spiritual leadership of the pope. This Christian group advocates the infallibility of the pope and the hierarchical nature of the religious order as represented by church organization. Eastern Orthodox: This traditional form does not recognize the authority of the pope. However, its own religious order is significantly hierarchical. Protestant: This group separated from Roman Catholic Church in the sixteenth century. Protestant is divided into many branches, including the major ―revelations‖, Lutheran, Anglican, Baptist, and Presbyterian. They have in common no ultimate authority, such as the pope in Rome. They believe that there is no need for mediation through hierarchy of the church, as is the case with Catholicism.
Teachings The central teachings of traditional Christianity are that Jesus is the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity of God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; that his life on earth, his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension into heaven are proof of God's love for humanity and God's forgiveness of human sins; and that by faith in Jesus one may attain salvation and eternal life. This teaching is embodied in the Bible, specifically in the New Testament, but Christians accept also the Old Testament as sacred and authoritative scripture. Ethical System—the Ten Commandments Christian ethics derive to a large extent from the Jewish tradition as presented in the Old Testament, particularly the Ten Commandments, but with some differences of interpretation based on the practice and teachings of Jesus. 1. Worship no God but me. 2. Do not make images of anything in heaven. 3. Do not use my name for evil purposes. 4. Observe the Sabbath and keep it holy.
58 5. Respect your mother and father. 6. Do not commit murder. 7. Do not commit adultery. 8. Do not steal. 9. Do not accuse anyone falsely. 10. Do not covet another person‘s possessions. Christianity recognizes the importance of work and free ownership of property. Protestants, in particular, see the salvation of the individual through hard work and piety. b. Islam Allah, according to Islam, rules the universe. Everything good or evil proceeds directly from the divine will. This orientation is responsible for fatalism, because whatever happens is the will of Allah（Arab.=the God）. At the core of Islam is the Qur'an (also as Koran), believed to be the final revelation by a transcendent Allahto Muhammad , the Prophet of Islam; since the Divine Word was revealed in Arabic, this language is used in Islamic religious practice worldwide. Muslims believe in final reward and punishment, and the unity of the umma, the ―nation‖ of Islam. Groups Muslims generally fall into either the Sunni or the Shiite branch. The Sunni, who account for 85% to 90% of the world‘s Muslims, believe that Muslim leadership in the early years passed to a series of caliphs, whereas the Shiite Muslims believe that leadership fell to the martyred Ali, Muhammad‘s cousin and son-in-law, and his descendants. Shiites tend to be more ecstatic in religious practice and have messianic expectations of a future imam who will bring justice to the world. Teachings 1. Allah is the only God; 2. Allah sends Angels, spiritual beings, to communicate a message with humans; 3. Muslims believes in the Jewish Bible and the Christian Gospels, however they believe that their message has been lost. The Holy Qur‘an which was dictated to Muhammad is the final book and replaces the other books; 4. Muslims believe in all the prophets God sent to mankind as messengers but the last and greatest prophet was Muhammad; 5. Muslims believe in judgment day; 6. Muslims believe that Allah constructs everything on earth and beyond. God determines who will be saved and who will suffer in hell. Ethical System The major principles of Islam include: 1. Honoring and respecting parents. 2. Respecting the rights of others. 3. Being generous but no squanderer. 4. Avoiding killing except for justifiable causes. 5. Not committing adultery. 6. Dealing justly and equitably with others. 7. Being of pure heart and mind. 8. Safeguarding the possessions of orphans.
59 9. Being humble and unpretentious. Islam stresses fairness and equality in business dealings. Charging of interest is prohibited; so Islamic banking takes the form of something resembling venture capital. The Qur'an says nothing against private property and wealth. How the individuals use the wealth for good is the main issue.
Culture Tips: Five Pillars of Islam
Jews and Christians strive to observe the Ten Commandments, Buddhists attempt to adhere to the Eightfold Path of Buddha, and Muslims follow the Five Pillars of Islam, which outlines specific patterns for worship as well as detailed prescriptions for social conduct, to bring remembrance of God into every aspect of dally life and practical ethics into the fabric of society. Here are the Five Pillars of Islam: 1. Repetition of the creed "There is no God, but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah." The first part of this pronouncement expresses the primary principle of monotheism, and the second element reinforces the Muslim belief in Muhammad, thus validating the Koran. These words are heard everywhere in the Muslim world. 2. Prayer It is a central ritual. Muslims pray five times a day: on rising, at noon, in the midafternoon, after sunset, and before retiring. The prayer ritual is very structured: one must face Mecca, recite a prescribed prayer, and be prostrate, with the head to the ground. These prayers can be offered in a mosque, at home or work, or even in a public place. When observing someone in prayer, you should "avoid staring at, walking in front of, or interrupting" the person. 3. Almsgiving It began as a voluntary activity and has become codified. Muslims are required to give about 2.5 percent of their incomes to the destitute. 4. Fasting It is a tradition observed during a holy month of Ramadan, which is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. During this period, Muslims do not eat, drink, or smoke between sunrise and sunset. The act of fasting is believed to serve a number of purposes. First, it eliminates bodily impurities and initiates a new spiritual awakening. Second, as Nydell, notes "The purpose of fasting is to experience hunger and deprivation and to perform an act of self-discipline, humility, and faith". 5. Pilgrimage Once in a lifetime every Muslim, if financially able, is to make a pilgrimage to Mecca as evidence of his or her devotion to Allah. The trip involves a series of highly symbolic rituals designed to bring each Muslim closer to Allah. c. Buddhism Buddhism began in India in the sixth century B.C. with the teachings of prince Siddhartha Gautama. He led a sheltered life of wealth and luxury until one day he met a
60 beggar, an old man, and one who was dead. His eyes were opened to the harshness of life, and he left his home to ponder the meaning of suffering. He became enlightened after meditating under a sacred boda tree and subsequently taught what he had understood. After Siddhartha Gautama found enlightenment and then devoted his life to helping others achieve Nirvana, the state of spiritual and physical awakening and purity necessary to escape the continuing cycle of suffering and rebirth. Modern Buddhism directs itself to purification of life and consciousness, not to worship of a godlike figure. Its followers are taught to realize truth through meditation and correct living. Teachings Buddha‘s teaching contains four truths: 1. Existence is suffering; suffering is unavoidable. 2. The suffering arises from a desire. Desire is self-defeating as it can never be completely satisfied. Desire causes suffering because it attaches us to the objects（things and persons）. 3. Desire can be suppressed, and therefore the suffering will cease. 4. The process of suppressing the desire is known as eightfold path steps: 1) Right understanding. This ensures that the person is aware of taking full responsibility for his or her actions by being spiritually minded and knowing the four noble truths so spiritual ignorance can be avoided. 2) Right thought. This concerns the emotions, where they are properly channeled through peace, compassion, and freedom from sensuality and away from ill will and cruelty. 3) Right speech. This means the absence of lying, cheating, backbiting, and vain talking. 4) Right conduct. This concerns abstaining from trickery, greed, and harming others and oneself, such as refraining from the use of alcohol and drugs. 5) Right livelihood. This is to abstain from making a living through the suffering of others. 6) Right effort. This means to avoid developing an unskillful mind that cannot resist delusion and craving. 7) Right mindfulness. This requires the use of meditation to prevent craving and delusion. 8) Right meditation. This is complete concentration on a single object and the achievement of purity of thought, free from all hindrances and distractions and eventually all sensations. According to the Buddha, when the mind is still, the true nature of everything is reflected. Buddhists do not believe in a god or gods who created the world. However, they do believe that there is a supreme and wonderful truth that words cannot teach, and rituals cannot attain. Buddhists are not favorably disposed to the notion of free enterprise and the pursuit of material well-being. Seen from a Western worldview, having no desires adversely affects motives for personal enrichment and growth generally. Thus, little support is accorded to free enterprise.
61 5.2 Cultural Values and Patterns of Behaviors Although each of us has a unique set of individual values, there are also values that tend to permeate a culture, called cultural values. Cultural values are derived from the larger philosophical issues that are part of culture's milieu. Cultural values are transmitted by a variety of sources (family, media, school, church, state, and so on) and therefore tend to be broad-based, enduring, and relatively stable. Most important, as is the case with cultural beliefs, cultural values guide both perception and communication. That is, our values get translated into action. An understanding of cultural values helps us appreciate the behavior of other people. Certain behaviors, which are worshipped in one culture, may be regarded as misbehaviors in other cultures. Knowing, for instance, that the Japanese value detail and politeness might cause us to examine carefully a proffered Japanese business card, as the Japanese do, rather than immediately put it into a coat pocket or purse. An awareness of cultural values also helps us understand our own behavior.
5.2.1 Priorities of Cultural Values An individual‘s cognitive structure consists of many values, which are arranged into a hierarchical order that is highly organized, and that exists along a continuum of relative importance. Primary values are the most important, for they specify what is worth the sacrifice of human‘s life. For example, in the United States, democracy and the protection of one‘s self and family are primary values. Secondary values are also quite important. For example, in the United States, the relief of the pain and suffering of others is a secondary value. The securing of material possessions is also a secondary value for most Americans. They care about such values, but they do not hold the same intense feeling toward them as they do with primary values. Tertiary values are at the bottom of the hierarchy. Examples of tertiary values in the United States are hospitality to guests and cleanliness. Although Americans strive to carry out these values, they are not as profound or consequential as values in the other two categories.
Table 5-1 The Top Five Values
Culture Priorities of values American Equality Freedom Openness Self-reliance Cooperation
Swedish Freedom Relationships Cooperation Family Openness
Russian Family Freedom Self-reliance Openness Possession s French Self-reliance Freedom Openness Relationships Time
Japanese Relationships Group Family Freedom Cooperation harmony
62 Korean Family Cooperation Relationships Group Spiritual harmony Indonesian Relationships Family Reputation Cooperation Group harmony Malaysian Family Group Cooperation Relationships Spirituality harmony Filipino Family Spirituality Reputation Cooperation Freedom
Chinese Equality Freedom Family Group Cooperation security harmony Singaporean Relationships Family Openness Cooperation Freedom security Thai Seniority Reputation Relationships Cooperation Authority
Arab Seniority Spirituality Reputation Family Authority
From the table above, we can see the similarity of values of various countries. For instance, each Western nation values freedom and places high priority on openness. However, Easterners emphasize relationships, group harmony, cooperation, family and spirituality. In contrast, Arab and Thais are more inclined to put their trust in senior authorities.
5.2.2 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations Cultural orientation reflects the complex interaction of values, attitudes, and behaviors displayed by its members. Individuals express culture and its normative qualities through the values they hold about life and the world around them. These values, in turn, affect their attitudes about the form of behavior considered more appropriate and effective in a given condition. Over the years, a number of authoritative modalities of cross-cultural dimensions were developed by scholars, among which Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s theory of value orientation is to be discussed here. a. Human nature There are mainly three attitudes toward human nature in different cultural value systems. 1. Human nature is evil but perfectible With the influence of Christianity, Westerners believe that human nature is basically evil. However, the evil nature can be saved by God, if one continues doing good things. 2. Human nature is a mixture of good and evil There is also duality theory, believing that human nature is a mixture of good and evil. In another word, everyone has the good side and bad side. Therefore, there is law system in human society to make sure that men are not doing anything evil. 3. Human nature is good but corruptible This is Chinese belief that ―One is good in nature with different characteristics but similar habits. However, if he is not well educated, his nature changes‖. It is the authority‘s duty to teach or regulate people, so, in China, teachers, parents, and political leaders are respected as virtue models for they are responsible for observing common
63 people‘s morality. b. Relationship to nature People‘s attitudes toward nature vary in different cultures. There are mainly three diverse attitudes as following: 1. Subjugation to nature People believe men are weak, while the nature is powerful. They worship the natural world as God, so they submit themselves to nature. For example, in India, some Hindu sects such as the Bishois do not allow the cutting down of any trees or the slaughter of animals. This is extreme reverence for Nature, which has precedence over human activities. 2. Harmony with nature Chinese people believe the balance and harmony between man and natural world. The essence of the design of Chinese garden is the harmony of nature and architect. This belief permeates in every aspect of Chinese culture. Chinese medicine for example is mainly to adjust the unbalanced human body. 3. Mastery over nature Different from the belief ―subjugation to nature‖, Western people believe they are the masters of the nature. In the Holy Bible, God ordered Adam, man‘s father, to be in charge of everything on the earth. Therefore, they are encouraged to control the natural world. Even human body is taken as something controllable. c. Sense of time Concerning time, there is past, present and future, and people appreciate time differently. 1. Past In past-oriented societies, the cultural memory is rich and deep. People tend to look back at glorious past and believe that tradition is important. 2. Present In present-oriented societies, the past and present exist side by side. People enjoy the present time and whatever they have. 3. Future Future-oriented societies often have a strong belief in process, and people tend to make plans for the future. In the future-oriented societies, time is linear moving in only one direction, while in the past and present orientation society time is cyclical. d. Activity Activity refers to people‘s attitude toward work and human activity. 1. Being-oriented is a non-developmental model of society This means people‘s actions express who they are. Social status and position are more important than what the person does. This is quite static, and people are satisfied with what they have. 2. Being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual good of inner harmony and peace In this culture, people are experienced as changing. The idea is that no one will be the same tomorrow as today. 3. Doing It is the activity that leads to external accomplishment. The goal is to get as much as
64 possible. e. Social relationships Attitudes toward social relationship are also imported to see the different cultural values. 1. Hierarchy This means each person has a position in a hierarchy. People have clearly defined privileges and obligations according to their position in relation to others. China is basically a hierarchy society. 2. Group In cultures with group values, people make decisions by consensus. Each person‘s social identity comes from his or her groups. Loyalty is important in cultures with group values. 3. Individual In cultures with individualistic values, each person is seen as autonomous and separate. Everyone is equal. Self is more important than group.
Case Analysis: At the Restaurant
In cultures such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, among others, people are accustomed to treating everyone else as equal regardless of sex, age, occupation, and so on. This can lead to misunderstandings when interacting with people who, in their culture‘s role hierarchy, are accorded special privileges. In the following intercultural interaction, Mr. Mammen, an East Indian living in the United States, has taken his wife and family to a very nice restaurant. When he arrives at the restaurant, he expects to be seated, even though he has not made dinner reservations. Because of his social standing, he assumes that he will be accommodated.
Mr. Mammen: (Approaches the host) Host: Good evening, may I help you? Mr. Mammen: Yes, my wife and family are here for dinner. Host: Certainly, your name please? Mr. Mammen: I am Mr. Mammen. Host: I‘m sorry; I don‘t see your name on our reservation listing. Mr. Mammen: I don‘t have reservations, but I can make them now. Host: I‘m sorry, but this evening‘s dinner reservation list is completely full. Mr. Mammen: No … I disagree. This restaurant is not full. I see empty tables. Host: Yes, but these tables are reserved for those people who have reservations for this evening. Mr. Mammen: I will make reservation right now. Host: I‘m sorry, but the evening is completely full. Mr. Mammen: I can see that it is not full. I want to see a manager right now! I am here to have dinner!
65 Because of his cultural role position, in Mr. Mammen‘s native culture he probably would have been seated in the restaurant even though he did not have a reservation. In the United States, however, one‘s occupational role will not ensure any special favors outside that occupation. The host of this restaurant is simply following American way of treating everyone; that is, equally. In the illustration above, this has led to conflict and misunderstanding.
5.2.3 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions He identified four dimensions that he labeled individualism, masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. Well later, Hofstede and Bond considered Chinese culture connection, and identified a fifth dimension, a Confucian dynamism labeled long-term orientation versus short-term orientation. a. Individualism versus collectivism In the individualist culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the interests of the group. Individualism is the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. For example, Germany can be considered as individualistic with a high score on the scale of Hofstede compared to a country like Guatemala where they have strong collectivism. In Germany, people stress personal achievements and individual rights. Germans expect each other to fulfill their own needs. Group work is important, but everybody has the right of his own opinion and is expected to reflect those. In an individual country like Germany, people tend to have more loose relationships than countries where there is a collectivism where people have large extended families.
Table 5-2 Individualistic/Collectivistic Cultures Individualistic-Oriented Cultures Collectivistic-Oriented Cultures United States Guatemala Australia Ecuador Great Britain Panama Canada Venezuela Netherlands Colombia New Zealand Indonesia Italy Pakistan Belgium Costa Rica Denmark Peru Sweden Taiwan France South Korea
66 Ireland El Salvador Norway Thailand
The United States can clearly be seen as individualism (scoring a 91). The ―American dream‖ is clearly a representation of this. This is the Americans‘ hope for a better quality of life and a higher standard of living than their parents‘. This belief is that anyone, regardless of his or her status can ‗pull up their bootstraps‘ and raise themselves from poverty.
Case Analysis: Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures
In the following exchange, Mr. Patterson, an American manager working in Korea, is meeting with his supervisor, Mr. Wyman, who is also American. The United States is considered an individualistic culture whereas Korea is considered collectivistic. In this scenario, Mr. Patterson reports to Mr. Wyman about some changes he has made within several of his sales teams. Later, Park Young Sam, their Korean counterpart, enters into the dialogue.
Mr. Patterson: Good morning Mr. Wyman, thanks for meeting with me this morning. As you know, our division has been doing very well this quarter. In fact, our numbers are up across the board. Mr. Wyman: Yes, I‘ve seen your quarterly reports. Nice job! Mr. Patterson: Thanks. In order to recognize their hard work, I‘ve made some changes in our sales teams. I‘ve created team leaders in each group. In our product group, I promoted Lee Young-sam. In the marketing group, I promoted Chun Tae-woo, and in the technology group, I promoted Choi Mino. All of them have been real leaders. I think this idea will really motivate them. In fact, I met with the groups individually and announced the promotions. Mr. Wyman: Good job, Patterson. I can see you‘re really on top of things. Good work.
Two Months Later Mr. Patterson, Mr. Wyman, and Park Young Sam, a Korean manager, are discussing the poor performance of Mr. Patterson‘s sales teams. Mr. Wyman: Well, just look at these dismal results. The numbers for this quarter are way down from last quarter. What‘s happened? Mr. Patterson: I don‘t know. Ever since I introduced the team leader concept the groups‘ productivity has really plummeted. I thought it was a great idea. I guess I chose the wrong people to lead the teams. I‘ll assign new leaders tomorrow. Park Young Sam: Well … you may select new leaders if you desire, but the men you chose were all very capable. However, by elevating them you made them stand out and disrupted the harmony of each group. In Korea, we all work hard for the group … not just one person. Mr. Patterson: I guess I should have just left things as they were.
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Following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups. However, as Park Young Sam mentions, doing so upset the harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the United States, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be motivated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team. Individualism and collectivism are terms that describe whole cultures. But cultures are not pure. Members of collectivist cultures may practice individualistic tendencies while members of individualist cultures may value collectivist ideals. For example, Denmark is a country with both collectivistic and individualistic tendencies. In Denmark, individual freedom is nurtured through a devotion to established traditions and customs. Regarding income and social rank, Danes are staunchly egalitarian. At the same time, however, Danes consider themselves free to be nonconformist and to stand out from the group. In this way, Danes may be at the theoretical midpoint of the individualism and collectivism cultural continuum.
b. Masculinity versus femininity Hofstede found that women‘s social role varied less from culture to culture than men‘s. He labeled as masculine cultures those that strive for maximal distinction between what women and men are expected to do. Masculine cultures place high values on masculine traits and stress assertiveness, competition, and material success. Feminine cultures place high values on feminine traits and stress quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for the weak. It is important to understand that these traits apply to both women and men; that is, both women and men learn to be ambitious and competitive in masculine cultures, and both women and men learn to be modest in feminine cultures. For example, Germany has a masculine culture with a 66 on the scale of Hofstede (Netherlands14). Masculine traits include assertiveness, materialism/material success, self-centeredness, power, strength, and individual achievements. The United States scored a 62 on Hofstede‘s scale. So these two cultures share, in terms of masculinity, similar values. c. Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society‘s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man‘s search for truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute truth: there can only be one truth and we have it. For example, in Germany there is a reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared to neighboring country Denmark (23). Germans are not keen on uncertainty,
68 and by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty. In Germany there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to the minimum and proceed with changes step by step. The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture. Uncertainty avoidance in the U.S. is relatively low, which can clearly be viewed through the national cultures.
Case Analysis: Low and High Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance orientation can be seen in this case. In the dialogue presented below, Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the United States, possesses a relatively low uncertainty avoidance index, while Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high uncertainty avoidance index.
Keiko: Hey, Kelly, let‘s do something tonight. Kelly: All right. Keiko: Please come over to my house and I‘ll cook dinner for you. Kelly: I have invited some friends over to my house for dinner tonight, but I don‘t know if they‘re coming. Keiko: Well … as soon as you know if they‘re coming, let me know. Kelly: I won‘t know until tonight. Keiko: What time? Kelly: I won‘t know until they call me. They‘ll probably call later this afternoon. Keiko: How will you know whether or not to cook enough for everyone? Kelly: Oh, I‘ll make up something on the spot. I like to cook. I‘ll whip up something fast. Keiko: But … what if they don‘t come? Won‘t they call and let you know? Kelly: No … if they don‘t come, I‘ll know that something else came up. I‘ll let you know as soon as I can. Keiko: Maybe we should plan my dinner for some other night.
In the dialogue above, Keiko is confused by Kelly‘s easygoing attitude toward the evening‘s plans. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how will Keiko know how to act?
d. Power distance Hofstede‘s power distance Index measures the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. It suggests that a society‘s level of inequality be endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.
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Table 5-3 Low / High Power Distance Cultures
Low Power Distance Cultures High Power Distance Cultures Australia Malaysia Denmark Guatemala New Zealand Panama Ireland Philippines Sweden Mexico Norway Venezuela Finland Ecuador Switzerland Indonesia Great Britain India Germany Brazil
For example, Germany has a 35 on the cultural scale of Hofstede‘s analysis. Compared to Arab countries where the power distance is very high (80) and Austria where it is very low (11), Germany is somewhat in the middle. Germany does not have a large gap between the wealthy and the poor, but have a strong belief in equality for each citizen. Germans have the opportunity to rise in society. On the other hand, the power distance in the United States scores a 40 on the cultural scale. The United States exhibits a more unequal distribution of wealth compared to German society. As the years go by it seems that the distance between the ‗have‘ and ‗have-nots‘ grows larger and larger. Power distance measures how much a culture has respect for authority. The Arabic-speaking nations, Latin America, Russia, and nearly all of Asia (especially India and China) are high power distance. Most of Europe, USA, Canada, Australia and Israel are low power distance. Japan and Mediterranean-Europe fall in the middle range.
70
Case Analysis: High and Low Power Distance Cultures
Different power distance orientations manifest themselves in interaction. In the dialogue below, Jim Neuman is a U.S. high school exchange student in Guatemala. Coming from a lower power distance culture, Jim is accustomed to interacting with his teachers. Raising one‘s hand in a U.S. classroom is not only acceptable, but encouraged. In Guatemala, a higher power distance culture, the classroom is teacher-centered. In Mr. Gutierrez‘s classroom, there is to be strict order. Teachers are to be treated with deference.
Mr. Gutierrez: This morning I will be discussing some points about Guatemala‘s geography. Guatemala is the northernmost country of Central America (Jim Neuman raises his hand). To the north it borders the countries of El Salvador and Honduras. To the west, its natural border is the Pacific Ocean. In the east is another natural border, the Atlantic Ocean, as well as the country of Belize. Jim Neuman: (Raising his hand and waving it slightly). Mr. Gutierrez? Mr. Gutierrez: Guatemala is called the ―Land of the Eternal Spring.‖ There are all of the same kinds of natural land forms as in Mexico, but are… (Jim Neuman interrupts) Jim Neuman: Mr. Gutierrez, I have a question. Mr. Gutierrez: Jim, stop interrupting, please. Jim Neuman: May I ask a question? Mr. Gutierrez: No! If you continue to disobey, I will punish you! Be quiet!
In the above dialogue Jim does not understand Mr. Gutierrez‘s harsh reprimand. Coming from a low power distance culture, Jim recognizes that teachers have more power than students, but does not see their power as absolute. Jim sees himself as an active participant of the class. After all, for most of his life Jim‘s teachers have encouraged him to speak up in class. Mr. Gutierrez, on the other hand, sees the classroom as his domain, one that he rules absolutely. By raising his hand, Jim demonstrates his insolence toward Mr. Gutierrez.
Features of a high power distance culture 1) It's acceptable for a supervisor to display his authority. 2) Superiors rarely give their subordinates important work. 3) If something goes wrong, the subordinates are usually blamed for not doing their proper job/role. 4) Managers rarely interact or socialize with workers. 5) Teachers are treated respectfully. 6) Local politics are prone to totalitarianism. 7) Revolutions are, or were, common.
71 Features of a low power distance culture 1) Supervisors are expected to treat employees respectfully. 2) Subordinates may do important work, thus having the opportunity to get promoted quickly. 3) If something goes wrong, the superior/authority figure is usually blamed by giving unrealistic expectations or being too strict. 4) Managers socialize and interact with workers more often. 5) Teachers are simply employees. 6) Totalitarianism and revolutions are rare. e. Long-term versus short-term orientation Long-term orientation is the fifth dimension of Hofstede which was added after the original four to try to distinguish the differences in thinking between the East and West. From the original IBM studies, this difference was something that could not be deduced. Therefore, Hofstede created a Chinese value survey which was distributed across 23 countries. From the results, and with an understanding of the influence of the teachings of Confucius on the Eastern Asian countries, long-term vs. short-term orientation became the fifth cultural dimension. Below are some characteristics of the two opposing sides of this dimension: 1. Long-term orientation emphasizes 1) Persistence 2) Ordering relationships by status and observing this order 3) Thrift 4) Having a sense of shame 5) Valuing future 2. Short-term orientation emphasizes 1) Personal steadiness and stability 2) Protecting your ―face‖ 3) Respect or tradition 4) Valuing past and present 5) Fulfilling social obligations In business organizations, cultures that rank high on long-term orientation would likely have employees who reflect a strong work ethic and show great respect to their employers. Those cultures that rank low on the long-term orientation index, according to Hofstede, often do not place a high priority on status. People are concerned with short-term results, and likely to seek immediate gratification of their needs.
5.3 Implications of Cultural Values for Intercultural Communication There are different value orientations in various cultural communities, so an effective intercultural communicator is supposed to understand the value orientation of his counterpart.
5.3.1 Value Orientations By understanding the attitude toward human nature, one can infer other‘s patterns of behavior, because people who believe man‘s nature is evil may behave differently
72 compared with those who believe man‘s nature is a mixture of good and evil or good but corruptible. People who tend to control nature believe man is superior to nature; therefore they tend to study it, which is totally opposite to the ones who are afraid of nature. Chinese culture is not like those, but worships the balance and harmony between nature and man. Understanding this is very helpful to understand Chinese garden and art. People who worship past tend to look back at their brilliant history, so to communicate with them effectively calls for the knowledge of their history and philosophy. Well, people worshipping present focus on the present benefit, so this is something for consideration if one trades with them. There are also people worshipping future, so if one is to communicate with them it is better to make a good plan, for they are organized people.
5.3.2 The Importance of People’s Attitude in Intercultural Communication People‘s attitude toward activity is also important for intercultural communication, for there are people who tend to be static, changing or dynamic. In addition, it is significant to know the social relationships in certain culture. Misunderstanding may result in communicative failure or be regarded as poorly educated or rude. Western people, especially the Anglo-Saxon people, are more individualistic than collectivist that is acceptable by Eastern people. Individualists value individual‘s interest, while in collectivist culture group or nation‘s interest is valued more. High uncertainty avoidance countries tend to have strict and detailed regulations, so if one goes to such country as Singapore, he should pay attention to the rules which may not be regulated home. Cultures with masculinity character are more aggressive. In the intercultural communication context, one is supposed to be more alert to the possible intense competition with people from masculine culture background. However, cultures with femininity pay more attention to relation and harmony, therefore cooperation is stressed in terms of intercultural communication.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Although individuals, even in the same culture, tend to have different value orientations, there are overall values shaped by its culture shared by the members of the group. Understanding a culture‘s value orientation is of great significance in terms of understanding their behaviors. Worldview is the belief that we hold explaining the cosmos, God, the nature of humanity and nature. Owing to the geographical diversity, people have different interpretations about the world. Religion refers to belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers regarded as creator and governor of the universe. As one form of worldview, religion contributes a lot to shaping people‘s value systems. There are three major world religions: Christianity, Islam and Buddhism, whose teachings represent different value orientations. Understanding the core ethical orientation of those religions can help us to
73 get a general idea about their cultural patterns and people‘s possible value orientations. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s Value Orientations are based on the assumptions including human nature, the relation between nature and man, human relation, time, and space. These five aspects work as measurement to group cultures into different categories: a. Human nature 1. Human nature is evil but perfectible 2. Human nature is a mixture of good and evil 3. Human nature is good but corruptible b. Relationship to nature 1. Subjugation to nature 2. Harmony with nature 3. Mastery over nature c. Sense of time 1. Past 2. Present 3. Future d. Activity 1. Being-oriented is a non-developmental model of society 2. Being-and-becoming is a kind of spiritual good of inner harmony and peace e. Social relationships 1. Hierarchy 2. Group 3. Individual Geert Hofstede originally identified four dimensions of culture: individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. Individualistic cultures give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals. Collectivist cultures attach more importance to the needs of the group. The masculinity-femininity dimension measures a culture's dominant values ranging from aggressive masculine traits to nurturing feminine traits. Feminine cultures may have overlapping gender roles and focus on quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for the weak. Power distance describes the distribution of influence within the culture. Uncertainty avoidance measures how much ambiguity people will endure and how much risk they like to take. Those dimensions offer certain measurements for researchers to study a specific culture or do comparative research work from intercultural perspective.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How do religions affect people‘s worldview?
2. Are you a religious person? How does your belief affect your values?
74 3. Use Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck‘s Value Orientations to explain one culture phenomenon.
4. Are you a long-term orientation or short-term orientation? Why?
5. Use the masculinity-femininity dimension to measure your culture.
75 ChapterⅥ Culture’s Influence on Perception
Although we speak different languages, we have the same ways of sensing the world. However, how can it happen that people from different cultures interpret the same object differently? In this chapter, we introduce sensation and the ways of sensing the world, explain the process of perception, and analyze the influence of culture on perceiving.
6.1 Sensing Sensation is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment. Of human senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch including pain, temperature, and pressure are the most studied. During human communication, human beings are bombarded with external stimuli. Human takes in visual stimuli with their eyes, auditory stimuli with their ears, olfactic stimuli with their nose, taste stimuli with their mouth，and tactile stimuli through the skin.
Taste Stimuli Tactile Stimuli (taste of sugar) (cold breeze across face) Visual Stimuli Olfactic Stimuli (color of (Smell of exhaust stoplight) fumes) Human Auditory Stimuli Auditory Stimuli Information (officer‘s police whistle) (car horns) Receptor
Olfactic Stimuli Visual Stimuli (perfume of person waiting next (officer directing traffic) to you)
Tactile Stimuli Taste Stimuli (other pedestrian bumps into you) (flavor of bitter)
Figure 6.1 The Human Information Receptor
The world appears quite different to other forms of life with different sensory ranges: a bat senses the world through ultrasound; a snake does so through infrared light; some fish sense the world through distortions of electrical fields through receptors on the surface of their bodies—none of these directly sensed by humans because humans sense the various stimuli of the outside world through their different nerves.
76 Tactile nerves Optic nerves
Taste nerves Auditory nerves
Olfactic nerves
Figure 6.2 The Human Neurological Process
6.1.1 People’s Senses and Their Limitations Everyone is able to sense the world. The information received about the world comes through our physical senses of sight, sound, taste, and touch. However these senses cannot give the objective reflection of any object due to the effect of culture. At the very moment the stimuli are sensed, they are transferred to a sensory register that holds the unprocessed stimuli for a very short period of time until they can be further processed and interpreted. Information in the sensory register is a nearly literal record of its sensory image. The entry of information into the sensory register is passive and is lost very quickly. Visual sensory memory can be demonstrated by taking a flashlight into a dark room. Holding the flashlight firm and pointing it at a wall, make a circular motion with the flashlight in such a way as to produce a ―circle‖ of light on the wall. You can actually see the complete circle even though the light is only at one physical location on the wall at any time. Tactile sensory memory can be easily demonstrated by loudly clapping hands. The clap can be felt after the completion of the act. a. Sight More information about the external world comes to people through their eyes than through any other senses. There is a reasonable degree of consistency between individuals. However, the mechanism and processes of human sight are far from perfect. It has been estimated that 20% of what is available to be seen is lost or distorted in transit to the human brain. b. Hearing Hearing is one, the auditory, of the traditional five senses, and refers to the ability to detect sounds. Human beings‘ hearing is performed by ears. This is in common with most mammals. Many other organisms also have some forms of hearing, either by some sort of ears, or by other structures, or by a combination.
77 Human hearing is sensitive in the range of frequency of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, though this varies significantly with age, occupational hearing damage, and gender; some individuals are able to hear up to 22 kHz and perhaps beyond, while others are limited to about 16 kHz. Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or referred to as sonic. Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic. There are some evidences of human ability to unconsciously detect ultrasound and infrasound. Infrasound has been found to affect the emotions. Some organ pipes reach as low as 16 Hz, which is ―felt‖ more than ―heard‖. As with sight, there is a normal loss of fidelity estimated at between 22% and 25%. c. Smell The importance and sensitivity of smell vary among different organisms. The average person can differentiate among about 5,000 different smells. But there are inadequacies and problems. It is very unlikely that any two persons will possess the same sensing of the same smell. People might describe a smell as kerosene, while another will describe it as perfume. d. Taste Taste is one of the most common and fundamental senses. The average nonsmoker has about 10,000 different sensations in relation to the basic sensations of bitter, salty, sour, and sweet. Sense of taste is only an approximate capacity at best. For example, in one study, people were asked to taste the sugar mannose: 15% detected no taste; 20% found it sweet; 10% reported it bitter; and 55% said it was sweet. e. Touch Touch may simply be considered as one of five human senses; however, when a person touches something or somebody, this gives rise to various feelings: the perception of pressure (hence shape, softness, texture, vibration, etc.), heat, cold and sometimes pain. Thus the term "touch" is actually the combined term for several senses. Touch cues are powerfully real to human beings. If ―seeing is believing‖ , ―touching is knowing‖. Touch cues are used worldwide to show emotion in settings of childcare, comforting, courtship, and to establish personal rapport. f. Body movement Two senses give people information about their own body movements: kinesthesis and equilibrium. It is believed that if two persons stand at the same place and gaze at the same object they will share a closely similar sensation. Sensation is a neurological process. We are not directly aware of what is in the physical world, but, rather, of our own internal sensations.
6.1.2 Effects of Culture on Sensing Although humans tend to favor visual and auditor sensations, olfactic, tactile, and taste sensations are very informative as well. Although most stimuli come from external sources, information can come from within the human processor as well. During intercultural communication, many of the stimuli come from the cultural, microcultural, and environmental context. No two of us can assume that our sensations are the same. Different stimuli can produce the same sensations, and the same stimuli can produce very different sensations. The route from stimulus to sensation is in part conditioned by culture. For example, people who live
78 in forests or in rural areas can sense crooked and slanted lines more accurately than people who live in urban areas. This demonstrates that the rural and urban groups sense the same event differently as a result of their diverse culture learning. Another case is that food provides energy, but the food which is acceptable in one culture may be avoided in another culture. There are food taboos. Whether people feel delighted or ill at the thought of eating flesh of a cow, fish, dog, or snake depends on what their culture has taught them about food.
Case Analysis: Taboos on Eating Pig
Marvin Harris (1974) asks why there are Jewish and Muslim taboos on eating pig when pig meat is so enthusiastically consumed in many other parts of the world. He says, ―Why should Gods so exalted as Jehweh and Allah have bothered to condemn a harmless and even laughable beast whose flesh is relished by the greater part of mankind?‖ Harris proposes that we consider the role of environmental factors during early Hebrew times and the function of this prohibition in terms of its fit to the local ecology: Within the overall pattern of this mixed farming and pastoral complex, the divine prohibition of pork constituted a sound ecological strategy. The nomadic Israelites could not raise pigs in their arid habitats, while for the semi-sedentary and village farming populations, pigs were more of a threat than an asset. The pig has a further disadvantage of not being a practical source of milk, and of being notoriously difficult to herd over long distances. Above all, the pig is thermodynamically ill-adapted to the hot, dry climate of the Negev, the Jordan Valley, and the other land of the Bible and the Koran. Compared to cattle, goats, and sheep, the pig has an inefficient system for regulating its body temperature. Despite the expression ―To sweat like a pig‖, it has recently been proved that pig can‘t sweat at all. Raising pigs in this context would be a luxury. On the other hand, in ―pig-loving‖ cultures of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, climatic facto9rs including temperature, humidity, and the presence of forest cover (good for pigs) promote pig raising. There, pigs offer an important protein source in people‘s diets that complements yams, sweet potatoes, and taro. In conclusion, Harris acknowledges that not all religiously sanctioned food practices can be explained ecologically, and he allows that food practices do have a social function in promoting social identity.
6.2 Perceiving Perception is the means by which you make sense of your physical and social world. As Singer notes, ―We experience everything in the world not as it is—but only as the world comes to us through our sensory receptors. Although the physical dimension is an important phase of perception, we must realize it is the psychological aspects of perception that help us understand the world. Culture has a much greater effect on the perception process than on sensation itself.
79 6.2.1 The Process of Perception As T. K. Gamble and M. Gamble state, ―Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data in a way that enables us to make use of our world. In other words, perception is the process whereby people convert the physical energy of the world outside of them into meaningful internal experiences. a. Selection Who can you see in the picture?
The first step in the perception process is selection. Within their physiological limitations, people are exposed to more stimuli than they could possibly manage. To use sight as example, people may feel that they are aware of all stimuli on their retinas, but most of the data from the retinas are handled on a subconscious level by a variety of specialized systems. Needs affect what people are more likely to attend to. When they need something, have an interest in it, or want it, they are more likely to sense it out of competing stimuli. When they are hungry, they are more likely to attend food advertisements. Being in a busy airport is a good example. Here people are exposed to many competing stimuli. They can‘t attend to everything. However, if their name is mentioned, they will hear it. b. Organization How many horses are there in the picture?
The second step in the perception process is organization. Along with selecting stimuli from the environment, people must organize it in some meaningful way. Language
80 provides the conceptual categories that influence how its speakers‘ perception is encoded and stored. It has been estimated that human beings are physiological capable of sensing 7.5 million different, distinguishable colors. Anthropologists have discovered that the number of basic color terms used in languages varies from only 2 to 11. Let‘s consider the English words used to refer to color perceptions. Speakers of English divide the color spectrum as shown in the row:
English
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple
But in Chinese we divide the color spectrum, as shown in the row:
Chi Cheng Huang Lv Qing Lan Zi c. Interpretation The third step in the perception process is interpretation. This refers to attaching meaning to sense data, and it is synonymous with decoding. Diverse people can interpret the same situation quite differently. Here, too, the effect of culture is great. For example, as people meet foreigners they can make judgments as to age, social status, educational background, and the like. But people in the U.S. frequently err in guessing the age of Japanese individuals, such as judging a Japanese college student in her mid-20s to be only 14 or 15. The meanings people attach to their perceptions are greatly determined by their cultural background. For example, Western people like dogs, and they believe dogs are human‘s best friends. They love dogs as pets. In English, people say ― lucky dog‖ , but in Chinese we say ―幸运儿‖. In some countries, dogs are delicious food, such as Korea. In 2002, the World Cup was held in Japan and Korea, and people argued whether to ban eating dogs in Korea at that time, because Western people believe dogs are friends, not food.
6.2.2 Effects of Culture on Perceiving Communication takes place whether the nonverbal behavior is intentional or unintentional. It even takes place when the verbal or nonverbal behavior is unconscious. As long as it is observed, meaning is assigned to it. When a receiver of signals perceives those signals, decides to pay attention to them as meaningful, categorizes them according to categories in his or her mind, and finally assigns meaning to them, communication has occurred. Culture can affect the process of perception when communication takes place. When communicators come from different cultures, however, not only the meanings, but also the mental categories are very different. In a classic study by Bagby, Mexican children from a rural area and children from a dominant culture in the United States viewed, for a split second, stereogram in which one eye was exposed to a baseball game while the other was exposed to a bullfight. In the
81 main, the children reported seeing the scene according to their culture; Mexican children tended to report seeing the bullfight and American children tended to report the baseball game. It is obvious that the two boys made selections based on their cultural background. They tended to see and report what was the most familiar. Another experiment demonstrating how culture influences perception is that Caucasian mothers tended to interpret as positive aspects of their children‘s speech and behavior that reflected assertiveness, excitement, and interest. Navajo mothers who observed the same behavior in their children reported them as being mischievous and lacking discipline. To the Navajo mothers, assertive speech and behavior reflected discourtesy, restlessness, self-centeredness, and lack of discipline; to the Caucasian mothers, the same behaviors reflected self-discipline and were, therefore, beneficial for the child. How we perceive the elderly is also affected by culture. In the United States, the culture tends to value the youth and reject growing old. In fact, young people view elderly people as less desirable interaction partners than other young people or middle-aged people. This disapproving view of the elderly is not found in all cultures. In the Arab, Asian, Latin American, and Native American cultures, old people are perceived in a very positive light. In Africa, it is believed that the older one gets, the wiser one becomes━life has seasoned the individual with varied experiences. It is clear from these few examples that culture strongly influences our subjective reality and that there are direct links among culture, perception, and behavior. As Triandis noted, ―culture factors provide some of the meaning involved in perception and are, therefore, intimately implicated with the process.
6.2.3 Cross-cultural Difference in Sensation and Perception Data from some studies suggest that people differ across cultures in their ability to gather incoming information. John Berry and his associates outline four explanations for intercultural differences in the perception of sensory stimuli: a. Conditions of the physical environment Regarding conditions in the physical environment, in the early 1970s, Reuning and Wortley conducted a cross-cultural study on auditory acuity. In their comparison of Kalahari Bushmen, Danish, and American subjects, they found less hearing loss in the Kalahari sample than in the Danish or American samples, particularly among older subjects. Reuning and Wortley attributed their findings to low levels of ambient in the Kalahari desert region. They also cited other studies that found a slower loss of hearing in nonindustrialized societies. This may suggest that environmental noise, such as that heard in industrialized societies, may have a negative effect on hearing. b. Indirect environmental conditions In his study, Wyndham attributed an indirect environmental factor, poor nutrition, as the reason for slower dark adaptation among black South African miners than among whites. Wyndham found that it took longer for the eyes of black miners to adapt to the dark conditions than for white miners. Wyndham suggests that many of the black mine workers might suffer from forms of liver ailments, which, in turn, were associated with nutritional deficiencies in early childhood.
82 c. Genetic differences Berry and his associates argue that genetic factors seem to account for red-green color-blindness, taste-blindness, and the ―alcoholic flush‖ phenomenon. Many studies have demonstrated that the frequency of red-green color blindness is much lower in non-Caucasian groups than among Caucasians. Approximately 30 percent of all Caucasians are taste blind to certain substances that taste bitter to Africans and native American Indians. The alcoholic flush, a reddening of the face after consuming only a few alcoholic drinks, is much more common in Asian populations than in Caucasians. d. Cultural differences in how people interact with their environment People‘s experience and enculturation with the environment play a role in sensory stimulation. People can be conditioned to prefer and select some stimuli over others. Children are taught to pay attention to certain kinds of stimuli. Africans, for example, tend to excel in auditory tasks, whereas Europeans tend to excel in visual tasks. Cultural groups are taught to favor some sensory receptors over others. Learned experiences affect how people perceive their surroundings. Culturally learned experiences filter how we see, hear, smell, feel, and taste the world around us.
6.3 High Versus Low Context Another way that culture affects perception is whether the culture is a high-context or low-context culture. Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are high context. In low-context cultures, verbal messages are elaborate and highly specific. Logic and reasoning are expressed in verbal messages. For example, in low-context culture, when meeting a stranger, people‘s verbal communication with that person is highly explicit simply because they have no shared experience. In high-context cultures, most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person. High-context cultures decrease the perception of self as separation from the group.
Table 6-1 Level of Context
High Low China Switzerland Japan Germany Korea North America, including the U.S. American Indian Nordic states Most Latin American cultures Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Cultures, such as Greece, Turkey and Arab states
83
Tea Ceremony The Japanese tea ceremony is an excellent example of a high-context experience. The ceremony unites the host and guest in a concert of harmony. Nothing is spoken; all the meanings are in the context of shared experience, the teahouse, the flower arrangement, the calligraphy, and the ceramics. Here people celebrate the beauty in the mundane, the superiority of spirit over matter, and tranquility with busy lives. A typical response from a low-context observer is, ―hurry up and drink the tea‖. People‘s social experiences over coffee take little meaning from the context and more from the conversation－the words. The communication styles of high-context and low-context culture are also different. Read the following case and compare the differences between Chinese and Western style communication.
Case Analysis: Chinese Style—Nonverbals
A very distinguished 75-year old Chinese scholar and statesman was being honored by a university in the Eastern United States. He and his wife had just made the 21-hour flight from Beijing, and they were met at the airport by some friends who exclaimed, ―You must be very tired!‖ His response was ―keyi‖, which means ―It‘s OK.‖ Of course he was tired! He was an old man taking 24 hour‘s flight. But the context — the meeting in an airport at night, the fact of his long journey, his age, his slightly glazed eyes — conveyed the obvious information. It was unnecessary to put it into words. Yet it is not hard for a Western imagination to suppose the situation in reverse. A traveler to Beijing gets off the plane after 24 hours of continuous travel and, in response to the same comment, ―You must be tired!‖ he replies ―Tired! I‘ve never been so tired in my life! I‘ve been sitting on planes or in waiting rooms for 24 hours and wondered if my legs would work again! My eyes are so gritty with sleep they feel like the Gobi desert was in that plane! ‖. Members of low-context cultures put their thoughts into words. They tend to think if thoughts are not in words, then the thoughts will not be understood correctly or completely. When messages are in explicit words, the other side can act upon them. But high-context cultures have fewer tendencies to trust words to communicate. They rely on context to help clarify and complete the message.
84 In high-context cultures like China, face is conceptualized in two ways: lian (face) and mian or mian zi (image). While these are often used interchangeably, they have different meanings. Chinese scholar Hu Shi defines lian as something that ―represents the confidence of society in the integrity of ego‘s moral character, the loss of which makes it impossible to function properly with the community‖. Mian stands for the kind of prestige that is emphasized in the U.S., a reputation achieved through life. Ting-Toomey (1985) has proposed that high-context cultures, such as China, with a greater concern for interdependence and inclusion, tend to use indirect-face negotiation and express more mutual-face or other-face maintenance, whereas low-context cultures, such as the United States, with a greater concern for privacy and autonomy, tend to use direct-face negotiation and express more self-face maintenance.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective In the past few years, "magic eye" pictures have become popular in the United States. These pictures at first seem to be just a lot of wavy lines. However, if they are looked at in the right way, a hidden picture can be seen. Some people can see the hidden image right away; others take much longer. A few frustrated people never learn to see them. Even though everyone who looks at them sees the same thing (i.e., wavy lines hiding a picture), there are differences in what one can see. Imagine how our perceptions might perceive (i.e., wavy lines or a picture). In a similar way, cultures affect how people perceive the world. Everyone is able to sense the world in the same way, but cultures teach us how to process and understand the information obtained from our senses. The information received about the world comes through our physical senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Our sense of touch also allows changes if we have more acute senses or another kind of sense such as a dolphin's ability to use sonar. To some degree, cultures affect what people sense, but they have a much greater influence on perceptions. The process of perception can be divided into three stages: selection, organization, and interpretation. In the selection stage, we choose what sensory information to pay attention to. Our senses constantly provide us with an enormous amount of information. We cannot be consciously aware of it all. Therefore, we must choose only the most relevant information for us. Our cultures teach us what is relevant. For example, we pay close attention to the sounds of our native language, but it is more difficult for us to hear and tell the difference between the sounds of foreign languages. Organization is the second stage of the perception process. When we organize information, we place it into categories. Some cultures may categorize certain things in great detail; others might not, the Eskimo culture, for example, has many categories for snow. Interpretation is the third stage in the perception process. In this stage, we give meaning to or "decode" the information that we have selected and organized. People can interpret the same information in completely different ways. A classic example is the glass with water in it: is it half empty or half full? Perception can be different in high-context and low-context cultures. High-context cultures generally use fewer words to communicate and rely on shared cultural experience to communicate their meaning. Low-context cultures rely more on words to communicate meaning. The United States is a low-context culture.
85 Cultural differences in interpretation can be quite dramatic, as in the case of food. What one culture enjoys eating, another culture may find disgusting. It is important to remember that food choice and preparation can be understood in relation to other aspects of culture. The physical geography of a country has a strong effect on culture. It influences clothing, housing, and food. Japanese people, for example, live on a group of islands and consequently eat a lot of fish because it is a food source that is easily acquired. North Americans eat a lot of beef because the United States has plenty of land to graze cattle.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What is your preference in terms of sensing the outside world?
2. How does environment affect people‘s sensation?
3. What is the food taboo in your family, hometown or country? Can you explain the possible reasons for that?
4. If an animal that you adore very much is taken as daily food, what do you think?
5. How can people react differently to the same thing? Explain it with your own idea.
86 ChapterⅦ Intercultural Communication Barriers
In intercultural communication settings, it is easy to become trapped by invisible walls or barriers to communication. Although these walls are hard to perceive, they are not imaginary. The only way to ―escape‖ is to learn to see them and avoid making communication mistakes that come from them. In this chapter, the major barriers, such as anxiety, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice, language problems are discussed, along with several solutions dealing with the intercultural communication barriers.
7.1 Common Problems and Barriers in Intercultural Communication As we have already known, communication is the exchange of information. Communication does not always result in understanding because it is a symbolic behavior. The meaning of the message, verbal or nonverbal, based on the communication participants‘ cultural background, varies accordingly for each person. Intercultural communication occurs when a person from one culture sends a message to a person from another culture. Miscommunication occurs when the receiver does not receive the sender‘s intended message. The greater the difference between the sender‘s and receiver‘s cultures is, the greater the problem for successful intercultural communication. This chapter deals with some common problems and barriers in intercultural communication. Those lists of barriers are anxiety, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudice, and language problems.
7.1.1 Anxiety Anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not be totally present in the communication transaction. For example, people may have experienced anxiety on their first day on a new college campus or in a new job. They may be so conscious of being new—and out of place—and focus so much of their attention on that feeling that they make common mistakes and appear awkward to others.
Case Analysis: Unnecessary Anxiety or Not?
Sugawara (1993) surveyed 168 Japanese employees of Japanese companies working in the United States and 135 of their U.S coworkers. Only 8% of the U.S. coworkers felt impatient with the Japanese coworkers‘ English. While 19% of the Japanese employees felt their spoken English was poor or very poor and 20% reported feeling nervous when speaking English with U.S. coworkers, 30% of the Japanese employees felt that the U.S. coworkers were impatient with their accent, and almost 60% believed that language was the problem in communicating with the U.S. coworkers. For some Japanese workers, anxiety over speaking English properly contributed to avoiding interactions with the U.S. coworkers and limiting interactions both on and off the job to
87 other Japanese only.
7.1.2 Assuming Similarity Instead of Difference To assume people know how someone else is thinking based on how they see things is called projected cognitive similarity. It occurs when they think they know someone else‘s perceptions, judgments, attitudes, and values because they assume others are like their own. Assuming similarity instead of difference refers to the assumption that people are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person's situation is more similar to your own situation than it in fact is. It reflects both a natural and a common process. For instance, a Chinese assumes his or her Japanese colleagues are more like Chinese than they actually are. Based on this assumed similarity, one often acts inappropriately and ineffectively in intercultural situations. When communicating with people from other cultures, the individual, assuming similarities when differences exist, is likely to treat them as "my people" and to assume there is only one way of doing things: that is "my" way. The basis of assumed similarity is a subconscious parochialism, related to ethnocentrism. Assuming similarity particularly handicaps people in intercultural communication. This can lead to disrupted communication and even conflict. In 1997, a Danish woman left her 14-month-old baby girl in a stroller outside a Manhattan restaurant while she was inside. Other diners at the restaurant became concerned and called New York City Police. The woman was charged with endangering a child and was jailed for two nights. Her child was placed in foster care. The woman and the Danish consulate, explained that leaving children unattended outside cafés is common in Denmark while parents were eating inside. The Danish woman had assumed that Copenhagen is similar to New York, so that what is commonly done in Copenhagen is also commonly done in New York.
Case Analysis: Cultural Misinterpretation
Mr. Wang, the Chairman of Board of Directors of a Chinese firm, told a story on CCTV program "Dialogue" of how he once almost lost a valuable Canadian employee working for him in Vancouver. He emailed every day to the Canadian, inquiring for the index number he was most concerned about. To his great astonishment, his Canadian employee turned in his resignation after a week. Mr. Wang was puzzled how he could do that to him as he gave such great attention to his job. A Chinese employee would have been more than happy if his or her boss had showed such great concern for him or her. He then found out that, unlike Chinese employees, the Canadian took what meant great concern to Chinese as distrust. But Mr. Wang assumed unconsciously that the Canadian was more similar to his Chinese employees than he actually was and treated him just as he treated any Chinese employee.
7.1.3 Ethnocentrism
88 A universal response to differences in cultures is: ―of course they‘re different, but we‘re better.‖ Most cultures assume their own values and practices are superior to those of the rest of the world. Any group of people tend to see their own group and their culture as the best, as of the common sense and view other people habitually, unconsciously and inevitably by using their own customs as the standards for judgments. Because of its habitual nature, ethnocentrism is hard to overcome and often causes miscommunication in intercultural contacts. In addition, prejudice and discrimination usually result from ethnocentrism. a. Ethnocentrism defined Ethnocentrism means, by the definition of the Webster's Third New International Dictionary: (1) a habitual disposition to judge foreign peoples or groups by the standards and practices of one's own culture; (2) a tendency toward viewing alien cultures with disfavor and a resulting sense of inherent superiority. English-speaking cultures encode this assumption of superiority by using words such as backward and primitive, when actually those evaluations are one cultural view, seen through specific cultural windows, not an absolute assessment. A village in Bangladesh that lacks most of the technologies taken for granted in the workplaces of other parts of the world－telephones, electricity, automobiles, airplanes－may have a more sophisticated conflict-resolution process than the technologically advanced cultures of the world. So who is ―backward‖? Such assumption of superiority may lead to ethnocentrism. People everywhere tend to assume their own culture is right and normal, and to assess all other cultures by how closely they resemble their own. Most people, especially those with little experiences of other culture, believe their own culture is the center of human experience. The further from one‘s own a culture is, the more it seems to belong to the fringe. Conversely, the closer another culture is to one‘s own culture, the truer it seems to be. Another example is Eurocentric ethnocentrism. This would include, for example, recognizing only Western holidays in schools or basing curriculum only on Western history, music, and art. The terms ―the West‖ and ―the East‖ themselves have been labeled Eurocentric ethnocentrism. Asia is east of Europe, but to call Asia ―the East‖ makes its identity dependent on Europe. b. Various forms of ethnocentric attitude As a major barrier to intercultural communication, ethnocentrism may take one form or another in intercultural contacts. The following opinions are typical ethnocentric attitudes: 1. Most other cultures are backward compared with my culture. 2. My culture should be the role model for other cultures. 3. Other cultures should try to be more like my culture. 4. Most people from other cultures just don't know what's good for them. 5. I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures. 6. Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture. 7. People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere. 8. Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture. 9. I do not cooperate with people who are different.
89 10. I do not trust people who are different. 11. I dislike interacting with people from different cultures. 12. Other cultures are smart to look up to my culture. 13. Other people are much the same as my people. 14. Our way of doing things is the only right way.
Case Analysis: You Are Well Blessed
At a dinner given to an American couple from the sister university before they left for the USA in 1991, the Chinese host helped some food to the American lady with the words: Please eat more, Mrs. X, so that you'll put on weight. As a close friend of the American lady, his interpreter didn't interpret his remarks literally and told him that Mrs. X was on a diet to lose weight and that the last thing she would do was to eat more to put on weight. But the host did not take notice of what she said and asked his guests if they had been to Xi'an and if they had heard of Yang Guifei, the concubine of an emperor of the Tang Dynasty. The answer was affirmative. The host then proceeded to tell them that Yang Guifei was one of the four great beauties in Chinese history. She was not thin but plump. She was very handsome. He proceeded to explain: "There are two kinds of beauties in China: the slim beauty and the plump beauty." To reinforce his point, he said, "So putting on weight 'is not a bad thing at all. In Chinese, it is also expressed as 'You are well blessed'. It is used as a compliment because it is a blessing, a sign of being healthy and wealthy in China." The American guests laughed at this and said politely: "But we Americans worship thinness". Before long, he went to America to visit the sister university. When the old friends met again, he made the compliment: "You've put on weight, Mrs. X." This time it was interpreted literally and the lady was so embarrassed that in her letter to one of her friend, she wrote: "Mr. …played the trick again when he was here. He doesn't know the American saying: 'You can never be too rich; you can never be too thin.' No American would like to hear his compliment". Obviously, he didn't mean to be rude or insulting. The miscommunication was not caused by his lack of knowledge of the cultural differences, but by his judgmental ethnocentric attitude toward cultural differences.
7.1.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice Stereotyping and prejudice represent another series of problems that are often easier to talk about than to arrest, for they often lie below the level of awareness. Both of these problems are rooted in our compulsion to make in-group and out-group distinctions. Although in most cases, stereotypes and prejudice work in tandem, it serves our purposes to examine them separately. a. Stereotypes The word stereotyping was first used by journalist Walter Lippmann in 1922 to describe judgments made about others on the basis of their ethnic group membership. Today, the term is more broadly used to refer to negative or positive judgments made
90 about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. Psychologists have attempted to explain stereotyping as mistakes some people‘s brains make in the perception of other people that are similar to those mistakes their brains make in the perception of visual illusions.
PARIS IN THE THE SPRING
Figure 7.1 What we see, the most readily available image, is what we expect to see. We can reject any information that challenges that expectation. In Figure 7.1, a sign appears to read ―Paris In The Spring‖, but it actually has an extra ―the.‖ As we don‘t expect to see a double ―the‖ we do not perceive it. In a like manner, if we expect that heads of corporations are tall, slender, white males, we don‘t see the disabled, women, and people of color in that group. Stereotyping is a natural process. Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes. Human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. The world outside often is too big, too complex, and too transitory for us to know in any detail. Stereotyping is helpful in reducing ambiguity and uncertainty. Hence, each of us stereotypes every day as one way of making sense out of Stereotyped that world and employs existing stereotypes as a way of deciding what Chinese we think of the group or person we are confronted with. We learn northerners stereotypes as a part of our culture, as Rogers and Steinfatt (1999) point out: standardized mental pictures held in common by members of a group make it easier to decide what behavior is appropriate and what behavior to expect. Stereotypes are used by all groups. Until recently, the sign for foreigners in Japanese Sign Language is the index finger making a circular motion around the eye denoting ―round eye‖. Although stereotypes are considered as being negative judgments, they can also be positive. Some people hold positive stereotypes of other individuals based on their professional group membership. For example, some people assume that all doctors are intelligent and wise. A group of people in the United States who conduct business with persons outside the United States to give one-word descriptors of their impression of people of other nationalities. Some of these stereotypes follow:
Table 7-1 Stereotypes of Different Nationality
Culture Image English conservative, reserved, polite, proper, formal
91 French arrogant, rude, chauvinistic, romantics, gourmets, cultural, artistic Italians demonstrative, talkative, emotional, romantics, bold, artistic Latin Americans mananã attitude, macho, music lovers, touchers
Case Analysis: Stereotyping
Akira is an exchange student from Japan who is spending a semester at an American University. Jim is a student at the same university. Jim was born and raised in Milwaukee. Jim and Akira meet for the first time. Below is an excerpt from their initial interaction. Jim: Hi. (Thinks to himself —―Man, he‘s so short, he‘s just like all the other Asians I‘ve seen.‖) Akira: Hi. I‘m Akira. (Thinks to himself —―Wow, he‘s pretty tall.‖) Jim: I‘m Jim, are you a student here? (Thinks to himself —―He‘s probably a math major.‖) Akira: Yes. (Thinks to himself —―He probably thinks I‘m Chinese.‖) Jim: Are you from Japan? (Thinks to himself —―He probably wonders if I drive a Honda. I wonder if he realizes how many Americans are unemployed because of all the imported Japanese cars.‖) Akira: Yes, I am. (Thinks to himself—―What will he ask me now. These Americans are so impolite.‖) Jim: Yeah? That‘s cool. How do you like it in the United States? Have you been here before? (Thinks to himself —―He must love it here … it‘s got to be better than his country.‖) Akira: I like it here a lot. (Thinks to himself —―I‘d better not tell him that the food here is horrible. It might upset him.‖)
In this brief exchange, both Jim and Akira engage in categorization and stereotyping. Initially Jim categorizes Akira based on conspicuous differences (―Man, he‘s short‖), familiarity (―He‘s probably a math major‖), and projection (―I wonder if he realizes how many Americans are unemployed because of all the imported Japanese cars‖). Jim also stereotypes Akira as good in math. Akira categorizes and stereotypes Jim in much the same way.
Case Analysis: A Tragedy in U.S. History
Stereotypes are harmful when they are used as rigid preconceptions and are applied to all members of a group or to an individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations. A tragedy in U.S. history resulted from this kind of stereotypes. During World War Il, anti-Japanese propaganda convinced many people in the United States that the Japanese were cunning, tricky and willing to fight to the death to win. The negative stereotype was mainly formed by news accounts carried by the media about the war. However, it created an atmosphere in 1942 in which the U.S. federal government put
92 110,000 citizens of Japanese ancestry into internment camps. Japanese-Americans were forced to leave their homes, with their business, and their possessions behind because the stereotype portrayed them as threats to the U.S. country. b. Prejudice Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Prejudice involves an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people. An example of prejudice would be the attitude that women should not be in positions of power because they are not as logical or competent as men. Prejudice, again like stereotypes, can take many forms, ranging from those that are almost impossible to detect to those that are very obvious. For example, some people believe that members of a given cultural group are inferior according to some imagined standards and that the group members are not worthy of decent treatment. Whatever form it might take, the root of prejudice is seeing differences as a threat. Prejudiced attitudes prevent people from seeing reality accurately and often lead to the indecent treatment of others. For instance, a prejudiced employer might say: "Workers from rural areas are not as competent as those from cities." or "Employees from other cities than Guangzhou are difficult to communicate with." Prejudices like these can create avoidance and interpersonal conflict—and prevent effective communication between culturally different people. Prejudice often leads to discrimination, which is overt behavior. Prejudice is a negative attitude. In the United States, only 15% of the poor are African-American. Most of the violent criminals, drug users, prostitutes, drunks, illiterates, high school dropouts, juvenile delinquents, jobless, and poor in the United States are neither African-American nor Hispanic but White. The majority of African-American and Hispanic are none of the above, yet the press, gives African-Americans and Hispanics predominantly negative coverage.
Case Analysis: An Interesting Experiment
An interesting experiment was conducted to identify the presence of prejudice. E.S. Bogardus asked people to rate on a scale from 1 to 8 how favorably they felt toward groups of people according to their national identity. The most favorable, number 1, indicated a willingness to have a daughter or son marry someone of that group; an 8 meant not being willing to allow someone of that group into the country, let alone into one‘s home. The interesting thing was that the list of more than 60 nation－ Italians, Czechs, Moroccans, Nigerians, Thais, and Turks, for example—included three fictitious ones: Danireans, Pireneans, and Wallonians. Bogardus found that the people who were more unwilling to admit members of other nations into close relationships were unwilling to admit the unknown nations‘ members also. And conversely, tolerance toward many nations included tolerance toward the three unknown and nonexistent nations. This finding implies that intolerant people are intolerant across the board, while tolerant people are tolerant even of unknown nationalities.
93 c. Racism Racism is any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. Racism involves not only prejudice, but also the exercise of power over individuals based on their race. Racism can be conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional. Racism exists worldwide. The harmful nature and damaging effect of racism are too obvious. Racism can not only prevent communication but also lead to physical attack when carried to its extreme. Unfortunately, racism of one form or another are still very common, though most people are against any racism against any particular group or individual, may it be the poor, or the disabled, or others. d. The role of communication When studying stereotypes, prejudice, and racism, people may be struck with the role that communication can play in either spreading the beliefs or stopping their spread. Ethnocentrism, prejudice and racism are commonly viewed as being rooted in the child‘s early socialization and fostered in communication with other people who are prejudiced or racist. The persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism Researchers have suggested various reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism: 1. Socialization Ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism are learned. Many prejudices are passed on from parents to children, sometimes in subtle messages such as ―we don‘t associate with people like that‖ or ―be careful when you are with them‖. 2. Social benefits Expressing an ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism may bring support from others who share that prejudice. It is difficult for people to break away from the prejudices of their families and friends, as rejecting the prejudice can be perceived as breaking away from the association. 3. Economic benefits Ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism can be strong when there is direct competition for jobs. When Chinese immigrants worked on building the transcontinental railroad across the United States when jobs were plentiful, Chinese were perceived as hardworking, industrious, and law-abiding. But after the railroad was completed and jobs dwindled, Chinese were perceived as criminal, crafty, and stupid. 4. Psychological benefits Ethnocentrism, stereotypes, prejudice and racism can be used to generate a feeling of superiority and to explain a complex world in terms of simple causes as in saying ―those people are the source of all our problems.‖ Hate speech Out of such realization that speech can cue prejudiced behavior in others, some have attempted to restrict that type of speech often referred to as hate speech. Hate speech includes threats or verbal slurs directed against specific groups or physical acts such as burning crosses or spray–painting swastikas on public or private property.
94 7.1.5 Language Problems Language is a set of symbols by a community to communicate meaning and experience. The idea that culture and language are connected may not be obvious at first. When people learned their native language, they also unconsciously learned their culture. However, if a person learned another language or grows up speaking more than one language, the person may become aware of the different ways that each language allows a speaker to perceive and describe reality. These differences in perception are differences in culture, so the relationship between language and culture is that they are like mirrors to each other. Each one reflects and is reflected by the other.
Case Analysis: Misinterpretation of Common U.S. Phrases
American Phrase Foreign Interpretation ―See ya later.‖ To schedule a definite future contact. ―Y‘all come for another visit.‖ Bring more people next time. ―Y‘all‖ interpreted to mean ―more.‖ ―You‘re on a roll.‖ I llook lliike a hot dog or hamburger? ―Let‘s use a shotgun approach.‖ Shoot our competition? ―Let‘s organize this like a Chinese menu.‖ Very offensive to Chinese counterparts. ―Send me your response ASAP.‖ Have no idea what you‘re talking about. You‘re going to take a bath now? ―I have to find a bathroom.‖ Which is the better part? ―It‘ll take me the better part of the day to Morning, midday, or evening? finish this report.‖ Do we need a blanket? ―We need to cover all the bases.‖
a. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis The relationship between language and culture is described in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis holds that the structure of a language affects the perceptions of reality of its speakers and thus influences their thought patterns and worldviews. Later, the hypothesis was divided into the linguistic determinist interpretation and the linguistic relativity interpretation. The view from linguistic determinist is that language structure controls thought and cultural norms. Each of people lives not in the midst of the whole world but only in that part of the world that their language permits them to know. Thus, the world as each of them knows it is to a large extent predetermined by the language of their culture. And the differences between languages represent basic differences in the worldview of diverse cultures. Linguistic relativity is more scientific. It holds that culture is controlled by and controls language. Language provides the conceptual categories that influence how its speaker‘s perceptions are encoded and stored. b. Translation problems
95 When cultures speak different languages, translation is critical — but always imperfect. Five translation problems become barriers to intercultural communication. Axtell (1991) identifies a number of U.S. translation problems: 1) General Motors automobile "Nova" in Spanish means "doesn't go"; 2) Pepsi-Cola's "Come Alive with Pepsi" when translated in Taiwanese is "Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave"; 3) Electrolux, a Swedish manufacturer, used "Nothing sucks like an Elecrolux," which failed because of the slang meaning of suck in the United States; 4) Bich pens were originally named Bich by their French manufacturer. The word or concept may not have an exact duplicate in the other language. All languages do not have the same verb tenses and many verbs have multiple meanings. In English, for example, the verb "get" can mean to buy, borrow, steal, rent, or retrieval. When a language is the person's second language, slang, euphemisms, and cultural thinking patterns can cause problems. 1. Vocabulary equivalence First is the lack of vocabulary equivalence. Languages that are different often lack words that are directly translatable. One frequently quoted example of the lack of vocabulary equivalence is from World War II. The Allies had issued the Potsdam Ultimatum demanding the surrender of the Japanese military to end the war. At a press conference, Prime Minister Suzuki was asked for his opinion. He responded, ―the government does not see much value in it. All we have to do is mokusatsu it‖. The Japanese cabinet had carefully chosen that word to convey their intended meaning. Later, Japanese cabinet officials said they intended to convey a bland ―no comment‖ at that time, as these are negotiating a surrender and more time was required for discussions. Unfortunately, the word mokusatsu can mean anything from ―ignore‖ to ―treat with silent contempt‖. Western translators used the latter meaning and the Potsdam Ultimatum was then considered to have been rejected. After-the-fact reasoning argues that translation led to the continuation of the war and the first use of atomic weapons. 2. Idiomatic equivalence The second barrier to successful translation is the problem of idiomatic equivalence. The English language is particularly replete with the idioms. Take the simple example of ―the old man kicked the bucket‖. Native speakers know that this idiom means the old man died. If the sentence is translated word for word, the meaning conveyed would be literally that the old man kicked bucket——quite different from the intended meaning. It‘s easy to think of many idioms in common use in spoken U.S. English that can be misunderstood. This is one reason why English is a difficult language to learn as a second language. However, learning the idioms of a language can be an effective way of learning the culture. 3. Grammatical-syntactical equivalence Third is the problem of grammatical-syntactical equivalence. This simply means that languages do not necessarily have the same grammar. Often people need to understand a language‘s grammar to understand the meaning of words. For example, words in English can be nouns or verbs or adjectives depending on their position in a sentence. In English, people can say ―book a place‖ and ―place a book‖. An example of
96 grammatical-syntactical equivalence is the following story: A devout Catholic, David drove south from Minnesota to celebrate the papal visit to Mexico. Overcome with emotion upon seeing His Holiness, David ran through the streets of Mexico City shouting ―Viva la papa! Viva la papa!‖ David‘s newfound Mexican friend, while sharing in his excitement, thought it prudent to correct David‘s Spanish. ―The Spanish word for ‗pope‘ is ‗el papa‘,‖ the Mexican explained. ―You‘re shouting ‗Long Live the Potato‘‖. 4. Experiential equivalence Fourth is the problem of experiential equivalence. If an object or experience does not exist in one‘s culture, it is difficult to translate words referring to that object or experience into that language when no words may exist for them. Think of objects or experiences that exist in one‘s culture and not in another. ―Department store‖ and ―shopping mall‖ may be as difficult to translate into some languages. 5. Conceptual equivalence Fifth, the problem of conceptual equivalence refers to abstract ideas that may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. For example, people in the United States have a unique meaning for the word freedom. The meaning is not universally shared. Speakers of other languages may say they are free and correct in their culture, but the freedom they refer to is not equivalent to what others experience as freedom in the United States. One way to improve translation is to use back translation. Back translation involves first translating into the second language, then translating back into the first language, and then comparing the result to the original.
7.2 Overcome Intercultural Communication Barriers Perhaps a substantial way to conclude these barriers in intercultural communication is to give some helpful suggestions on how to interact with people from different cultures.
7.2.1 Raise Awareness First of all, one should be aware of the importance of the competence to overcome intercultural communication barriers. a. Self-awareness This first competence requires people to move from being culturally unaware to becoming aware of the way their own lives have been shaped by the culture into which they were born. This should also be accompanied by learning to respect and be sensitive toward others who are culturally different. b. Consciousness of one’s values and biases and their effect This second competence requires a conscious awareness of one‘s own values and biases and how they affect the way one interacts with culturally different people. This can at least help people monitor their ethnocentrism. c. Necessity of becoming comfortable with differences It is not possible nor is it healthy for individuals to adapt themselves to every value system in which they find themselves. Individuals should not be afraid to recognize and admit that there are differences. In addition, they should feel comfortable with the
97 awareness that they may not be able to correctly behave in an appropriate manner according to other values. d. Sensitivity to circumstances Being sensitive to circumstances implies that human beings are not infallible and that there may be certain cultural groups in which some people have a very hard time interacting with others, instead of denying this difficulty, sometimes it is wiser to refer the client (or business partner) to someone else who is better able to serve the client.
7.2.2 Obtain Knowledge Knowledge refers to the cognitive information needed to have about the people, the context, and the norms of appropriateness that operate in a specific culture. Without such knowledge, it is unlikely that one will be able to interpret correctly the meanings of other people‘s messages, nor will he be able to select behaviors that are appropriate and that would allow him to achieve his objectives. Consequently, he will not be able to determine what the appropriate and effective behaviors are in a particular context. ―Knowledge‖ here is divided into culture-general and cultural-specific knowledge. The former refers to specific theories or themes that are commonly encountered in intercultural interactions regardless of the cultures involved. It provides insights into the intercultural communication process abstractly and can therefore be a very powerful tool in making sense of cultural practices. The latter refers to customs, etiquettes, and rules that are specific to the various cultures. Such information is used to understand a particular culture. In addition, knowledge of one‘s own cultural system will definitely help one to understand another culture.
7.2.3 Enhance Motivation Motivations include the overall set of emotional associations that individuals have as they anticipate and actually use in intercultural communication. As with knowledge, different aspects of the emotional terrain contribute to the achievement of intercultural competence. Human emotional reactions include feelings and intentions. The former refers to the emotional or affective states that people experience when communicating with someone from a different culture. Feeling involves one‘s general sensitivity to other cultures and one‘s attitudes towards the specific culture and individuals with whom one must interact. The latter refers to the goals, plans, objectives and desires that focus and guide one‘s choices in a particular intercultural interaction. If one‘s intention is positive, accurate, and reciprocated by the people with whom one is interacting, one‘s intercultural competence will likely be enhanced.
7.2.4 Master Skills The last competence involves mastering skills which refers to how well the behaviors are regarded as appropriate and effective are actually performed. Understanding the theories and concepts in intercultural communication does not automatically lead to culturally sensitive behaviors. Individuals who are aware of the need to take swimming lessons, understand the basic ideas behind swimming (knowledge), and who have overcome emotional barriers and who are strongly motivated are still unable to swim! The
98 prior steps are necessary, but alone are insufficient to make competent swimmers. In the same way, people who are emotionally prepared and knowledgeable about intercultural issues are not necessarily competent communicators until they also have actually practiced the appropriate skills. ―Skills‖ can also be divided into cultural-general and cultural-specific skills. Cultural-general skills, such as the ability to tolerate ambiguity, manage stress, establish realistic expectations, and demonstrate flexibility and empathy are helpful tools in all types of intercultural adjustments. Cultural-specific skills, however, cover a much larger area. These skills can be learned and developed mainly through people‘s daily lives and business practices. The key element here is experience. In short, overcoming intercultural communication barriers requires sufficient awareness, knowledge, motivation, and skills. As has been mentioned earlier, each of these components alone is insufficient to achieve to overcome intercultural communication barriers, but taken together, a synergistic, holistic and effective experience can be gained.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective There are six barriers to communication—anxiety, assuming similarities instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudice, and language problems. Anxiety is the state of feeling nervous, which can affect communication when you focus so much on your own feelings that you do not pay attention to what other people are telling you. Anxiety may also affect your ability to communicate your ideas to others, for you pay too much attention on your uncomfortable feelings. Assuming similarities instead of differences is a natural thing to do if you do not have any information about a culture. Assuming that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to ignore important differences. Ethnocentrism is negatively judging another culture by your own culture’s standards. To make ethnocentric judgments is to believe that the ways of your own culture are better than those of others. Stereotyping is assuming that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group. An example of a stereotype is the belief that one group of people is stupid or that another produces good athletes. Prejudice is feeling hatred for or expressing suspicion toward people who belong to a certain group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. A specific kind of prejudice, racism, refers to having feelings of hatred for or expressing suspicion toward all members of a particular race and denying this group its rights. Hate speech refers to hostile words and/or actions that people say or do against a certain group because that group is different. Stereotypes, racism, and prejudice continue to exist because of socialization and the apparent social, economic, and psychological benefits that come from it. Unique aspects of cultures are reflected in the languages spoken by their population. Language can become a barrier to communication when these unique aspects interfere with translation. It can also become a barrier when groups of people are forced to speak a
99 language they do not want to. Five elements that typically cause problems in translation are the lack of equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts. One way to avoid translation problems is to back translation, which is to first translate the concept into one language and then translate it back into the original language. Doing so makes it possible to check a translation for accuracy.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How can you overcome anxiety when you go to a strange culture?
2. Illustrate some stereotypes and prejudice you hold toward certain people or groups.
3. Does globalization contribute to racism or decrease it?
4. What are the positive and negative aspects of ethnocentrism?
5. How does your culture differ from English in terms of concepts?
100 ChapterⅧ Verbal Intercultural Communication (I)
Language serves two important cultural functions: preserving culture and transmitting culture. In terms of communication, language plays a significant role in human interaction. In this chapter, verbal communication is introduced from the aspect of the relation of culture and language concerning the cultural influence on language and that of culture and communication style concerning the cultural influence on communication.
8.1 Language and Culture ―Verbal‖ means ―consisting of words‖. Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language. Every language consists of a set of rules, such as phonology (a system of sound), morphology (a system for creating words), syntax (a series of rules for combining words into meaningful sentences), and semantics (a system that relates words to meaning). However, mastering all those rules is still not enough for effective communication, for language and culture cannot be separated. Culture and language are intertwined, shaping each other, as in the chicken and egg dilemma—which came first, the language or the culture? Languages are not neutral codes and grammatical rules. When selecting words, forming sentences, and sending a message, either oral or written, one also makes cultural choices.
8.1.1 Culture and Word Meaning Word differences are obvious in various languages. The relation between word and its meaning is arbitrary. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live in a casa. In Thai, we live in a ban. We name the same object differently. If we come across unfamiliar English words while reading, we may look up English-Chinese dictionary for the Chinese meaning, for we presume that corresponding Chinese words can explain the English words. However, it is not always the case. a. Words with different associated meanings Language reflects, as well as describes, the environment we live in, history, custom, values and so on, which are diverse in different cultures. So words that refer to the same object may have different associated meanings. The culturally-loaded words and expressions are good examples showing the cultural influence on the meanings of words. Phoenix is a kind of bird, who burns itself to ash and reborn from that every 500 years, so it is the symbol of renascence; Chinese phoenix is a different kind of bird, who never burns itself, but the symbol of fortune and queen. Another example is dragon. Dragon, in Western culture, is a dinosaur-like animal, usually the keeper of treasure or princess. Dragons are the symbol of evil, so warriors and heroes are supposed to kill them to prove their courage; Chinese dragons are so different from Western ones. They are the God of rain and symbol of emperor.
101 b. Words without counterpart in another language Language reflects culture, and cultural diversity leads to the lack of vocabulary equivalence, concept equivalence and experience equivalence. Therefore, there are a lot of words that we fail to find the counterparts in another language. For example, the English word ―hippies‖ （嬉皮士） , ―motel‖ （汽车旅馆）, Chinese word ―麻将‖, ―客气‖. Although there seems to have Chinese words to explain ―hippies‖ and ―motel‖, people without English cultural information still don‘t know what they are. Similarly, the meaning of ―客气‖ can‘t be covered by ―polite‖. c. Confusing translation Cultural distinctions lead to different connotations, so some expressions are really confusing when translated. For example: ―三个代表‖—―three-represents‖ , ―政治学习‖ — ―political study‖, ―单位‖—―unit‖; ―equalitarian‖ — ―平均主义/平等主义‖, ―materialism‖ — ―物 质主义/唯物主义‖. d. Proverbs A proverb is much matter decocted into few words. Proverbs bear age, and he who would do well may view himself in them as in a looking glass. A proverb is a short sentence based on long experience. Proverbs are the daughters of daily experience. 美丽的季节是春天，美丽的语言是谚语。 谚语是语言中的花朵。 泉水最清，谚语最精。
Those are proverbs describing proverbs, from which we know that proverbs are fruits of wisdom. Proverbs reflect religion, morality, values, life experience. Chinese culture has been greatly influenced by Confucian philosophy emphasizing the social relationships. The preference can be seen in many Chinese proverbs. 你敬人一尺，人敬你一丈。 恭敬不如从命。 严于律己，宽以待人。 受人之托，忠人之事。 In contrast, there are more proverbs describing the preference of independence, freedom and self-fulfillment in Western culture.
God save the one who save himself. Do as you would be done by. Human blood is all of a color. Every man is a king in his own house. Every man should take his own.
8.1.2 Culture and the Way of Saying Things One of the obstacles of intercultural communication is assuming similarity instead of difference. In French, we say ―Bon jour‖, while we don‘t say ―Good day‖ in English. This is not due to the diversity of language, but the diversity of culture. People, from different
102 cultural backgrounds, speak different languages in different ways. a. Forms of address The forms of address in every language reflect social status of the speaker, of the addressee, or of the relation between them. Traditional Chinese culture is based on the family-based social structure. In Chinese, we have the word ―国家‖ comparing country to a big family. The emperor is Father ruling his son-people（子民）. Under such cultural background, kinship terms have extended and generalized usage. A salesgirl may address the customer as ―brother‖ or ―sister‖, though they don‘t know each other at all. Culture develops, so do customs. ―Comrade‖ used to be a popular term in Chinese, but now people seldom use it for it implicates a ―gay‖. Instead, terms such as Miss and Sir catch up again. Social status and hierarchy weigh greatly in Chinese culture. In that case, people use such way ―surname+profession or title‖ as formal address, for example, ―王老师‖，“李局 长”. Besides, some occupational terms are also used as address terms in China. In class, Chinese students usually say ―Good morning, teacher‖ and teacher responses ―Good morning, students‖. English teachers may expect students to say ―Good morning Sir/Miss/Madam‖ or ―Mr./Miss+surname‖. Sir and Madam are used in formal settings. Mr. and Mrs. should be used along with surname, while Miss is for unmarried ladies. Americans usually use names calling each other. They are sociable people, and first name-based address has the function of building up intimacy. Besides ―title+surname‖ is also used, such as Dr. Davis, Professor Brown, but they don‘t say Bureau Director Smith. b. Greetings and farewells Chinese culture is relation-oriented. Maintaining or promoting relation calls for something interpersonal, so it is quite acceptable in China to greet each other by asking private questions like ―Where are you going?‖ or ―Have you had your breakfast?‖ English people have a very strong sense of privacy. The Chinese way of greeting is inappropriate to them. When they greet people they say ―Hi‖, ―Hello‖, ―How are you?‖ ―Good-bye‖ or ―Bye-Bye‖ is acceptable both in English and Chinese, and it is a very formal way. English people also say ―See you‖, ―See you later‖, ―Good night‖, and ―Have a nice day‖. Those expressions convey less personal concerns than Chinese routines such as ―Walk slowly‖, ―Stay longer‖. In intercultural communication settings, it is inappropriate to use or interpret those daily routine expressions directly, for culture shapes different ways of saying things. c. Compliments and responses to compliments Compliments and praises are of great social functions. You use them to greet people, express thanks or congratulations, encourage people, soften the bitterness of criticism, start a conversation or even overcome embarrassment. Concerning compliments and compliment responses, the pragmatic rules are various in different cultures. In American culture, the topic of compliments ranges from a person‘s talent, competence, achievement, appearance, house to car, or even wife/husband and child. Their response to compliments is positive.
103 Typical English compliments and responses
Man: You look so beautiful today.
Woman: Thank you, you are so sweet.
In Chinese culture, the topics for compliments and responses to compliments are different. Generally, Chinese man is shy to compliment a woman she is beautiful directly. This case may happen between lovers, and the response from the girl would be a smile and blush. Westerners praise a man‘s wife to show respect, while, in China, it is inappropriate or even rude to do so.
Three are three frequently used sentence patterns in English. 1. NP is/look （really） ADJ 名词性短语 系动词 形容词 Your skirt looks really beautiful.
2. I （really） like/love NP 我 喜欢 名词性短语 I （really） like your car.
3. PRON is （really） a ADJ NP 代词 是 形容词 名词性短语 That is really a nice car. The first sentence is used for compliments most often. Adjectives such as nice, good, beautiful, pretty, great are popular. As for the responses to compliments, Americans tend to accept and Chinese tend to avoid accepting directly. d. Taboos and euphemism Taboo refers to some words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons. A lot of taboo words come from religion. For instance, in Holy Bible, the third commandment is ―Thou shalt not speak my name in vain‖, so religious words, such as God, devil, heaven, hell, Christ, Jesus, damn, are taboo words that are supposed to be avoided. Owing to the history of racial discrimination in the United States, such words as nigger, niggra or niggruh, are taboo words. Nowadays, people usually say ―blacks‖ or ―colored people‖ instead. Some words and expressions reveal gender discrimination. In English, certain animals are used to refer to woman, for example, bat（贱妇，丑妇，妓女）, dog（丑妇， 没成就的女人，妓女）, cat（恶妇，可卑的女人）, cow（子女多的女人，肥胖而不整洁的 女人）, mutton（放荡的女人，作少妇打扮的老妇人）.
104 In addition to taboo words, some topics are supposed to be avoided while conversing with English people. Those taboo topics include: How old are you? (American people usually ask young girls such a question. They don‘t ask this question when they believe that woman is above thirty.) How much do you make? What‘s your income? How much did that dress cost you? Are you married or single? So you are divorced. What was the reason? Are you a Republican or a Democrat? Do you go to church? What‘s your religion? Are you Catholic? Westerners value privacy at great extent, like the saying ―A man‘s home is his castle‖. Asking too much about their private affairs is considered offensive. In real conversation, people may reveal personal information naturally, sharing experience and opinions, but it is inappropriate to seek information intentionally. Since we know that certain words, topics or actions are taboos, what should we do if we have to refer to them? When people have to express or mention unpleasant words or thing, they use euphemism. Euphemism means the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive. For instance, ―death‖ is a universal taboo word. Speak of the devil, and he will appear. We can find lots of substitutes for ―death‖ in both English and Chinese: In English: go (e.g. He‘s gone.), pass away, depart, be in the heaven, be with God, pay one‘s debt to nature, go to a better world, etc. In Chinese: 去世，逝世，故去，寿终正寝，作古，谢世，与世长辞，去见马克思，etc. Euphemism is also used to describe physical shortcomings, old age, certain functions of the body and sexual acts. For example: plain（for ugly）, heavy set or on the heavy side（for fat—usually when referring to men）, slender（for skinny）, senior citizen or advanced in age（for old people）. There are lots of mild expressions about ―going to the toilet‖, such as go to the ladies‘ （gentlemen‘s）room, rest room, washroom, the John or even bathroom（not for bathing of course）. We don‘t have to explain why we go there. Once we have to explain, we say ―to wash hands‖, ―because nature calls‖, ―to relieve oneself‖, and ladies may say ―to powder her nose‖.
Case Analysis: Commonly-Believed Traditional British Superstitions and Taboos
One should make a wish on a falling star. When someone sneezes, you should say ―God bless you!‖. If your friend has found a four-leaf clover, you should say ―You‘ll have good luck.‖
105 If someone sees only one cricket in his house, it must be very lucky. People in the west would avoid walking under a ladder, because they think this will bring them bad luck. When people talk about a good fortune they have just had, they will say ―knock on wood‖ or knock on the wooden objects to wish that they can keep this good luck. If one breaks a mirror, he/she is believed to be unlucky. His/her bad luck will come soon. A black cat cannot be given as a present, because the black cat is regarded as an omen of bad luck. It is unlucky to have a black cat cross the road in front of you. To get out of bed on the wrong side you will have a bad day. It will bring rain to kill a spider. Handling toads will cause warts. Cattle lying down indicates rain.
8.2 Culture and Communication Style Language is an important way of communication, so it is assumed that we can communicate successfully if we master the language. However, it is not the case. Culture influences the style of communication at great level. When we are in an unfamiliar country, it is wise to watch and learn the way native people communicate first.
8.2.1 Culture and Conversation Pattern Conversation is an important way of communication, whose procedure is very different in various cultures. Once you find out the rules of the conversation routine in that culture, it becomes very easy and pleasant to follow or even direct the conversation. Otherwise, it may become awful experience with bitterness of frustration. a. When to talk British people usually don‘t talk to strangers. When they wait for bus at the bus station or at other public places, they don‘t have casual conversations with strangers to kill time. If strangers talk to them, for example, asking questions, they reduce the conversation to the shortest length with ―yes or no‖ or ―It‘s a nice day‖. In some cultures, people have natural conversation with strangers. When they meet people from silence preference culture, they stereotype them as proud, uncooperative and stupid. Those who prefer not to talk with strangers may think the talkative group as pushy and untrustworthy. b. What to say Topic choosing is also a problem, while talking to people from foreign cultures. In China, it is very natural to ask questions concerning family background, education, occupation and other personal information in conversation. In English speaking countries, it is inappropriate to do so, especially when talking to people you are not familiar with. Stories and anecdotes seem to be universal popular topics, which are easy to entertain others. However, you have to make sure you are not talking about taboos or
106 other offensive topics.
Table 8-1 Appropriate and Inappropriate Topics of Conversation in Selected Countries
Country Appropriate topics Topics to avoid Australia professions money cars religion skiing, music divorce/separation Germany traveling abroad the Second World War international politics questions about personal life hobbies soccer Great history politics Britain architecture money/price gardening Falklands War France music price of items books person‘s work sports income the theatre age Japan history The Second World War culture art c. Turn-taking conventions Conversation goes on smoothly under the correct direction of turn-taking conventions. Trouble comes in intercultural settings, for there are different rules of taking turns in conversation. American way of conversation is like table tennis match, the ball goes back and forth to push the conversation developing. People use verbal codes, for example ―what do you think about that?‖ or ―John was there at that time, and he knows more about that‖, or non-verbal codes such as eye contact, gestures, or paralanguage (the pace of speech, tone and so on) to indicate the turn of next speaker. Japanese way is very different from the American one. Their conversation style has the characteristics of high context culture. During the conversation, there are pauses and silence, because they don‘t interrupt the speakers and keep silent for reflection.
8.2.2 Direct vs. Indirect Communication Style It is not scientific to say this culture has direct communication style or indirect communication style, for most cultures have both of the styles. However, the degree to which it is elaborated differs from culture to culture. a. Direct communication style With direct communication style, speaker expresses his intention（need and desire） openly and directly. Direct styles are often used in low-context, individualistic cultures.
107 Cultures such as the United States, England, Australia, Germany, prefer the direct style. In the United States, people often use the expression ―for sure‖, ―no question‖, ―without doubt‖. Verbal precision and self-expression are valued. It is not a joke that Americans are so direct that they even announce to an entire room when they are going to use bathroom. In intercultural business negotiation settings, American negotiators are mission-driven, and they express their offers openly. They may say ―Let‘s go to the point‖, or ―speak up, what do you think?‖ They like to be openly challenged for the negotiation, and they think it is quite normal if they run into conflict with any party concerned. Their style of negotiation comes from their direct communication preference. b. Indirect communication style In an indirect communication style, which is often seen in high-context and collectivistic cultures, speakers usually hide or hint their intentions during interaction. The use of ambiguity and vagueness is the characteristic of an indirect style. In high-context cultures, there is no need to tell every message. True understanding is implicit, coming not from words but from actions in the environment. Moreover, indirect communication prevents embarrassing moment that might threaten the face of either speaker. Many Asian countries, such as China, Japan, use indirect style. Saving face and keeping harmony in social relationships are highly valued in these cultures, so they avoid direct expressions of one‘s need and desire to lessen the possibility of conflicts. Compared with American negotiators who follow the direct style, Chinese negotiators usually look forward to long-term partnership. Generally there is a slow start to ―warm up‖, and then it is followed by some tentative suggestions. Chinese negotiators don‘t expect any open conflict for whatever reasons, and they are always trying to ―save face‖ for both sides, which is typical feature of indirect communication style. c. An intercultural conversation: direct and indirect speaking To some extent, direct and indirect modes of communication are universal. Indirect modes, for example, are often used out of simple politeness. But direct modes of communication are seen most often in cultures like the United States, whereas indirect modes are seen in many Asian cultures, such as Japan, Korea, and China. The following dialogue takes place between young couples who have been dating for a short time. The man is a U.S. student, and the woman is from an Asian country. Note the misunderstanding that results as a consequence of the use of direct and indirect modes of communication.
Case Analysis: Conflicts Between Direct and Indirect Communication Style
Jim: You know, Michiko. I really enjoy the time we spend together. I really like you. I‘ve
been so happy since we meet.
Michiko: Hmmm, thank you.
Jim: I mean, I feel like I‘ve learned so much about you and your culture.
Michiko: Yeah, it‘s very interesting.
108 Jim: I‘m so glad you came to the United States. Do you like it here?
Michiko: Well, it‘s pretty big. It‘s very nice here.
Jim: What do you think about American?
Michiko: I don‘t know. Maybe I haven‘t been here long enough to know.
Jim: You must think something.
Michiko: Well, I‘d probably have to think about it.
Jim: I mean, do you like us?
Michiko: Well, I don‘t really know that many Americans yet.
In all likelihood, Jim is not going to get much of an answer from Michiko. She continues, throughout the dialogue using rather general answers to Jim's very specific and direct questions about her feelings toward the United States. Michiko might believe that Jim is being far too direct and invading her privacy. Besides, the fact that she has traveled halfway around the world should be indicative of her desire to be here. There must be something about the United States that attracts her. Michiko cannot possibly say something critical about the United States because she would lose face, as would Jim, as a native. She relies on imprecise and indefinite answers.
8.2.3 Elaborate, Exacting, and Succinct Communication Style The elaborate, exacting, or succinct communication style deals with the quantity and /or volume of talk. a. Elaborate communication style An elaborate communication style emphasizes flashy and embellished language, which can be seen in many Arabian, Middle Eastern, and Afro-American cultures. Many Middle Easterners like using metaphors, similes, and adjectives in everyday conversation. African-Americans, too, prefer personalized, exaggerated and spontaneous styles of interaction. b. Exacting communication style An exacting style means that people say no more or less than what is needed. Americans prefer an exacting style in interaction consistent with ―just the facts‖ mentality. c. Succinct communication style A succinct style is characterized by the use of concise statements, understatements, and even silence, which can be found in China, Japan and some native American cultures. These cultures value concise talk and silence. Chinese idioms 祸从口出（Disaster emanates from careless talk.）and 沉默是金（Silence is gold.）express such opinion.
8.2.4 Personal and Contextual Communication Style Comparing with direct and indirect communication style, personal and contextual communication style rely more on culture. People tend to use personal communication style in individualistic culture, while contextual style is employed more often in collectivist
109 culture. a. Personal communication style The personal communication style amplifies the individual identity of the speaker. A personal style relies on the use of first-person pronouns in sentence construction. For example, there is only one form for the second person in English. No matter we talk to a friend, stranger, or President of the United States, we use ―you‖ in stead of ―您‖ in Chinese or ―vous‖ in French. Moreover, American people treat each other with informality, and they seldom use formal titles. The most frequently used words are ―I‖ and ―you‖. b. Contextual communication style A contextual style stresses one‘s role identity and status. The social context decides word choice, especially personal pronouns. For example, when using Thai language, one must look carefully at the situation, including the status and intimacy level among communicators, in order to decide what form of pronoun to use. The Japanese use a contextual style, and their language includes an elaborate system of honorifics. Honorifics are linguistic forms that communicate respect according to one‘s rank and the rank of the people they speak to. For example, the informal form of the verb ―to go‖, iku, is used when speaking with someone to whom one is intimate. If the person he speaks to is a stranger or is older, then the politeness marker, -masu, appears, as in iki-masu. If the person he speaks to is socially superior, then the honorific form of the verb ―to go‖, irassyaru, is used.
Case Analysis: Japanese Workers Get Word from on High: Drop Formality By NORIMITSU ONISH HIROSHIMA, Japan, Oct. 30, 2003—The change in policy came directly from Tokyo headquarters of Elpida Memory, a semiconductor maker. Elpida’s 1,366 workers were told to stop addressing each other by their titles and simply to add the suffix—san to their names. Many Japanese have dropped the use of titles to create a more open—and, they hope, competitive—culture. This change mirrors other changes in Japanese society, experts say. Equality minded parents no longer emphasize honorific language to their children, and most schools no longer expect children to use honorific language to their teachers. What is clear is that the use of honorific language, called keigo, to elevate a person or humble oneself, has especially fallen out of use among young Japanese. Japanese, perhaps more than any other language, has long taken account of social standing. In Japanese, there are many ways to say I or you, calibrated by age, circumstance, gender, social position and other factors. Verb endings, adjectives and entire words also shift according to the situation. These days, companies hope the use of-san—less cumbersome than the longer titles traditionally used—will allow workers to exchange ideas more freely and make decisions more quickly. In 2001, 59 percent of companies with more than 3,000 employees had adopted such a policy, compared with 34 percent in 1995, according to the Institute of Labor Administration of Japan.
110
8.2.5 Instrumental and Affective Communication Style It is certain that communication is a way to realize communicators‘ goal or mission. From this aspect, communication is instrumental. While considering the different preferences of achieving goals, some cultures are mission-oriented and some are relation-oriented. a. Instrumental communication style An instrumental communication style as sender-based and goal-outcome based. The instrumental speaker uses communication to achieve some goal or outcome. Instrumental messages are constructed to persuade and influence others and to maintain one‘s face. Instrumental-style users usually believe that communication should end after some goal has been attained. American men use instrumental style more often than American women do. American women usually use collaborative and cooperative talk. b. Affective communication style An affective communication style is receiver and process oriented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the communication but with the process. In cultures where an instrumental style predominates, the burden of understanding often rests with the speaker. The speaker carefully chooses and organizes his or her messages in order to be understood by the audience. In cultures where an affective style is used, the responsibility of understanding rests with both parties—the speaker and listener. Affective speakers carefully watch for the reactions of their listeners. For example, French people prefer to establish a mood or feeling, under which circumstances intuition is required. Chinese communication is more affective than instrumental. Chinese people usually avoid direct argumentation during the process of communication. According to Confucian philosophy, the primary function of communication is to initiate, develop, and maintain social relationships. In China, it is important to engage in small talk before initiating business and to communicate personalized information. During a conversation, Chinese do not calculate what they give or receive. To do so would remind people of immediate personal profits, which conflicts with the Confucian notion of mutual faithfulness.
Case Analysis: Instrumental and Affective Communication Style In the following dialogue, Mr. Benton has traveled to China to introduce Mr. Yeh-Ching to a new operating system. Mr. Benton is coming from a culture that values an instrumental style of speaking, so he wants to get right down to business. Mr. Yeh-Ching, on the other hand, wants to establish a relationship before discussing any business possibilities. Mr. Benton and Mr. Yeh-Ching are meeting at a local restaurant in Beijing.
Mr. Benton: Ah, Mr. Yeh-Ching. I‘ve been waiting awhile. Had you forgotten about our
meeting?
Mr. Yeh-Ching: Good morning, Jerry, it is so nice to see you.
111 Mr. Benton: Well…I‘m glad you are finally here, I have all the material you need to see
about the new computers we‘re installing. Here is our plan…
Mr. Yeh-Ching: Jerry, have you seen much of our city?
Mr. Benton: Well…I really don‘t have much time for sightseeing. This isn‘t a vacation,
you know. Business, business, business. My boss expects me to close this
deal today and be back in New York by weekend. So, here‘s my idea for
installation.
Mr. Yeh-Ching: Our city is so beautiful and full of history. Please allow me to arrange a
tour for you. We can go together.
Mr. Benton: I‘d love to, but you know…business is business.
Mr. Yeh-Ching: Can I arrange a tour for you? My staff would be delighted to meet you.
Mr. Benton: No thanks, but I‘d like to show you something. Look at these new
configurations for the computers we‘re installing. Now…notice that—
Mr. Yeh-Ching: Here is a menu. This restaurant has some very interesting Chinese
dishes that I would like for you to try.
Mr. Benton: Oh, I grabbed a bite to eat at the Hilton. Go ahead and eat, though. I can
show you the production schedule. Chances are pretty good that Mr. Yeh-Ching will not buy Mr. Benton‘s new computer system. To an affective speaker like Mr. Yeh-Ching, Mr. Benton is too concerned about his business and not concerned enough about the personal side of business; that is, relationships. Affective speakers are sometimes suspicious of people who refuse to get to know each other before striking a deal.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective
Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language. It is agreed that language helps in communicating with people from different backgrounds. However, people may be less aware that cultural literacy is necessary in order to understand the language being used. In case of selecting language without being aware of the cultural implications, one may at best not communicate well and at worst send the wrong messages. Therefore, words in themselves do not carry the meaning. The meaning comes out of the context, the cultural usage. Although people use dictionary to explain one language with another language, words of different language don‘t mean the same thing because of the cultural influence
112 on word meaning. Cultures influence not only vocabulary, but also the way of expression. Knowing the different ways of addressing, greeting, giving compliments help greatly in intercultural communication. Taboo refers to some words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons. When avoiding mentioning taboo words or embarrassing situation, we employ the strategy of euphemism. We use the expressions that can lessen the sense of unpleasantness. Communication style is also influenced by cultures. There are mainly four styles introduced in this lesson: direct vs. indirect; elaborate, exacting, and succinct; personal vs. contextual; and instrumental vs. affective. The major characteristics of direct style are that people use explicit messages, and this style is popular in individualistic and low-context cultures. The major characteristics of indirect style are that people use implicit messages, and this style is popular in collective and high-context cultures. Elaborate style stresses the high quality of talk, and people employ moderate uncertainty avoidance, which can be found in high-context culture. Exacting style uses moderate amount of talk with low uncertainty avoidance, and this style is common in low-context culture. Succinct style values low amount of talk, or even silence. This style can be found in high-context culture with high uncertainty avoidance. Contextual style focuses on the speaker and role relationships. People with such communication style stress high power distance. This style is popular in collectivist and high-context culture. Personal style focuses on the speaker and personal relationships. Such style can be found in individualistic and low-context culture. In affective style preferred culture, language is process-oriented and receiver-focused. Collectivist and high-context cultures prefer this communication style. In instrumental style preferred culture, language is goal oriented and sender focused, which can be found in individualistic and low-context culture.
Table 8-2 Communication Style Used in 10 Selected Countries
Country Direct Elaborate Contextual vs. Affective vs. vs. Personal vs. Indirect Succinct Instrumental Australia Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental Canada Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental Demark Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental Egypt Indirect Elaborate Contextual Affective England Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental Japan Indirect Succinct Contextual Affective Korea Indirect Succinct Contextual Affective Saudi Arabia Indirect Elaborate Contextual Affective
113 Sweden Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental United States Direct Exacting Personal Instrumental
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Proverbs can reflect cultural values. Give some examples of the proverbs in your culture that reflect cultural values different from English ones.
2. Animals may mean differently in various cultures. Compare the different implications of certain animals in Chinese and English.
3. Why is foreign language translation so different? Try and think of ways in which translation difficulty can be minimized.
4. Based on your own experience and observations, list five ways in which Chinese people and American people differ in their communication styles.
5. Besides the cultural difference, man and woman‘s communication style is also different; give some examples to illustrate the difference.
114 ChapterⅨ Verbal Intercultural Communication (Ⅱ)
The diversity of language is definitely an important barrier for intercultural communication, not only in terms of speaking but also writing. Various communication styles can also be seen from writing styles. In this chapter, some writing conventions as well as writing strategies are introduced from international business perspective.
9.1 The Importance of Writing in Intercultural Business Communication Since the cultural impact on verbal communication has been fully discussed, which involves both oral and written forms; here it is necessary to focus on the cultural influence on written communication in intercultural business communication.
9.1.1 The Importance of Writing There are two ways by which we send messages, speaking or writing. Compared with listening, reading, or speaking, writing takes the least share of the business hours— around 9 percent. But, as far as its effect is concerned, writing plays an important role in business communication. Firstly, writing is more accurate, more convincing, more economical, and more efficient when audience is large. A written format is appropriate when the information is complex, when the information is needed for future reference, and when immediate interaction is undesirable. Especially when your business grows faster and bigger and the audience is large and geographically dispersed. Secondly, written communication is fully enhanced during the last decade with the development of the technological revolution. From e-mail to on-line business, from on-line service to e-commerce, all these involve writing. Despite all the talk of a paperless society, our main source of formal communication remains the written words. Last but not least, mistakes made in the written communication are more serious. In business communications you cannot afford to be misunderstood or misinterpreted. The danger of that happening rises when dealing across cultures. Cultural mistakes made orally float away on the air; those made in writing are permanently recorded. So to be more conscious in written communication is definitely necessary. To sum up, it‘s important for businesspeople to know the conventions of international business English writing. At the same time, they should be aware of cultural impact on written business communication.
9.1.2 Characteristic Comparison of Written Communication Convention Business communication is a type of writing, which has many conventions. A written communication convention is an established way of approaching an occasion for writing. However, there are great differences in the way native and non-native speakers of English approach conventional components of business writing. Here are four distinct categories.
Table 9-1 Four Categories of Difference in Native Speaker and Non-native Speaker Business Letters
115
Characteristics contrasting with NS NNS U.S. business correspondence
Exaggerated politeness 18% 44%
Unnecessary professional information 21% 64%
Unnecessary personal information 20% 51%
Inappropriate requests 24% 43%
It is also found that non-native speakers and native speakers differ in the way they handle standard letter elements: salutations, closings, tone, and detail. The researchers concluded that non-native speakers apparently misunderstood native readers‘ expectations of English and the context in which letters would be received. Native speakers of English face similar difficulties in reverse.
9.1.3 Cultural Contrasts in Written Business Communication Written communication reflects the writer‘s cultural background and values. However, there are cultural contrasts in written business communication that is illustrated in the following table:
Table 9-2 Cultural Contrasts in Written Business Communication
Country American Japanese Arab Cultural Provide information; Seek information; Information exchange objectives Seek commitments Offer proposal and action Opening Direct to objective Offer thanks; Personal greeting Apologize Content Factual; Plan of Specific questions; Background action Solicit information information; Indirect to subject Persuasion Immediate gain or Waiting Personal loss of opportunity connections; Future opportunity Nonverbal Urgency; Short Modesty; Minimize Lengthy; Elaborate communication sentences standing; Letterhead or expression; Many marks signatures Closing Affirmative; Specific Maintain harmony; Future relationship; request Future relationship Personal greeting Applied Efficiency; Politeness; Status; Continuation; cultural values Directness; Action Indirectness; Acknowledgement; Relationship Wishes
Taking ―Opening‖ as an example, we could illustrate how it reflects the cultural
116 background and values of American, Japanese, and Arab cultures. As shown in the table, most American letters will explain the purpose within the first two paragraphs. Letters written by people from other cultures would most likely start with an extensive greeting and/or background information. A Japanese letter always begins with a comment about the season or weather and the introduction involving an apology or thanks to the reader for previous efforts. An Arab letter starts with an extensive personal greeting. Therefore, to help better understand the process of written business communication, it is important to see how individual cultural values are applied.
9.2 Cultural Consideration in Planning Business Messages The first stage in the composition process is planning. During the planning phase, such fundamentals shall be considered: (1) the reason for communicating, (2) the audience, (3) the channel and medium that will best convey the thoughts.
9.2.1 Defining Purposes Purposes influencing communication are governed by cultural practice. While the highest goal of communication in the Eastern cultures is to achieve propriety, the highest goal of communication in the West is to achieve the practical cooperation from others. Often, these two ―highest‖ goals are in opposition and can be the source of tension in multicultural transactions. From Table 9-2 we can see the cultural objective of most written American communication is to provide information in order to seek a commitment from the other party and to put a plan into action. In contrast, Japanese written business communication is to seek information and to offer a proposal. The Arab form of written business communication is simply to exchange information on a particular subject and to establish rapport, friendship, and trust.
9.2.2 Analyzing Intercultural Audiences Because no two audiences are alike, audience analysis should be carried out in order to better understand the audience. Audience analysis is the process used to examine the receiver or audience. Knowing the cultural background, attitudes, and emotional state of the audience will help you communicate more effectively. For example, a memo to your boss should be worded differently from a casual note to a friend. Some key factors listed below will influence the receiving of the message: a. Writer-reader relationships influence how a message is interpreted. b. The content of a message needs to be appropriate to the reader being addressed. c. A reader‘s motivations for reading a document can influence how it is received. d. The information in a document can influence how it is received. e. The information in a message must meet the reader‘s needs. f. Conventions for writing may be adopted or adapted for an audience. In intercultural business communication, to understand intercultural audiences, it is necessary to analyze the audiences‘ thought, the learning patterns and their expectation in terms of style. The answers to the following questions will indicate some material that shall be covered:
117 a. Does your audience think the same way you do? If you try making a point by starting with a general statement and then elaborating on that statement without digressing, you may find your audience unimpressed. People from Slavic countries, for example, expect an intelligent expression of ideas to contain many digressions, perhaps never even stating a specific point. b. Does your audience learn the same way you do? If you‘re writing a manual, you might require your audience first to read a brief introduction, then to look at an overview of your product, and finally to proceed through a step-by-step analysis. This approach, however, may not satisfy the way your audience prefers to learn. People in Japan, for example, tend to avoid the ―big picture‖ until they‘ve been exposed to each part. c. Does your audience define good communication the same way you do? If you focus your efforts on making your message as clear as possible, you may not satisfy your audience‘s aesthetic appreciation of style. In Japan, for instance, beauty, surprise, and flow are acceptable measures of good communication. d. Does your audience perceive graphics the same way you do? You might assume that a picture would be viewed the same by everyone, but people from different cultures may in fact see different things. e. Does your audience handle everyday business situations the same way you do? When your audience expects subtlety, delicacy, and passive grace, you may tend to write clearly and directly, using forceful imperatives. Clearly, analyzing an intercultural audience is more demanding than analyzing one that shares your background. Learning about the differences through audience analysis will give you better opportunity in business.
9.2.3 Selecting a Channel and Medium Choosing the right channel and the appropriate form for business message is a communication skill. When the communication is between cultures as well as organizations, the skill is even more important and it can make differences between effective and ineffective communication. a. Factors to be considered in choosing the channel To choose the most appropriate written or oral channel, such factors should be considered as complexity, formality, confidentiality, feedback, time, cost, and the expectation and preference of the audience‘s commitment to corporate values. b. Available tools to pick Although there are various communication forms, both traditional and modern, the trick is to pick the tool that does the best job in each situation. There are different forms available with different functions: memos, facsimiles, e-mail, voice mail, teleconferencing, computer conferencing, etc. Truly, technology is changing nearly every aspect of business communication from the reports research approach to the way you conduct meetings, however, it should be reminded that just as the technology impacts the channel, culture affects the way technology is used. By themselves, these technological tools can‘t ensure effective communication, but with skilled writers and speakers, they increase both the speed and efficiency of the communication.
118 9.3 Cultural Consideration in Organizing Business Messages Since technological tools can‘t ensure effective communications, knowledge of different organizational patterns, writing tone and style, and business formats will help in becoming more effective in intercultural business communication. Although many types of written communication are specialized, the most common are: (1) routine, good-news, and goodwill messages; (2) bad-news messages; (3) persuasive messages; (4) reports; (5) resume.
9.3.1 Organizing Routine, Good-news, and Goodwill Messages In the course of everyday business, most of a typical employee‘s communication is about routine matters, which are rarely long or complex. They are the most straightforward business messages. Sometimes, a price cut is announced; an adjustment is granted; an invitation is accepted. Your audience will most likely be pleased to hear from you under such circumstances. To produce the best messages possible, you have to consider the cultural influence. Cultural impact on discourse patterns is to be classified into two categories: direct plan and indirect plan. a. Direct plan In direct plan, clarity and conciseness are keys to successful business writing style, with a subject-verb-object pattern in preference to complex structures. Direct plan is favored by results-oriented cultures with deductive patterns. Active-voice verbs signify doing and achieving; passive-voice verbs are passive, so a culture that values doing and achieving prefers active voice. Such cultures also prefer concrete nouns and often express abstract ideas in metaphors that are more concrete, such as the sports metaphors in the U.S. The direct-plan is the very best way to organize routine business messages for most American, Canadian, Australian, British, and New Zealand readers. b. Indirect plan Indirect plan with inductive pattern is favored by relationship-oriented culture. Metaphors and unfolding possibilities are suggested. To the high-context culture, developing a context for communicating information is of key importance. The indirect plan does not put the main message in the first sentence. It has other priorities than the quick delivery of ideas, such as nurturing a relationship or developing some other context for the message. Japanese business messages often begin with a reference to the season. In Muslim countries, the opening paragraph of business letters frequently invokes Allah‘s blessing on the reader and the reader‘s family members.
9.3.2 Organizing Bad-news Messages Writing rejection letter is another occasion for writing. Unfavorable news includes declining a request for a refund, giving negative performance reviews, and terminating employment, etc. As with most business messages, the key to choosing the best approach for bad-news messages is to analyze audience first based on their cultural background. Different cultures have different conventions for passing bad news on to business associates. Here is the difference listed below concerning direct and indirect plan.
119 Table 9-3 Differences Between the Direct and Indirect Organizational Plans for Bad-news Messages
Direct Approach vs. Indirect Approach Firmness is needed Reader won‘t be disappointed Audience will be displeased Situation is routine or minor Audience prefers bad news first Audience is emotionally involved Bad news—Reasons—Positive close Buffer—Reasons—Bad news—Positive close Business communicators should not use direct approach in cultures where harmony and saving face are important. Even in the United States, bad news is generally presented indirectly as well. Instead of saying ―No, I cannot write you a letter of recommendation without knowing about your recent work in this area of specialization‖, people may say ―Please provide me with a current resume so that I can consider your request for a letter of recommendation.‖ Bad news is unwelcome in any language and talking about what‘s wrong is not easy for people in any culture. But the conventions for passing it on to business associates can vary considerably from culture to culture. In low-context cultures where information typically is encoded in explicit wording, the tendency is just to ―spit it out‖, get it into words and worry about the result later. People in high-context cultures put high priority on keeping harmony, preventing anyone from losing face, and nurturing the relationship. When a bad-news message has to be delivered, and context alone cannot deliver it, the message will probably be indirectly organized in circumlocutory words. So, different cultures have different conventions for passing bad news on to business associates. To save yourself from grief when sending and receiving bad news internationally, be familiar with the customary approach.
9.3.3 Organizing Persuasive Messages Persuasion is different in different culture. In France, using an aggressive, hard-sell technique is no way to win respect. In Germany, people tend to focus on technical matters. In Sweden, audiences tend to focus on theoretical questions and strategic implications, whereas U.S. audiences are usually concerned with more practical matters. Persuasive arguments are based on different approaches in different cultures. In low-context cultures, persuasion is accomplished through logical arguments; while in high-context cultures, adopting the moral high ground or taking a dependent posture or making emotional appeals is the preference. Persuasion is accomplished through direct approach in low-context cultures, as can be seen in U.S. business communication textbooks. You give the explanation first, and then work your way to the main message. The rationale for using this organization is that a reader will be persuaded by reasons. If you marshal your reasons together in a logical sequence and support them with facts, you can persuade. This works in low-context cultures where persuasive arguments are based on objective facts. But not all cultures
120 give facts high priority, and persuasion may depend upon who the persuader is, rather than the reasons. In high-context cultures, facts are not so objective and impersonal. Words and arguments are not separate from the writer or speaker who expresses them. Facts come with a person wrapped around them. If you argue against those facts, you are arguing against the person who uttered them. Since status is usually important in high-context cultures, the person is always a key factor in how a message is understood. Words cannot be distinguished from their source, and influential people can influence and persuade by virtue of their status. Whether you use a direct or indirect approach, you must convince your reader that your request or idea is reasonable. Effective persuasion involves four distinct and essential strategies: balancing emotional and logical appeals; framing your arguments; reinforcing your position; and dealing with resistance. However, different persuasion tactics should be used to reach each culture‘s unique objective. Americans respond to time pressure and possibility for opportunity. Therefore, a letter to or from an American may have a statement of that nature to persuade the reader to act quickly. The Japanese usually write to seek information to be used for later decisions. Since Arab values status and the importance of good references, a letter of recommendation from the State Department or a copy of your educational credentials would be a persuasive device. Sending a sample of your product, instead of its description, will be good for persuasion too, because the sample will help the individual better understand your product. On the other hand, Americans would be satisfied with just a catalog of a product line. When communicating with the Japanese, it would be even better, though, to send someone to demonstrate the product.
9.3.4 Organizing Reports Reports communicate a range of information — from straightforward, implicitly persuasive accounts for receptive audiences to complex, explicitly persuasive arguments for resistant audiences. Like other kinds of business communication, all reports are in some way persuasive, even though the persuasive elements may not be the primary purpose. In general, business reports can be categorized into three purposes: Reports that document progress, discussions, and actions provide the audience with up-to-date information for background or decision-making. Reports that investigate available options provide the audience with information for decision-making. Reports that evaluate personnel, objects, and practices assess impact or recommend changes. People in different cultures have different ideas about how reports should be organized. Generally speaking, people from East Asian cultures organize material based on relationships of elements rather than the linear progression typical of Western thinking. There are also differences, however, within each camp. Canadians, for example, like to have recommendations at the beginning of a report. The rest of the report provides a rationale and necessary background. The emphasis is on the practical use of information.
121 The Germans, on the other hand, prefer a chronological arrangement and presentation. They give the background first; the recommendation comes at the end. The French, much more than the Germans and the Canadians, delight in the linguistically elegant presentation of the argument. The presentation is of importance for its own sake in addition to the practical consideration. However, the French, Germans, and Canadians are puzzled by the relation-building arrangement of the Japanese presentation, for they think logic argument is what sells, rather than the establishment of the relationships. Japanese reports writers tend to skip intermediate steps of logical development. Japanese reports seem to have no structure: ―A collection of details with no introductory or conclusive matter helps the reader put details in context.‖ In Japan, the person who is primarily responsible for effective communication is the reader, whereas in English the writer is held largely responsible for clarifying ideas and providing transitions between ideas and between paragraphs. In low-context cultures (Western cultures), meaning must be communicated principally through the content of a specific document, because context is an insufficient indicator of meaning. In general, people from low-context cultures tend to use direct-plan reports. Direct-plan reports relay the conclusion and recommendations first, before the slower information about why the report is being made and what it covers. Direct-plan includes several sections: purpose, scope, and methodology including persons, facts, analyses, and interpretation. While in high-context cultures (East Asian cultures), meaning is communicated as much through the content of a specific message. People from high-context cultures tend to use indirect-plan reports. The indirect-plan approach helps overcome resistance by withholding the main idea until later in the report. However, because both the direct and indirect approaches have merits, businesspeople often combine them in international business report writing.
9.3.5 Cultural Consideration in Resume Writing Globalization has definitely expanded the information people need if they intend to get a position in a country other than their own. After identifying job vacancies, it is necessary to prepare a resume, which is a historical account of one‘s education, work experience, skills, and other job-related personal information. In fact, chances of being invited to an interview depend on the effectiveness of the resume. The following is a description of job-search information and the resume writing style needed to find a position in the U.S., Great Britain, France, Germany, and Spain. a. United States U.S. hiring officials prefer the resume to be one to two pages long. Important resume items include personal information (name, address, and telephone number), job objective (to give the reader an idea of what type of work you would like and your plans for advancement), educational background (universities attended), and work experience (current position, company name and location, job title, dates employed, responsibilities, and accomplishments). In addition, three or four references (names of people who could verify your work experience, educational achievements, and character) are preferred. Information about your family, age, religion, gender, marital status, or a photo should not
122 be included. Usually the resume is accompanied by an application letter. b. Great Britain The resume of professional businesspeople in Great Britain is one to two pages in length, is typed, and generally does not have a photograph attached. The resume will contain a professional objective, name, address, phone number, professional experience, education, hobbies and other activities, and references, but excludes photo, family information, military service or any other personal information. The resume is usually sent with an application letter, which includes the reasons for wanting the position and a request for an interview. c. France In France, the vita is much like the U.S. resume. The resume or vita should list your full name, address, and age. In addition, your telephone, photograph, and family information are included. You should also state a job objective, education, and experience. Information about your hobbies and foreign language expertise should also be included. Usually it is very difficult for someone directly from the university to get a position without experience. Connections are very important in obtaining the first position. Age is a factor in hiring; 40 is considered old. d. Germany The Germans expect applicants to be well-educated for their positions and to have experience. The resume is a complete history of the candidate. A length of 20 to 30 pages is not unusual. Included would be positions the applicant has held, photocopies of diplomas and degrees the candidate has earned, letters of recommendation from teachers, verification of previous employment, a recent photo, a statement of computer skills. Other information would include the names and professions of the candidate‘s parents; names of brothers, sisters, spouse, and children; religious affiliation, financial obligations. In addition to the diplomas and degrees, transcripts would be provided to certify all course work completed. Professional activities, including publications and personal references would also be given. The resume would begin with a typed letter of application that is one to two pages in length. The style should be very conservative and formal. e. Spain The resume is a maximum of two pages. It is typed in letter form and is a chronology of experience, military service, education, family information, professions of parents, clubs, and professional objective. A photo is acceptable. Nowadays, China becomes a great economic power in the world, and gets more involved in the process of globalization. Chinese people have more opportunities to work in a transnational corporation. A well-written English resume will help people to get an interview for a job. The following checklist may be a great help. General content Omit information about qualifications that might be considered negative. Omit information that is not relevant to requirements. State job objective clearly and concisely to tell the reader what type of employment is sought. Be sure that section immediately following job objective contains information
123 about most important qualification for position sought. Education Give name and address of each college/university attended along with dates of attendance. Indicate degrees earned or anticipated. Indicate honors, awards, scholarships, and so forth. Include co- or extracurricular activities and offices held. Describe internships, cooperative education programs and special projects. Work experience Give names and addresses of employers along with names of immediate supervisors and dates employed. Indicate positions held. Describe job duties/responsibilities with verbs in active voice parallel form. Personal / Other information Omit information that is not relevant or that could be used for discriminatory purposes. Include information on willingness to travel/relocate and percentage earned toward college expenses if relevant. Provide mailing address and telephone number with area code. Describe hobbies and interests only briefly, if at all. Mention special skills possessed and certificates/licenses held if relevant. References Include at least three references with titles, addresses, and telephone numbers or make them available upon request.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Verbal communication involves both oral and written forms. Written communication is especially important in intercultural business communication. Compared with oral form, writing is more accurate, more convincing, more economical and more efficient when audience is large. Furthermore, modern technological renovation such as e-mail and e-commerce also calls for the written communication in business. Businesspeople should be more conscious about the written communication, because mistakes made in written form are more serious and permanent. Written communication conventions vary from culture to culture. Compared with native speakers, non-native speakers are more polite and might give more unnecessary professional and personal information. Written communication reflects the writer‘s cultural background and values in terms of objectives, content, persuasion, etc. While writing business messages, planning is usually the first step. There are three elements worth considering: (1) Purposes: the highest goal of communication in the Eastern cultures is to achieve propriety, while the highest goal of communication in the West is to achieve the practical cooperation. (2) Audiences: no two audiences are alike, so understanding the audience ensures effective communication. In intercultural business communication, to understand intercultural audiences, it is necessary to analyze the audiences‘ thought, the learning patterns and their expectation in terms of style. (3)
124 Channel and Medium: select the right channel of communication is of crucial importance. There are different forms available with different functions: memos, facsimiles, e-mail, voice mail, teleconferencing, computer conferencing, etc. Planning is the first but not all that needed in business message writing. Knowledge of different organizational patterns, writing tone and style, and business formats will make intercultural business communication more effective. Although many types of written communication are specialized, the most common are: (1) routine, good-news, and goodwill messages; (2) bad-news messages; (3) persuasive messages; (4) reports; (5) resume. (1) Routine, good-news, and goodwill messages are the most commonly used written format. Cultural impact on discourse patterns is to be classified into two categories: direct plan and indirect plan. In direct plan, clarity and conciseness are keys to successful business writing style, with a subject-verb-object pattern in preference to complex structures. Direct plan is favored by results-oriented cultures with deductive patterns. Indirect plan with inductive pattern is favored by relationship-oriented culture. Metaphors and unfolding possibilities are suggested. To the high-context culture, developing a context for communicating information is of key importance. (2) Bad-news messages: Writing rejection letter is another occasion for writing. Different cultures have different conventions for passing bad news on to business associates. Bad news is unwelcome in any culture, so indirect plan is usually preferred in such cases. (3) Persuasive messages: Persuasion is different in different culture. Generally speaking, in low-context cultures where direct approach is adopted, persuasion is accomplished through logical arguments; while in high-context cultures where indirect approach is favored, adopting the moral high ground or taking a dependent posture or making emotional appeals is the preference. (4) Reports: People from different cultures have different ideas about how reports should be organized. In general, people from low-context cultures tend to use direct-plan reports, which relay the conclusion and recommendations first, before the slower information about why the report is being made and what it covers. People from high-context cultures tend to use indirect-plan reports, which help to overcome resistance by withholding the main idea until later in the report. However, in practice, businesspeople often combine them in international business report writing. (5) Resume: A well-written resume may increase your chances to get a job interview. Your English resume should include your education, work experience, skills, and other job-related personal information. In some cultures, your recent photo is a necessity. While in other cultures, it is unnecessary to provide your photo. And an application letter would be an advantage.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What is the importance of writing in international business communication?
2. What is the cultural impact on the tones and styles in business writing?
125 3. What information will you include when you are required to write an English resume?
4. Why is it necessary to define the purpose, analyze the audience and choose the most appropriate channel when planning a message?
5. How do low-context and high-context cultures differ in organizing persuasive messages?
126 ChapterⅩ Nonverbal Communication
Verbal communication is usually considered as the most important way for human interaction. However nonverbal communication also plays a major role in the process of communication. In this chapter, nonverbal communication is defined, the functions of nonverbal communication are introduced, and the categories of nonverbal communication are illustrated.
10.1 Nonverbal Communication Defined In the process of communication, symbols help people to express their ideas, either words or nonspoken symbols. The messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication. The study of nonverbal communication focuses on the messages sent through body motions, vocal qualities, and the use of time, space, dress, or even smell. Nonverbals are as well regarded as a language system in the study of nonverbal communication in Western cultures. But not all nonverbal behaviors are nonverbal communication. Communication occurs when we intentionally use symbols—words or nonspoken symbols—to create meaning for others. So only when the nonspoken symbols convey certain meanings, can they be referred to as nonverbal communication. In another word, narrowly speaking, nonverbal communication refers to intentional use of nonspoken symbol to communicate a specific message. And broadly speaking, the term also refers to elements of the environment that communicate by virtue of people's use of them. The color of the walls in the room in which you are interviewed for a job may in some way affect your performance and how you are perceived. Thus, from this perspective, wall color may legitimately be labeled a nonverbal element of communication.
10. 2 Culture and Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is rooted in culture, because, first, most of our nonverbal behaviors are learned, passed on from generation to generation, and involve shared understandings. Secondly, they represent what a collection of people deemed important enough to codify and transmit to the members of that group.
10.2.1 The Alliance Between Culture and Nonverbals Learning about the alliance between culture and nonverbal behavior is useful to students of intercultural communication for a number of reasons. First, by understanding important cultural differences in this behavior, you will be able to gather clues about underlying attitudes and values, because nonverbal communication often reveals basic cultural traits. Second, the study of nonverbal behaviors can assist us in isolating our own ethnocentrism.
10.2.2 The Functions of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication helps people from different cultures communicate with
127 each other more smoothly. The functions of nonverbal communication could be identified in the following six aspects: replacing spoken messages, sending uncomfortable messages, forming impressions that guide communication, making relationships clear, regulating interaction and reinforcing and modifying verbal messages. a. Replacing spoken messages There are situations in which words cannot be used. In a very noisy manufacturing facility, for example, communicators might use hand gestures to replace spoken messages. Communicators who do not share a language may try to make themselves understood with gestures. b. Sending uncomfortable messages Some messages are awkward or difficult to express in words, but the meaning can be conveyed with nonverbals without hurting feelings or embarrassment. c. Forming impressions that guide communication We all attempt at times to manage the impressions that others have on us. You would certainly give some thoughts to what you would wear to a job interview. You intentionally choose to wear certain clothes and groom in a certain way to send a message about who you are to the employer. You hope you may leave a good impression on the interviewer at the first sight. d. Making relationships clear Communication messages have both content and relationship information. Content refers to the subject matter of the message. Relationship information refers to the relationship between the communicators. As relationship information might be uncomfortable if spoken, nonverbal communication removes the threat. For example, if the boss of a company wants his employees to realize his status and follow his order obediently, he may imply this by maintaining a relaxed posture, by varying the intonation of voice and by keeping a solemn facial expression instead of saying: ―I am your boss and you do as I say, even though you may not like it.‖ e. Regulating interaction Have you ever considered how you know when it‘s your turn to talk in a conversation? If you didn‘t know when to start talking, you‘d be interrupting others all the time. Directing turn-taking is an example of how nonverbal communication regulates people‘s interaction. f. Reinforcing and modifying verbal messages Nonverbal cues can be metamessages that affect the decoding of the spoken message. Nonverbal messages can reinforce the verbal message. You can use your hands to indicate how close another car came to hitting your car as you say the same message in words. Nonverbal messages can also modify—and even negate—the meaning of the verbal messages.
10.2.3 Nonverbal Misinterpretations as a Barrier We expect languages to be different, we are less likely to expect and recognize how the nonverbal symbols are different. Many nonverbal expressions vary from culture to
128 culture, and it is just those variations that make nonverbal misinterpretation a barrier.
10.3 Categories of Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is usually defined by categories. A nonverbal symbol can mean different things depending on where you are. The kinds of nonverbal communication given the most attention by travelers and researchers alike are paralanguage/metacommunication, chronemics, proxemics, ocuelsics, olfactics, haptics, kinesics, chromatics, silence, clothing and physical appearance.
10.3.1 Paralanguage / Metacommunication Paralanguage and metacommunication are the accompanying features of the voice. They may imply the connotation of the actual words. a. Paralanguage Paralanguage is related to oral communication; it refers to the rate, pitch and volume qualities of the voice, which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message. Paralanguage includes vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers, vocal segregates and accent. Negative emotions of impatience, fear, and anger are easier to convey than the more positive emotions of satisfaction and admiration. An increased rate of speech could indicate anger or impatience; a decrease in rate could suggest lack of interest or a reflective attitude. An increased volume could also indicate anger; a lower volume is nonthreatening and sympathetic. 1. Vocal characterizers Vocal characterizers refer to the laughter and sobs accompanying spoken words. 2. Vocal qualifiers Vocal qualifiers refer to the intensity (loud/soft), pitch (high/low), and extent (drawl and clipping) of the voice. For example, a non-Japanese person listening to a Japanese man can get the impression that the Japanese speaker ―spits‖ words out in clusters. The cluster comes very fast followed by a slight pause before the next cluster emerges. Japanese women, on the other hand, may seem to speak more evenly. In English as spoken in the United States, a speaker raises the pitch at the end of a question, signifying a nonverbal question mark. If the rise in pitch is accompanied by a pause, the listener interprets this to mean that the speaker is waiting for an answer. On the other hand, if the speaker asks a question without the pitch going up, he may not expect or want an answer. The speaker may be asking a rhetorical question and then be ready to make the next point. A speaker who has finished expressing an idea typically lowers her pitch signifying she is done. Someone else can speak now. Ending sentences with a high pitch in American English may indicate self-doubt and uncertainty. In French, on the other hand, sentences tend to end on a higher pitch than in either German or English. The French speaker may be very certain of what she is saying, yet a listener from a U.S. or German cultural background may have a different impression. 3. Vocal segregates Vocal segregates refer to the use of ―uh‖, ―um‖, and ―uh-huh‖ in speech. For example, in English ―okay‖ and ―you know‖ are often used as fillers. The words have a meaning, but the speaker who uses them does not attach the specific meaning to them. The words
129 simply build a bridge to what the speaker says next. The use of ―hai‖ (literally translated yes) in Japanese serves the same function. Most Japanese use ―hai‖ as a filler without any particular meaning. It serves as a lubricant for the flow of the speech. In intercultural communication people must be aware of appropriate frequency and meaning of fillers. 4. Accent Accent may be considered an aspect of paralanguage. British ears can detect a speaker‘s educational background in the accent. It is said that everyone has an accent. The differences in accent may lead to charges of racism, because some companies prefer standard speakers. b. Metacommunication Metacommunication is the intentional or unintentional implied meaning of a message. Metacommunicaiton, though not expressed in words, accompanies a message that is expressed in words. In both speaking and writing, people who receive messages are sensitive to not only the expressed message but the implied message as well. ―You look nice today‖ could be interpreted as a compliment or that you usually do not look nice. Depending on contextual differences between cultures, metacommunication can easily be misinterpreted. In Japan, if a company is interested in doing business with you, it will send a large contingent of people in order to show its interest; however, in the United States only one or two people would be sent. The Japanese would interpret this to mean that the U.S. company is not very interested in doing business with their firm.
10.3.2 Chronemics Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. How people use time varies from culture to culture. In the United States, the boss can arrive late for a meeting without anyone raising an eyebrow; if the secretary is late, he or she may receive a reprimand in the form of a stern glance. In Latin America, one is expected to arrive late to appointments as a sign of respect. a. The sense of time People in different cultures sense the time in totally different ways. Some think time is cyclical, while others think time is linear. 1. Time is cyclical Life on earth evolved in response to the cycles of day and night and the ebb and flow of the tides. As human evolved, a multiplicity of internal biological clocks also developed. These biological clocks now regulate most of the physical functions of our bodies. It is not surprising, therefore, that human concepts of time grew out of the natural rhythms associated with daily, monthly, and annual cycles. 2. Time is linear Western cultures think time is linear—a flow from the past to the present to the future. This has something to do with religion. The Christian belief that Christ‘s birth and death were unrepeatable events lays ground for the understanding of time as linear. The English proverb ―all time is no time when it is past‖ conveys such a value. b. Monochronic and polychronic time There are many kinds of time systems in the world, but two are most important to international business. We call them monochronic and polychronic time.
130 1. Monochronic time Monochronic time means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced and used in a linear way——comparable to a road extending from the past into the future. In a monochronic system, the schedule may take priority above all else and be treated as sacred and unalterable. Monochronic time is perceived as being almost tangible: people talk about it as though it were money, like something that can be ―spent‖, ―saved‖, ―wasted‖, and ―lost‖. English proverbs: To save time is to lengthen life. Time is money. Monochronic time dominates most business in the United States. Other Western cultures—Switzerland, Germany, and Scandinavia in particular—are dominated by the iron hand of monochronic time as well. 2. Polychronic time Polychronic time means being involved with many things at once. In polychronic cultures, time is cyclical. There is more emphasis on completing human transactions than on holding to schedules. For example, two polychronic Latins conversing on a street corner would likely opt to be late for their next appointment rather than abruptly terminate the conversation before its natural conclusion. In polychronic cultures, people think nothing of changing plans at last minute; this is very unsettling to most Americans and Germans, who consider such a behavior irresponsible. However, polychronic people, for example Arabs, they believe that a person who tries to look into the future is regarded as either irreligious or insane, for only God can decree what will or will not occur. Many polychronic cultures are high context, including southern Europe, Latin America, and many African and Middle Eastern countries.
Case Analysis: Monochronic and Polychronic Cultures
Mr. Paul Bersik is the international sales representative for his computer equipment company. His most recent trip takes him to Saudi Arabia, where he is scheduled to meet with his Saudi counterpart, Abdul Arami. In the following scenario, Mr. Bersik comes face to face with P-time. Mr. Bersik and his training team arrived in Saudi Arabia three days ago for a scheduled appointment with Mr. Arami. Mr. Arami had not yet met with Mr. Bersik or his team. Finally, a call to Mr. Bersik‘s hotel room indicates that Mr. Arami is prepared to meet with him. When he arrives at the location, Mr. Bersik is asked to wait outside Mr. Arami‘s office. As he waits he notices many people entering and leaving Mr. Arami‘s office at a very quick pace. The hallways of this building are a hustle and bustle of activity with people shuffling in and out of many rooms. Finally, after several hours, Mr. Bersik is called in to meet Mr. Arami.
Mr. Bersik: Ah, Mr. Arami, it‘s so good to finally see you. Gosh, I‘ve been waiting for days. Did you forget our appointment? Mr. Arami: Hello Mr. Bersik, please sit down. Everything is fine?
131 Mr. Bersik: Actually no … (phone rings) … the problem is … Mr. Arami: Excuse me … (takes the phone call and speaks in Arabic. After several minutes he concludes the phone conversation) Yes, now … everything is fine? Mr. Bersik: Well, actually, I‘ve got a small problem. You see the computer equipment you ordered … (a staff person enters the room and hands Mr. Arami something to sign.) Mr. Arami: Oh, excuse me (signs the document). Yes, now, everything is fine? Mr. Bersik: As I was saying … all of the computer equipment you ordered is just sitting on a ship in the dock. I need your help in getting it unloaded. I mean it‘s been there for two weeks! Mr. Arami: Hmmm. I see … This is no problem. Mr. Bersik: Well, if it sits in the beat much longer it could be damaged. Could I get you to sign a work order to have it unloaded by Friday? Mr. Arami: There is no need for that. The job will get done, insha Allah. Mr. Bersik: Well, could we set up some kind of deadline? You see, I have a staff of people here waiting to train your people on the equipment. I need to let them know when it will be ready. How about this Friday? Could we do it then? My people are here now and they‘re waiting to begin training. Mr. Arami: There is no great rush. We have lived for many generations without this equipment. We can wait a few more weeks, if necessary. This is not a problem. (Two men enter the room and begin a conversation with Mr. Arami.)
There is little chance that Mr. Arami will sign any kind of work order for Mr. Bersik. Within the context of the Saudi culture, Mr. Bersik‘s behavior is inappropriate. His emphasis on deadlines is perceived by Mr. Arami as either insane or irreligious. Mr. Bersik is in too much of a hurry. When Mr. Arami says to Mr. Bersik that the job will get done ―insha Allah,‖ he means it quite literally. Unless God decrees it, a plan or schedule is useless. In the future, Mr. Bersik must learn that the Saudi‘s perception of time is very different from his own. Mr. Bersik is monochronic, whereas Mr. Arami is polychronic. When he does business in Saudi Arabia, Mr. Bersik must understand the temporal feature of the culture.
c. The calendar used in different cultures In the ancient time, different countries had different system of recording dates. The Julian calendar, devised by Julius Caesar, became the basis for what is used today. Later, in the middle Age, Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 created Gregorian calendar in use today. It was adopted in Germany in 1700, in Sweden in 1753, in Britain in 1752, in Russia in 1918, and in China in 1912 but not widely so until the Communist victory in 1949. Most of Chinese people still celebrate their birthdays according to the lunar calendar.
10.3.3 Proxemics
132 Proxemics refers to the perception and use of space, including territoriality and personal space. Territoriality refers to physical space; personal space refers to perceptual or psychological space. The physical distance between people when they are interacting, as well as territorial space, is strongly influenced by culture. In cultures whose population density is high, personal space and territoriality are highly valued. Privacy in densely populated locations is accomplished pyschologically rather than physiologically. a. Personal space Our personal space, that piece of the universe we occupy and call our own, is contained within an invisible boundary surrounding our body. As the owners of this area, we usually decide who may enter and who may not. When our space is invaded, we react in different ways. We may back up and retreat, stand our ground as our hands become wet from nervousness, or sometimes even react violently. 1. In the United States Hall reports that psychologists have identified four zones from which U.S. people interact: the intimate zone, the personal zone, the social zone, and the public zone.
Table 10-1 Proxemics Distance Description Voice Intimate Touching to 18 inches Private situations with people Whisper who are emotionally close. If others invade this space we feel threatened. Personal 18 inches to 4 feet The lower end is ―handshake‖ Soft voice distance —the distance most couples stand in public. Casual 4 feet to 12 feet The lower end is the distance Full voice between salespeople and customers and between people who work together in business. Public Greater than 12 feet Situations such as teaching in Loud voice a classroom or delivering a speech.
2. In India In India, there are elaborate rules about how closely members of each caste may approach other castes. 3. In Arab Arabs of the same sex do stand much closer than North Americans. North Americans in an elevator maintain personal space if the physical space permits it. An Arab entering an elevator may stand right next to another person and be touching even though no one else is in the elevator.
133 Case Analysis: Spacious Compartment
Aki Hayashi, a Japanese visiting professor at a university in Illinois, was going to a convention in New Orleans. His American colleagues were all flying, but he was going to take the train. He wanted to see something of the country. Brian Ober, one of his American friends, warned him that the train would be very crowded and that he would not like it at all. Mr. Ober was very surprised when Professor Hayashi told him that his compartment on the train had been very nice and so spacious. Numerous articles have illustrated the prime example of crowdedness in Japan: rush hour on the subway in Tokyo. They usually show a picture of a person whose job is to push people into the train so that the doors can close. (This phenomenon has been greatly exaggerated in the American press, however. In 1989 only two stations in all of Tokyo had pushers, and only during rush hours.) When looking at these pictures one wonders how the throngs of people fit with the cultural emphasis on personal distance and private space. How do the Japanese cope with that? Many Japanese do not like the crowded conditions, and increasingly people are moving from Tokyo back to their hometowns to have more space.
b. Seating Culture influences the manner and meaning in seating arrangements. In the United States, they tend to talk with those opposite them rather than those seated or stand beside them. This pattern also influences how they select leaders when in groups: in most instances, the person sitting at the head of the table is chosen as the leader. Leaders usually are accustomed to being somewhat removed physically from the rest of the group and consequently choose chairs at the ends of the table. In China, seating arrangements take on different meanings. The Chinese often experience uneasiness when they face someone directly or sit on the opposite side of a desk or table. It makes them feel as if they were on trial. c. Furniture arrangement Furniture arrangements within home or office communicate something about the culture. French space is a reflection of French culture. Everything is centralized, and spatially the entire country is laid out around centers. In Germany, where privacy is stressed, office furniture is spread throughout the office. In Japan, where group participation is encouraged, many desks are arranged hierarchically in the center of a large, common room absent of walls. The supervisors and managers are positioned nearest the windows. This organization encourages the exchange of information, facilitates multitask accomplishments, and promotes the Confucian concept of learning through silent observation. Chinese geomancy, feng shui, is the art of arranging the physical environment to
134 establish harmony with the natural environment to achieve happiness, prosperity, and health. Feng shui has principles for designing homes and placing furniture. A home with good feng shui has a balance of comfort and style. Location, room shape, color, plants, artworks and furniture are arranged for positive energy and balance.
10.3.4 Oculesics The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics. What the eyes communicate often depends on the culture. In the United States, it is usual for people to maintain eye contact. If a person tries to avoid eye contact in a conversation, the other person may think that person is dishonest. In some Asian cultures such as Japan, students will often avoid making eye contact with their instructors as a sign of respect. Students in a business communication class at a Mid-South university were asked to test the concept of gaze and eye contact in the United States by maintaining steady eye contact with a person in the car next to them when they stopped at a traffic light. Responses varied from obscene gestures to making faces to returning the gaze. Students concluded that U.S. persons are very uncomfortable with prolonged eye contact. In other cultures, there is little direct eye contact. The Japanese direct their gaze below the chin; they are uncomfortable with maintaining direct eye contact throughout the conversation. People in China and Indonesia also lower the eyes as a sign of respect, feeling that prolonged eye contact shows bad manners.
Table 10-2 Cultural Variations in Eye Contact
Very direct eye contact: Middle Easterners Some Latin American groups The French Moderate eye contact: Mainstream Americans Northern Europeans The British Minimal eye contact: East Asians Southeast Asians East Indians Native Americans A prolonged gaze or stare in the United States is considered rude. In other cultures such as Japan, Korea, and Thailand, staring is also considered rude. In most cultures, men do not stare at women. In France and Italy, however, men can stare at women in public. In the United States, staring at a person is considered a sign of interest and may even be interpreted as sexually suggestive.
10.3.5 Olfactics The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics. A person‘s smell can have a positive or negative effect on the oral message. The way someone smells remains in our memory after the person has gone. Many companies, for example, use smell to advertise their products. Cultures have different opinions about what smells good or bad. People in
135 the United States do not like the body's natural smell, so they bathe often and wear fragrances to cover up this odor.
Case Analysis: The Bad Smell
A medical doctor from Saudi Arabia was completing an internship in a hospital in the southern United States. Problems arose when patients refused to have the Saudi doctor examine them. Interviews with patients revealed two problems: he ―smelled bad‖ and he breathed on the patients. The doctor‘s orientation had apparently failed to include the incongruence between Arabic and U.S. American olfactory perceptions and practices.
To maintain harmonious intercultural business relationships, remember these diverse attitudes toward smell and, if possible, adopt the hygiene practices of the country in which you are conducting business.
10.3.6 Haptics Haptics or touch refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact. When used properly, touch can create feelings of warmth and trust; when used improperly, touch can betray trust and cause annoyance. Some cultures are very comfortable with bodily contact and others avoid it. In touch-oriented cultures such as those of Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal, both males and females may be seen walking along the street holding hands or arm-in-arm. In other cultures such as those in the Latin American countries, touching between men is considered quite acceptable. Equals may touch each other. The general rule is that people who are older or of higher status may touch those who are younger or of lower status. An additional aspect of tactile communication concerns the location of the touch. In India, it is considered rude to touch women. In Thailand and Laos, it is rude for a stranger or an acquaintance to touch a child on the top of the head because the head is regarded as the home of the spirit or soul. It is believed that a child‘s spirit or soul is not strong enough to be touched and has tendency to become ill if patted. Even placing a hand on the back of an Asian worker‘s chair is considered inappropriate. White Muslims hug another person around the shoulders, in Korea young people do not touch the shoulders of their elders (Axtell, 1998). Tactile behavior is highly cultural; knowing when and how to touch in various cultures is important to conducting business globally.
10.3.7 Kinesics Kinesics is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture and stance, and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages. From the gestures made, we can tell the status of a person. For example, lower classes in ancient Rome used four fingers and thumb to pick up food: upper classes used two fingers and thumb. The differences may have been unconscious, but it clearly communicated class distinctions. a. Facial expressions The face and eyes convey the most expressive types of body language. Research
136 conducted by Leathers (1976) determined these 10 types of meanings can be communicated by facial expressions: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, contempt, interest, bewilderment, and determination.
Figure 10.1 Facial Expressions b. Gestures Gestures are another important aspect of body language. Gestures can be emblems or symbols (the ―ok‖ gesture), illustrators (police officer‘s hand held up to stop traffic), or regulators (one‘s face turns red with embarrassment). Gestures are used to add emphasis or clarity to an oral message. Archer has observed that many cultures have emblems and illustrators for insulting others and for communicating obscenities. According to Archer, some cultures may have as many as six or seven obscene gestures, whereas some northern European cultures, such as the Netherlands and Norway, do not have any native obscene gestures. Giving someone "the finger" (making a fist with the hand and extending the middle finger upward) is a widely recognized obscene gesture in many parts of the world, including the United States, Mexico, and much of Europe. Forming a "V" with the index finger and middle fingers with the palm facing in is vulgar in Australia and England, communicating the same intent as "the finger". Creating the very same gesture with the palm facing out is
137 completely acceptable, however, and represents "V for victory". In the Ladino culture of Guatemala, a hand gesture called the la mano caliente ("the hot hand") is equivalent to "the finger" and is created by placing the thumb between the first and middle fingers then squeezing the hand to make a fist. This gesture is considered obscene in other Central and South American cultures as well. In the Ladino culture, however, this gesture is very offensive, and anyone using it should be prepared to fight. If a person were to use the mano caliente to a military or police officer, the offender could expect to spend time in jail or do hard labor in the army. The same hand gesture is used in Hmong culture to belittle or insult someone. In the Hmong culture, only males use this gesture. In Jamaica, this gesture is called "the fig" and is considered obscene there also. Head movement In most cultures nodding one‘s head is seen as agreeing and shaking one‘s head is seen as rejecting, although Bulgarians do the opposite—they shake their heads when agreeing. In southern India, moving one‘s head from side to side is not a negation. So even in this one area where most cultures agree there is some disagreement. A speaker may nod her head to affirm what she is saying and emphasize the verbal message. The listener may nod to signal understanding and approval. Nodding can be a signal that the listener understands and that the speaker can continue with the discussion. A lowered head in Western culture can signify defeat or uncertainty. In Asian cultures lowering one‘s head may mean accepting one‘s place in the hierarchy. In contrast, tilting the head upward in Western cultures is interpreted as being arrogant, as illustrated in the expression, ―His nose was in the air.‖ Arm movement One of the authors videotaped students making oral presentations in English and in their native languages to see if the nonverbal codes differed in the same speaker. These presentations seemed to indicate that nonverbal codes learned with a specific language did not transfer to another language. For example, an Iranian student, when speaking Farsi, put his hands behind his back in a gesture of respect, straightened his back, and spoke with his chin up making eye contact only with the professor, the authority figure. When that same student gave his presentation in English, he looked like an ordinary American student, one hand in his pocket, occasionally shifting his weight from one foot to the other, and keeping eye contact with everyone in the room. It would be interesting to see to what extent the change in body movements was a conscious effort to fit into American culture and to what extent it was a subconscious connection of English with a certain set of nonverbal signals. c. Posture and stance Posture, the way someone stands, sits, or walks, can send positive or negative nonverbal messages. Posture can signal agreement or disagreement. Appropriate posture is related to a person‘s status in society. For example, the manager may stand erect when talking to subordinates, but the subordinates may drop their shoulders when
138 talking to the manager. In traditional societies the person lower in the hierarchy may be expected to prostrate himself in front of the tribal chief or village elder to show respect. While this form of showing respect and submission is not practiced in intercultural business communication, the international manager does need to know what posture is acceptable in a given culture. While in most business situations people sit on chairs, in many Arab cultures men conduct business while sitting on the floor. In traditional Japanese businesses people may also sit on the floor. The Japanese style of sitting with legs tucked under can be very taxing for outsiders who are not used to this posture. In many cultures women of middle and upper class backgrounds are supposed to sit with their legs and ankles together and arms close to their bodies. Women are to be modest and take up little space. When women sit in an easy chair, they seem to ―borrow‖ the space; men, on the other hand, seem to ―own‖ the space. In Western cultures this has changed to quite an extent over the last two decades, and young women often sit as relaxed as men. When Western women do business in more traditional societies, such as Japan or India, they need to adapt the way they sit and stand so as not to give offense. The way we use our bodies when communicating indicates how we perceive our power, authority, and position in relation to the person we are communicating with. If the other person comes from the same culture, she can read the signals fairly accurately. If the other person is from another culture, she may have difficulties. She may interpret the lack of body language as rejection or the expressive body language as threatening when the speaker was simply using his or her own cultural style.
10.3.8 Chromatics Chromatics refers to the study of color use in affecting people‘s mood, emotions, and impression of others. Certain colors have both negative and positive connotations. Color may be used to symbolize such things as sadness, purity, mourning, patriotism. Determining cultural meanings associated with various colors is advised to ensure that nonverbal messages associated with color are positive ones. The colors of clothes symbolize different things: red is a good-luck color for the Chinese, but it signifies bad luck to many Koreans. To others, red is associated with fertility, but in Ghana, it is associated with sorrow. In Western societies, black is the color of mourning. Asians traditionally wear white to funerals because it is the color of sadness. Color may be used to symbolize such things as patriotism. People in the United States associate red, white, and blue (the colors in the flag) with patriotism. Cultural differences associated with colors include: Black is the color of mourning to many Europeans and U.S. Americans, while white is worn to funerals in Japan and many other nations. In the United States, white is typically worn by brides while in India, red or yellow is worn. Purple is sometimes associated with royalty, but it is the color of death in many Latin American countries. Red (especially red roses) is associated with romance in some cultures including the United States. Red is not an appropriate color for wrapping gifts in Japan. Dark red is
139 the color of mourning along the Ivory Coast. Green is not used for wrapping packages in Egypt since green is the nationalist color (as red, white and blue are the nationalist colors in the United States). Men should avoid wearing a green hat in China as this signifies that their wife or sister is a prostitute. In many countries of the world, blue is considered a masculine color, but to people of France and the United Kingdom, red is more masculine. Blue, in Iran, is an undesirable color. While people of the United States consider pink to be the most feminine color, persons in most other countries think of yellow as the most feminine color. United Airlines unknowingly got off on the wrong foot during its initial flights from Hong Kong. To commemorate the occasion, they handed out white carnations to the passengers. When they learned that to many Asians white flowers represent bad luck and even death, they changed to red carnations. Determining cultural meanings associated with various colors is advised to ensure that nonverbal messages associated with color are positive ones.
10.3.9 Silence Silence is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in various ways depending upon the situation, the duration of the silence, and the culture. The use of silence in communication is also important. Silence can communicate agreement, apathy, awe, confusion, contemplation, disagreement, embarrassment, obligation, regret, repressed hostility, respect, sadness, thoughtfulness, or any number of meanings. Yet even in low-context cultures silence is not necessarily without meaning. When someone is silent after being asked a question, the silence itself is an answer. In Eastern cultures, silence has long been regarded as a virtue. To the Chinese, silence means agreement. While in Western cultures, silence has generally been considered socially disagreeable. The English phrase, ―The silence was deafening,‖ describes this interpretation. When someone falls silent in a conversation, another person may well ask, ―What‘s wrong?‖ The silence does communicate a message. It may indicate that the receiver of the message does not hear the message, is angry at the message, needs time to think, or is embarrassed. Usually, low-context cultures view silence as communication gone wrong. To them， it indicates a rupture has occurred in the communication process.
Case Analysis: Silence in Japan
Perhaps the most obvious example is Japan, although other Asian countries share the Japanese attitude about silence. The Japanese believe that silence is preferable to conversation. It is through silence that one can discover the truth inside oneself. Contemplation and meditation take place in silence. Buddha taught that words make truth untrue, and there is a view in Japanese society that words contaminate understanding. Reading another person‘s inner core, a kind of communication without words, can only take place in silence. Speech distracts from true understanding. This attitude towards the use of silence can become a serious stumbling block in the
140 progress of negotiations between businesspeople from Japan and the United States. Most of the discussion in Japanese negotiations is in groups, and much is said through silence, facial expressions, and body gestures among the Japanese team. Silence to the Japanese is not empty. While Westerners typically view silence as gaps in conversation, the Japanese believe silence is part of conversation. In a crowded country, silence evokes space; a person can be in his or her own realm through silence, even though surrounded by others. Japanese speakers are comfortable with silence in communication and do not hurry to fill it up with speech.
10.3.10 Clothing and Physical Appearance The use of clothing and physical appearance to communicate is more obvious. Clothing can reflect cultural heritage. What we wear commonly communicates information such as group or subgroup membership and marital status. The significance of certain articles of clothing and the symbols that may be used in clothing are unique to each culture. If a person from a more casual culture with emphasis on comfort does business with someone older from a conservative and formal culture, dress can become a serious issue. Although Western business dress has been widely adopted among other cultures, you may wish to learn cultural distinctions in appropriate business attire. When visiting Saudi Arabia, for example, the Saudi might wear the traditional Arabic white flowing robe and headcloth. You would not, however, attempt to dress in a similar manner. You would dress in the same manner as you would for an important meeting in your U.S. office. Color of clothing is also a consideration because in some cultures, color has strong associations. Do not wear black or solid white in Thailand because these colors have funeral connotations. Avoid wearing all white in the People's Republic of China as white is the symbol of mourning. In the United States, black is typically worn at funerals but has no special significance in business situations. Shoes are considered inappropriate in certain situations in various cultures. They should not be worn in Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples. Shoes should also be removed when entering most Asian homes or restaurants. Place them neatly together facing the door you entered. Following the host's lead is a piece of good advice; if the host goes without shoes, so do you. Remember that in the Arabic culture, the soles of the feet should not be shown, so keep both feet on the floor or the bottoms of your feet covered. Women who conduct business abroad should be very careful to conform to local customs concerning appropriate attire. Women conducting business in the Arabian countries, for example, should avoid wearing slacks and should wear clothes that give good coverage such as long-sleeved dresses and dress/skirt lengths below the knees. In Europe, women do not wear slacks to the office or to nice restaurants. Ask before you go; consult a colleague who is familiar with the culture. Dress is an important factor in most women's careers. Research shows that when a woman dresses for success, it does not guarantee success, but if she dresses poorly or inappropriately, it almost always ensures failure.
141 Case Analysis: Formality of Dress
A group of professors from the United States attending a four-week seminar in Taipei were moaning about the heat and the lack of air conditioning. The seminar leader, a Chinese woman professor, at first did not say anything; she simply assumed that everyone agreed on what appropriate dress was for the seminar lectures and company visits. When some of the professors, however, started showing up in shorts and T-shirts, she asked them to dress up, meaning suit, shirt, and tie. The Americans immediately tried to negotiate down the expected level of formality. As a Chinese woman she felt very uncomfortable telling the mostly male group what to do, but finally she had to be direct. The group was to visit Chiang Kai-shek‘s tomb, and there was no compromise. She ordered suit, dress shirt, and tie, and the Americans finally gave in.
10.4 Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory Judee Burgoon has formalized a theory of nonverbal communication called the nonverbal expectancy violation theory. People hold expectations about the appropriateness of the nonverbal behaviors of others. These expectations are learned and culturally driven. For instance, in the United States, people expect to shake hands when they are introduced to someone. Burgoon believes that occasionally people violate nonverbal expectations. When this happens, the violation produces arousal, which can be physiological or cognitive and either positive or negative. For example, when someone stands too close to you, or touches you too much, your reaction, positive or negative, depends on whether that person is perceived as attractive or unattractive.
Case Analysis: Violation of Nonverbal Expectation
In the following two scenarios, Jim, Akira, and Mitsuko interact. Akira and Mitsuko are exchange students from Japan who are spending a semester studying at an American college. Jim is an American student at the same college. Notice how each violates the others' expectations without realizing it. When reading the scenes, keep in mind the different cultural orientations and the assumptions of nonverbal expectancy violation theory. Jim and Akira are at a party. Jim: (Nudges Akira and says loudly) This is a great party, eh? Akira: (Is startled－stands back－tries to put some distance between himself and Jim) Yes, thank you. Jim: (Leaning forward toward Akira, with direct eye contact) If you want to meet some girls, I could introduce you. Akira: (Shocked by such an offer, he backs away) But I don't know them. They might be upset. Jim: Well, how else are you going to meet them? Akira: (Uncomfortable) Maybe during a class or something
142
Mitsuko, another Japanese exchange student, approaches Jim and Akira. She knows Akira, but not Jim.
Mitsuko: Hello, Akira. (Bows slightly and looks down) Akira: Ah, Mitsuko, this is my friend Jim. Jim: Hi!(Forward leaning into her space) Mitsuko: Hi, Jim. (Bows slightly and does not make direct eye contact) Jim: Are you two friends? (Wonders why she won't look at him, thinks to himself, "Well, I'm not one of them. She probably thinks I'm ugly.") Akira: Yes, we know each other. A long pause ensues. Jim: (Thinks to himself, "This is going nowhere–I've got to think of something to say." He speaks rather loudly) Great party, hey guys?
Akira and Mitsuko both jump back.
Akira: (Thinks to himself, "This guy is too weird") Yeah, this is fun.
During this scenario, Jim violates Akira's kinesic, proxemic, paralinguistic, and haptic expectations. Several of the axioms and propositions from Burgoon's NEV theory can be applied to this interaction. Notice in Lines 1 through 4 that Akira perceives that Jim is standing too close, talking too loud, and thus backs away. From Akira's point of view, Jim violated his proxemic and paralinguistic expectations. In Line 1, Jim touches Akira, and that probably violated Akira's nonverbal expectations regarding haptics. From Jim's vantage point, Akira violated his expectations as well, by not looking at him and not responding to his offer that he introduced him to women.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective When we learn to communicate, we learn not only a spoken language but also various ways. Communicators use both verbal and nonverbal codes to communicate, listeners expect to receive both kinds of messages during a conversation. If a speaker uses nonverbal codes poorly or inappropriately, a listener may consider the person a poor speaker. However, misunderstandings may occur when the speakers and listeners are from different cultures that generally do not share the same nonverbal codes. In brief, the messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication. Narrowly speaking, nonverbal communication refers to intentional use of nonspoken symbols to communicate a specific message. Nonverbal communication codes or symbols or stimuli in a communicating setting can be divided into different types: Paralanguage / Metacommunication are the accompanying features of the voice. When the German poet Klopstock wrote ―The tones of human voices are mightier than strings or brass to move the soul‖, he meant that sounds we generate often communicate more than the words that they produce. We have the experience of
143 watching foreign movies. If we don‘t know the language they speak and there is no subtitle, we can still infer that performers are expressing anger, sorrow, joy, or any of a number of the voices. Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. People have different attitudes toward promptness, because they have different time orientations. People from monochronic cultures emphasize schedules, while people from polychronic cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict adherence to schedules. Communicating through the use of space is known as proxemics. Culrtures vary in such things as how living space is arranged and how close to stand together. The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics. Eyes play a central role in impression management. When people say that his eyes talk, they mean that eyes convey messages. Although eye contact is a very important way of communication, direct eye-to-eye contact is not a custom throughout the world. The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics. Americans feel uncomfortable with natural smells, so they spend millions of dollars to make them smell ―good‖. However, many cultures regard natural smells as normal. Most Arabs perceive a person‘s smell as an extension of the person. Haptics or touch refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact. There are different preferences in terms of touching people. We learn the rules, as we move from infancy into childhood. The wrong behavior of touching in strange cultures can create uncertainty and even ill feeling. Kinesics is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture and stance, and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages. Although any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, face, hands, and arms are the primary kinesic channels through which nonverbal messages are sent. Chromatics refers to the study of color use in affecting people’s mood, emotions, and impressions of others. The same color may be interpreted differently in different cultures. The wrong color of your clothes may make people dislike you, or even hate you. It is quite important to watch what color is appropriate in certain settings, when you are in a foreign country. Silence is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in various ways depending upon the situation, the duration of the silence, and the culture. An African proverb states, ―Silence is also speech‖. Clothing and Physical Appearance also serves as nonverbal symbols. We often identify a person‘s culture by his or her physical appearance and dress. Communication with another is often perceived by visual observations of his or her physical appearance. Nonverbal expectancy violence may lead to positive or negative reaction. Understanding the different nonverbal cues is very helpful for you to behave appropriately in intercultural communication settings.
Critical Thinking Questions
144 1. Are there more nonverbal behaviors across cultures that are alike or more that are different?
2. What is meant by ―nonverbal communication is rule governed‖?
3. How can studying the intercultural aspects of nonverbal behavior assist you in discovering your own ethnocentrism? Give your personal examples?
4. Give interpretations to the following nonverbal action from the perspective of your culture:
An adult pats a child‘s head.
A customer in a restaurant waves his hand over his head.
Two women walk hand in hand on the street.
5. How does clothing and physical appearance play a part in establishing good relationships?
145 ChapterⅪ Global Social Customs and Business Etiquette
Communication usually happens in certain contexts. There are communication rules, specified by context, which are culturally different. In this chapter, we introduce more about cultural differences in greeting, making introductions, dining practices, gift giving, tipping, business card exchange as well as customs associated with holidays and holy days. The knowledge will enable you to do the intercultural communication more competently.
11.1 Greeting Customs Customary greetings vary from culture to culture. When greeting people, the handshake is customary in many countries. However, in different cultures, handshakes vary from the soft grasp to the firm grasp. Embracing is also considered customary in many countries. People in these countries embrace each other in different manners. To greet people in an appropriate way is the first step of building up relationship.
Case Analysis: Greeting
British-born journalist Henry Fairlie, in writing "Why I Love America", recalled his encounter with a four-year-old boy riding his tricycle in the suburbs shortly after his arrival in the United States: "As I passed him, he said ‗Hi!‘ — just like that. No four-year-old boy had ever addressed me without an introduction before. Recovering from the culture shock, I found myself saying in return: ‗Well--hi!‘ He pedaled off, apparently satisfied." Fairlie, who comes from a country where one can tell another person's class from their greeting, observed that the greeting "Hi!" is a democracy. In America, anyone can say "Hi!" to anyone else (Fairlie, 1983). In addition to the informal "Hi!", when meeting someone, persons of the United States engage in other ritualistic greeting behavior. When greeting an office colleague, one person will say, "Good morning, how are you?" The appropriate response is, "Fine, thank you. And how are you?" Some people make the mistake of forgetting that this is only a ritual and will proceed to tell you in great detail the state of their health. Remember, the appropriate response is "Fine, thanks."
11.1.1 Handshake
The handshake is a physical link between two persons. Westerners shake hands by extending the right hand with the thumb up and out, fingers pointing toward the other‘s
146 hand so that one makes contact within the space between the thumb and first finger. It is considered an insult to refuse a handshake. Handshake is a common gesture/illustrator during a greeting in most parts of developed Kenya. However, when greeting a person of higher status, such as a teacher, the person of lower status should take the left hand (the hand not being used in the handshake) and grasp his or her own right arm somewhere in the proximity of the forearm during the shake. The handshake is a common greeting in China as well. In the United States, a firm handshake is appropriate. In France, a quick handshake with only slight pressure is preferred. In Ecuador, to greet a person without a handshake is a sign of special respect. In India, the handshake may be used by westernized citizens, but the preferred greeting is the Namaste—placing the palms together and nodding one‘s head.
11.1.2 Embracing Whereas embracing is considered inappropriate as a form of greeting in the United States and China, in other countries it is customary. In Latin America, a hearty embrace is common among women and men alike, and man may follow it with a friendly slap on the back. In Saudi Arabia, the handshake is accompanied with a light kiss; even males in Saudi Arabia kiss both cheeks after a handshake. In the Russian states, the ―bear hug‖ may follow a strong, firm handshake between good male friends.
11.1.3 Bowing Bowing is the traditional way of greeting in Northeast Asian countries like Korea and Japan. When Koreans greet elders, professors, persons of power, and persons of higher status, they bow lower and longer and divert eye contact. When businesspeople or friends meet, the bow is generally shorter and quicker. In Korea, it‘s important to see the other person‘s face when you bow. However, when Japanese bow, they don‘t look directly at the other person‘s eyes. In Japan, the traditional form of greeting is a bow or several bows. In Japan, the appropriate bow is with the hands sliding down toward the knees, back and neck stiff, and eyes averted. But In both countries, people bow to show respect. As in other Asian cultures, bowing recognizes social stratification. Social subordinates should bow lower and longer than their superiors. Persons of equal status match bows unless one is younger, in which case the younger person should bow a shade lower and longer. The eyes should always be lowered.
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Bowing Is the Customary Greeting in Most Asian Cultures
11.2 Dining Practices Cultural dining practices vary widely. In different cultures, the time for each meal varies. In many parts of the world, the main meal is at noon while in the United States the main meal is in the evening. In Mexico, lunchtime is from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. and lunch is the main meal of the day. However, in places near the United States-Mexican border, local businesses conform more to the U.S. lunchtime of noon to 2 p.m. The dinner hour also varies. In the United States, the dinner hour varies from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m. but in such countries as Spain, it may be as late as 10 p.m. In some cultures, business meals are eaten in private homes while in other cultures they are usually eaten at restaurants. When entertaining visitors from other countries, be considerate and ask them whether they prefer the main meal at noon or in the evening and take them to restaurants where they would have a choice of a light or heavy meal. Cultural variations exist in the number of courses typically served as well as when the salad is served. A formal luncheon usually consists of two to three courses, and a formal dinner consists of three to seven courses. In some countries including those in Latin America, even informal meals typically have numerous courses. In Italy and France, salads are often served after the main course rather than before.
11.2.1 Drinking Glasses Several glasses will be placed at the upper right above the eating utensils. They will be arranged from the right to the left in the order of the courses to be served. How to use them properly is what is concerned in this part. Generally, there are goblets and cups. Goblets, including champagne glasses, red wine glasses, and so on, serve for wine, and cups serve for tea. When using goblet, you are supposed to hold the body of the glass lower than the middle part with figures; when iced wine is served, you are supposed to hold the foot of the glass, lest it be warmed by your hand.
Champagne Glass Red Wine Glasses Flashing Stem Glass Glass Candle Holder
11.2.2 Tableware Most Americans are less formal than Europeans, but formal dining has a specific order of courses just as it is in China. How to use fork and spoon is also important for dining manners. In general use, both spoon and fork are held horizontally by balancing them between the first knuckle of the middle finger and the tip of the index finger while the thumb steadies the handle. The knife is used with the tip of the index finger gently pressing out over the top of the blade to guide as you cut. a. U.S. eating style
148 By American custom, which was brought about partly by the late introduction of the fork into the culture, all three utensils are intended for use primarily with the right hand, which is the more capable hand for most people. This leads to some complicated maneuvering when foods, such as meat, require the use of knife and fork to obtain a bite of manageable size. When this is the case, the fork is held in the left hand, turned so that the tines point downward, the better to hold the meat in place while the right hand operates the knife. After a bite-sized piece has been cut, the diner sets the knife down on the plate and transfers the fork to the right hand, so that it can be used to carry the newly cut morsel to the mouth. Emily Post calls this the "zig-zag" style. b. Continental eating style The European, or "Continental" style of using knife and fork is somewhat more efficient, and its practice is also common in the United States, where left-handed children are no longer forced to learn to wield a fork with their right hands. According to this method, the fork is held continuously in the left hand and used for eating. When food must be cut, the fork is used exactly as in the American style, except that once the bite has been separated from the whole, it is conveyed directly to the mouth on the downward-facing fork. Regardless of which style is used to operate fork and knife, it is important never to cut more than one or two bites at one time. c. Asian eating style Asians use chopsticks especially for eating rice, but may use a spoon for soup. They appreciate foreigners‘ attempting to use chopsticks and are often willing to demonstrate correct usage. d. Other dining habits Other cultural variations in dining also exist. Tahitian food is eaten with the fingers. In the Middle East, be prepared to eat with your fingers if your host does but use the right hand only.
11.2.3 Manners at the Table When you are not eating, keep your hands on your lap or no more than the wrists resting on the table. Do not talk while chewing food and never chew with your mouth open. These are all good manners at the table. There are a lot to learn in this part. In Bolivia, you are expected to clean your plate; Egyptians, however, consider it impolite to eat everything on your plate. A dining practice in France that seems unusual to those in other cultures is the custom of bringing pet dogs into restaurants where the waiter takes the dog into the kitchen to be fed a treat. Dogs, in most cultures, are not allowed in public eating establishments. They may, however, be on the menu in such Asian countries as South Korea. Dining in Japan, especially in Japanese homes, requires sitting in a kneeling position on a tatami mat. Men keep their knees 3 or 4 inches apart; women keep their knees together. Being able to lower yourself to this position and rise from it gracefully requires practice. If you have frequent contact with the Japanese, practicing this art would be warranted.
149 Cultural Tips: Table Manners for a Typical Evening Meal in the United States
1. Sit—the host will tell you where to sit, or you ask. 2. Wait for others to start eating. Many homes will pray first. 3. Family style meal—food is passed to the right. 4. Try a little of everything—do not take a lot of anything. 5. If you do not want something, just pass it on; You do not need to say anything. If they ask, say, "It looks good, but I think I won't have any. Thank you." 6. Keep the table and table-cloth as clean as possible. Do not put bones or anything on the table. Things that are not eaten should be put on your plate. 7. Do not spit anything out. If there is something in your mouth that you cannot swallow, quietly put it in your paper napkin and then go on (e.g. bones, seeds, etc.). 8. Do not talk with food in your mouth! Wait until you have swallowed everything before talking. 9. Burping—don't!! It is considered rude. 10. Slurping—don't!! Drinking soup or eating noodles - be quiet. 11. When food is passed to you, say, "Thank You." 12. When you would like more of some food and it is not right in front of you, say, "Please pass the green beans." 13. Do not reach across the table or in front of someone to get something - that is rude. Ask them to pass it to you. 14. If you need to leave the table to go to the bathroom or do something, say, "Excuse me for a moment, please." 15. If your hostess wants to serve you but you don't want to eat it, say, "Thank you. It looks very good, but I'm not quite used to American food yet. Maybe next time, thanks." 16. Meals are to be slow, pleasant, leisurely times. Enjoy your food, but talk too. 17. Watch how fast others are eating. Try not to be too slow or too fast - keep up with their pace. 18. When you have finished eating, say "What a delicious meal! Thank you so much." Wait for all to be finished before leaving the table. 19. Do not touch your nose, hair or teeth at the table. 20. Toothpicks—are not usually on the table in a home. After the meal, go to the bathroom and clean your teeth if you need to. In restaurants, they are usually at the counter where you pay as you go out. Again, it is best to clean your teeth in the bathroom.
11.3 Male and Female Relationship In high-context societies such as the Arabic culture, people have definite ideas on
150 what constitutes proper behaviors between males and females. In low-context cultures such as the United States, little agreement exists. So a wide range of behaviors may be observed as far as the male/female relationships are concerned.
11.3.1 Stereotypes of Male/Female Relationship The relationships between men and women vary from culture to culture. People are likely to make some stereotypes in understanding acceptable male/female relationships in some cultures. U.S. American men are viewed as weak if they permit women to dominate them. People think American women are domineering and ―loose‖; Asian women are nonassertive and submissive; Latin American males are predatory and constantly pursue women for sexual relationships. These misunderstanding of male/female relationships will cause problems in intercultural communication. Cultural differences also exist concerning the status of women in a society. Women in some cultures play a less prominent role in business than men do. The Arabs are becoming more accustomed to women executives, and they are beginning to accept women executives from other countries. U.S. women doing business with the Arabs should understand this difference in cultural attitude and should make a special effort to conduct themselves appropriately including dressing very modestly. In some Middle Eastern countries, men may refuse to work with women; women executives in Latin America may not receive the same respect given to men executives. Women in the United States are being given increased opportunities for business travel, management positions in overseas operations, and transfers to overseas assignments.
11.3.2 Male/Female Relationship in the Workplace The equality of men and women in the workplace has always been a sensitive issue. Treatment of men and women in the workplace differs substantially from culture to culture. In United States, most people accept that men and women can work side by side in the workplace and that they can have business colleagues of the opposite gender. In Mexico, male supervisors customarily kiss their female secretaries on the cheek each morning or embrace them.
11.3.3 Female Roles in International Business With the globalization of business, businessmen from male-dominated cultures should be smart enough to realize that the rest of the world does not follow their gender norms and they had better accept it if they wish to deal internationally. They should be aware that women may occupy radically different social, cultural, legal and economic positions in their home country. a. In Asia Traditionally, the roles of men: ruler, protector, breadwinner, and women: wife, homemaker, child-raiser, have been clearly defined in many Asian cultures. Asian cultures have always valued male offsprings more than female. ―Female occupations‖ considered by Asian males are: advertising and public relations, fashion and design, consumer products and cosmetics. The fact that the visiting businessperson is a foreigner and a woman will create certain pressure on Asian
151 businessmen to do the right thing. b. In Latin America Even like most Asian countries, the Latin American males think that the place for female should be at home, generally, the visiting female professionals will find themselves be treated well. There will be no condescending attitudes at the negotiating table. c. In Europe Attitudes towards women vary greatly on a country-to-country basis but the overall tone of the continent is one of male domination. A man is, by tradition, the family breadwinner and the woman‘s true place is in the family. In some Eastern and central Europe states, if a management job comes open, it is reserved for a man. As a general rule, when the employment situation becomes tight, the woman is sent back to her family regardless of her qualifications or performance. d. In Africa Gains are very hard for females to make in both politics and business in Africa. Even in South Africa, probably the most progressive country gender-wise on the continent, women‘s rights are few. Women comprise just 2 percent of board members within South Africa‘s top 1,000 companies. Women now make up 41 percent of the country‘s workforce, but they still receive on average just 50 percent of the pay of males.
11.4 Position and Status Position and status may have an impact on the success of intercultural communication encounters. No standard definition of social class exists that applies to all countries because people in different cultures have their own ways of identifying the classes.
11.4.1 Social Status In some cultures, people show little respect for rank and authority. While in other cultures, people are very conscious of position and power. Although the United States is not considered a nation of classes, distinctions in position and status do exist. Because class distinctions in the United States are subtle, visitors from other cultures may not be able to spot the existence of a class structure and may believe the official propaganda of social equality. Visitors to New York, Washington, D.C., and other cities, however, may see both the homeless and more affluent persons in public places. Although a system of inherited titles and ranks does not exist in the United States, certain factors distinguish between the top class, the upper middle class, the mid-middle class, and the lower middle class.
Case Analysis: Clashing Cultural Concepts on the Job
In the following conversation, American businessman Jim Neumouth is applying for a job in Japanese businessman Kietaro Matsumoto's corporation, located in Kyoto, Japan. Kietaro: So, Mr. Neumouth, why would you like to work for our corporation?
152 Jim: I believe I have the necessary skills and experience for this position. I'm very independent, I set very high goals for myself, and I believe your company will allow me to pursue them. Kietaro: What do you mean by ―goals‖? Jim: I have very high sales objectives. I try to reach the top in whatever I do. One of my goals is to become your leading salesperson. For example, I had the highest percentage of sales of anyone in the company I worked for in the United States. I was named salesperson of the year in 2005. Kietaro: I see, that's very impressive. Jim: Thanks. Now I'd like to expand into an international market, and I'd like to bring my experience and motivation to your company. I think I can be the best here, too.
In the above conversation, Mr. Neumouth does a good job of expressing his talents and experience. In the United States, he might appear like the ideal candidate. However, to Mr. Matsumoto, he does not appear to be a team player because he may disrupt the harmony of his sales teams.
11.4.2 Status and Education Status is associated with education in a number of cultures. Educational titles are used in introductions as a sign of respect and acknowledgment of the person‘s educational achievement. In Germany and Italy, executives and other professionals are proud of titles preceding their names as they often reflect their education or profession. People with a college degree are entitled to be called Doctor; the same rule applies to architects and lawyers. In Germany, the U.S. equivalent of president or managing director of a company is called Herr Direktor; a medical doctor, if a woman, is called Frau Doktor and a female engineer is addressed as Frau Ingenieur. In Mexico, a lawyer is addressed as Licenciado, a title that is considered very important. In Great Britain, special protocol exists for addressing royalty, peers, clergy, and others. The managing director in a British firm is usually the top official and equivalent to a U.S. corporate president. In some cultures such as India, a very rigid class system exists with the society divided into castes. The particular caste a person belongs to is determined at birth; each caste system has its status, rights, and duties. Although discrimination based on caste has been outlawed, in many areas particularly rural ones, it is still a major influence on life in India. In India's rigid caste system, interaction between members of different castes is often limited as in the case of India's untouchables.
11.4.3 Status and Age Cultural differences also exist concerning the status of age and hierarchy in some societies. In China, people are very aware of age and hierarchy. Age is viewed as an indication of seniority. The Arabians have a great respect for age. Advanced years represent wisdom and respect. Age takes precedence over rank, but rank is still important.
153 Case Analysis: Age in Organizations
This is true in Asia where older members of organizations enjoy great freedom and power. They can make choices for themselves and others in a way not open to younger people. Since others must listen to them and be directed by them, they have a degree of freedom from the need to conform that only comes with age. They have the most impressive job titles and often the most responsible jobs. When U.S. organizations send executives to Asia, they often risk not being taken seriously unless their representatives look appropriately senior. In a delegation to a Vietnamese trading corporation, for example, the oldest-looking person will usually be assumed by the Vietnamese to be the leader of the group. In cultures that equate youthfulness with vigor, some people change white hair to more youthful colors; in Asia, white hair earns respect. In a delegation of three people, one of whom has white hair, that one will be first to be seated, first to be greeted, first through doors, and so forth. Young executives puzzle Asian hosts, since in Asia one only becomes high ranking with age. By contrast, in youth-oriented cultures being young seems to mean having more choices, more power, more energy, and more freedom than being old. Advertisements for consumer products in the West — cars, liquor, clothing, watches, fitness equipment—appeal to the desire to be vigorous, healthy, and powerful, and these are related to looking young. Young corporate heroes are profiled in weekend newspaper supplements because they are young. Middle-aged people even appear at times to take lessons from their children on how to dress, what activities to pursue, how to wear their hair, and what slang to use, in an attitude of respect for youth that baffles members of seniority-oriented cultures. The word old has had connotations: it means loss of power—physical, mental, political, sexual—and with it, loss of respect, loss of capability, loss of status, loss of position. Old employees are ―kicked upstairs‖, ―put out to pasture‖, or ―waiting for retirement‖. The great differences in how age is valued are important for businesspeople to understand. If your employees include a number of Asians, you may not be prepared for their dismay when older workers are laid off. On the other hand, Asian managers who retain older workers out of respect for their age, when younger workers are more productive and more adaptable, risk the scorn of employees from youth-oriented cultures.
11.4.4. Status and Rank In the Japanese society, knowing the rank of the people with whom you come in contact is important. The middle-level manager in a large company outranks a department head from a smaller company. The higher the rank of the person you are introduced to, the lower you bow. The person of lower rank bows first and lowest. Status is also shown by who goes first when entering a room or an elevator. Those of lower rank wait for those of higher rank to precede them. If you are a foreign guest, you may be expected to enter a room ahead of others so if you are motioned to enter the room, do so quickly.
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11.5 Customs Associated with Holidays and Holy Days An awareness of the holidays and holy days of other cultures is important in scheduling telephone calls and business trips. You will want to consider this information when planning a trip abroad, because business may not be conducted on some of these special days. How you behave in the holiday time of a culture will be significant for your stay in foreign countries.
11.5.1 In the United States Holidays may celebrate a prominent person‘s birthday (Washington‘s Birthday), a historic event (Independence Day), or pay homage to a group (Veterans‘ Day and Memorial Day. Holy days are associated with religious observances (Ramadan, Christmas and Easter). People who travel to the United States, for example, should understand that it is not customary to conduct business on Christmas Day or Thanksgiving.
11.5.2 In the Catholic Countries Some Catholic countries such as Germany have a carnival season which is not a good time for conducting business. Almost all of the Catholic regions and cities across the German-speaking world (and the rest of Europe) celebrate carnival in a big way. Germanic Carnival celebrations vary from region to region, sometimes even taking place at different times. The main event of Carnival is the parade on Rosenmontag (Rose Monday).
German model Heidi Klum, dressed as a dragon, waves to the crowd during a carnival parade in February 6th, 2005. The street carnival in Germany reaches its peak on Monday with the processions on Rose Monday—when hundreds of thousands of people all over Germany will celebrate carnival.
11.6 Business Etiquette: Business Card Exchanges, Tipping, and Gift Giving When conducting business abroad with someone of another culture, you are supposed to have the knowledge of certain rules of business and social etiquette. Etiquette refers to manners and behaviors considered acceptable in social and business situations. In this part, you will get to know three important business etiquettes: business card exchanges, tipping and gift giving.
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11.6.1 Business Card Exchanges Since all business contacts require a business card, an important aspect of business protocol is to know the proper procedure for exchanging business cards. It is important to include your position and titles or degrees in addition to your company name on your card. The presentation of the business card is a business ritual. Present the business card with both hands, holding the edge with your name facing the recipient. The cards should be clean and unbent. When you are given a card, treat it with respect. Read it in the presence of the person. This will help you remember the name. If you are seated at a table, place the cards on the table in front of you in order of precedence. At the end of the meeting or the meal, put the cards in your card case. Do not write on the face of the card until the meeting is over. Presentation of the card also varies with culture.
11.6.2 Tipping Tipping is a fundamental part of service industries today and is a ―reward‖ for services performed for guests and clients. The word ―tip‖ originates from the mid-eighteenth century sign used by innkeepers. Patrons left a few coins on the table before ordering a meal or a drink and were served faster. Nowadays, people communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically mean and those who are generous will reveal these traits by their tipping behavior. Trends in tipping appear to keep changing with time. a. Tipping in the United States Traveling in the United States involves numerous situations in which tipping is expected. When traveling, have a supply of $1 and $5 bills in your pocket for tipping the cab driver, the bellhop, and other service personnel who may carry your luggage, summon a cab, or perform other services such as delivering food or small appliances to your hotel room. Travel tipping needs to be included in anticipated travel expenses; tipping service personnel at a resort or luxury hotel may add an additional 25 percent to your bill. b. Tipping in Europe In Europe, a service charge is added to your restaurant and hotel bill; you are usually not expected to leave an additional tip. In the absence of a service charge, leave the usual 15 to 20 percent that you would leave in the United States. c. Tipping in a non-tipping culture Tipping in a non-tipping culture can offend or insult the people of that culture. Tipping in Japan is frowned upon. People in this culture consider helping you with your luggage as a gesture of hospitality and would be offended if you tipped them. If a hotel employee has performed an extra service that you wish to reward, place the yen in an envelope since the Japanese would consider openly receiving money as embarrassing or as ―losing face.‖
11.6.3 Gift Giving Each country has its seasons and occasions for giving gifts. Gift giving in some cultures is an art and is considered an integral part of building intercultural professional and social relationships. The careful selection and wrapping of a gift and presenting it at
156 the proper time conveys to others your social sensitivity and good manners. a. Gift giving in the United States Business gifts in the United States are very modest in price; the rule to follow is to limit the price to $25 or less. Business gifts are sometimes given to members of your staff on such occasions as birthdays and Christmas. In the United States, gifts are opened in front of the giver. The gift is admired, and appreciation is expressed verbally. The oral expression of thanks is followed by a written note of appreciation unless the gift is small and is used as an advertisement. If you are new in an office, ask what tradition is usually followed in exchanging gifts. Several years ago when the office Christmas party was popular, colleagues often exchanged gifts as part of the occasion. The practice of exchanging gifts among colleagues, even token gifts (the office grab bag), seems to have been discontinued in many firms in favor of contributing the amount of money you would spend on such gifts to a local food bank or pooling the amount to give gifts of food or money to members of the custodial staff. b. Gift giving in Japan Gift giving is very much a part of conducting business in countries as Japan. Companies give gifts to their customers as an expression of appreciation for past and future business. The Japanese are a gracious people for whom gift giving seems to be an art. The wrapping of the gift and the manner of presenting it are just as important as the gift itself. Favorite gifts with the Japanese are imported liquor, consumables of high quality, and designer-made products with such names as Gucci. Musical tapes and CDs are also good choices. Avoid giving gifts manufactured elsewhere in Asia as this would be an insult. Please read the following example: A Japanese-American, whose firm conducted business in Japan, told how he once averted a near disaster in United States-Japanese relations. His company selected and addressed 500 Christmas cards to its Japanese joint-venture partner. The cards were red (in Japan, funeral notices are red.) The Japanese-American manager stopped the mail just in time. He said, ―We almost sent 500 funeral cards to our Japanese partner!‖
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective Being sensitive to cultural variations when making introductions will ensure that your first encounter with a person from another country will leave a positive impression. First impressions are made only once but are remembered for a long time. To leave a good impression in the process of intercultural communication, social customs and business etiquettes are significant. Greeting customs vary from culture to culture. Introductions are accompanied by a handshake, an embrace, or a bow depending upon the culture. Handshakes may vary from the soft handshake to the firm handshake. Hugging or embracing when being introduced is considered inappropriate in some cultures but is common in others. The bow, common in China and Japan, is uncommon in many other cultures. Dining practices are different in various cultures. Dining practices involve table manners and appropriate ways of using tableware. How to use fork and spoon varies from
157 culture to culture. The U.S. eating style and continental eating style are two basic ways. How to place glasses is also a question worth considering in different cultures. Manners at table are concerned about when to talk and where to put your hands on. Understanding acceptable male/female relationships in different cultures also plays an important role in intercultural communication. For example, U.S. women are regarded as domineering and ―loose‖. Correspondingly, U.S. American men are viewed as weak who permit women to dominate them. Asian women are nonassertive and submissive in the eyes of people from other cultures. A stereotype of Latin American males is that they are predatory and constantly pursue women for sexual relationships. Social status has great impact on the success of intercultural communication encounters. People in different cultures have their own ways of identifying social status. In some cultures, people show little respect for rank and authority. While in other cultures, people are very conscious of position and power. Social status is related to education, age and rank in different cultures. Getting to know some basic holidays and holy days is helpful in intercultural communication. People have various celebrating ceremonies and traditional rituals and they may not work on these special days. In some religious countries, the carnival season is not a good time for visiting and conducting business. Many intercultural communications occur in business meetings and negotiations, so that certain knowledge about the etiquette of the host culture is required. Etiquette refers to manners and behavior considered acceptable in social and business situations. Business card exchanges, tipping and gift giving are regarded as three important business etiquettes. The presentation of the business card is a business ritual. Present the business card with both hands, holding the edge with your name facing the recipient. When you are given a card, treat it with respect. Read it in the presence of the person. Tipping is a fundamental part of service industries today and is a ―reward‖ for services performed for guests and clients. People communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically mean and those who are generous will reveal these traits by their tipping behavior. Trends in tipping appear to keep changing with time. Each country has its seasons and occasions for giving gifts. Gift giving in some cultures is an art and is considered an integral part of building intercultural professional and social relationships. The careful selection and wrapping of a gift and presenting it at the proper time convey to others your social sensitivity and good manners. Westerners have a proverb, ―You have only one chance to make a good first impression.‖ This is true particularly in business. To be successful in the competitive business world, you must know the right social customs and business etiquette.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What is the importance of appropriate etiquette and protocol in intercultural business communication?
2. How do cultural differences in dining and drinking practices affect intercultural communication?
158 3. How do gift giving practices vary from culture to culture and what roles do gift giving play in establishing favorable intercultural relations?
4. Why is it very important to know about the customs associated with holidays and holy days of the country in which you are traveling or conducting business?
5. What do you know about some other business etiquette that is not discussed in this chapter?
159 ChapterⅫ Strategies for Improving Intercultural
Communication Competence
Understanding culture and communication is the prerequisite for effective intercultural communication. To achieve this goal also requires intercultural communication competence that may help to overcome intercultural communication barriers. In this chapter, some strategies for improving intercultural communication competence are introduced from the aspects of cognition, affection and behavior.
12.1 Know Yourself When we interact with people, no matter those from our own culture or those from different culture, we tend to behave according to our own cultural system. The knowledge of our own culture has been internalized in the process of socialization, and our behaviors are directed by it at the unconscious level. In another word, we do without the consideration of why. We don‘t know or understand ourselves in terms of culture, personal attitude, and communication style.
12.1.1 Know Your Culture In this book, we have talked about many intercultural communication barriers, most of which happen because we judge or observe things from the angle of our own culture. When we feel ―they‖, people from other culture are disgusting or confusing, we make the mistake of choosing the wrong instrument. It is just like we judge whether the cat is cute by the standard of a bulldog. There are many ways to understand your own culture better, such as reading certain books, watching television programs related to your subject, talking with your teachers and friends, or doing research works. Knowing more about your own culture, you will be more aware of the cultural difference among different cultures, and make judgment of what is good and bad in your culture.
12.1.2 Know Your Personal Attitudes It may be easier for us to tell what person he is than to tell what person we are, for we often make judgments from our own point of view which believes that we are the most appropriate. We may say without any hesitation that I am an honest person or I am a just person, but we could also come to wrong conclusions when judging people from different cultural backgrounds. That is because we are unaware of the stereotype and prejudice we hold toward them. If you hold a hostile attitude toward a person from an ―enemy‖ country, your precommunication attitude will color your response to what he says when communication happens. Knowing your likes, dislikes, and degrees of personal ethnocentrism enables you to place them out in the open so that you can detect the ways in which these attitudes influence communication. Hidden personal premises, if they should be directed at ideas, people, or entire cultures, are often the cause of many of your difficulties.
160 12.1.3 Know Your Communication Style Barnlund offers an insightful interpretation of what our individual styles often include: By communication style is meant that the topics people prefer to discuss, their favorite forms of interaction—ritual, repartee, argument, self-disclosure—and the depth of involvement they demand of each other. It includes the extent to which communicants rely upon the same channel—vocal, verbal, physical—for conveying information, and the extent to which they are tuned to the same level of meaning, that is, to the factual or emotional content of messages. People are often aware of the communication styles of the ones they interact with, and unaware of those held by themselves. If you perceive yourself in one way, and the people with whom you interact perceive you in another way, serious problem can arise. To improve the way you communicate, you must have some ideas of how you present yourself. If, for instance, you see yourself as patient and calm, but you appear rushed and anxious, you will have a hard time understanding why people respond to you as they do. As we have noted elsewhere, your most taken-for-granted behaviors are often hidden from your consciousness. Many communication scholars have attempted to isolate the characteristics that compose a communication personality. One such inventory, which Norton has proposed, has nine characteristics. In Table 12-1, we offer a summary of each of these so that you can evaluate your own communication style.
Table 12-1 Communication Characteristics
Trait Communication characteristics Dominant Speaks frequently; interrupts and controls conversations Dramatic Very expressive language; often exaggerates and embellishes Contentious Argumentative and often hostile Animated Energetic and expressive gestures and facial expressions Impression-leaving States ideas and feelings in an indelible fashion Relaxed Calm, comfortable, and seldom nervous around others Attentive Good listeners; offers verbal and nonverbal encouragement to the speaker Open Discloses personal information; shows emotions and feelings Friendly Offers positive feedback and encouragement
In addition to Norton‘s communication characteristics, there are also some questions that may help you understand more about your own communication style. Do I seem at ease or tense? Do I often change the subject without taking the other person into consideration? Do I deprecate the statements of others? Do I smile often? Do I interrupt repeatedly? Do I show sympathy when someone has a problem? Do my actions tend to lower the other person‘s self-esteem?
161 Do I employ a pleasant tone of voice when I talk to people? Do I tend to pick the topics for discussion or do I share topic selection? What does my tone of voice suggest? How do I react to being touched by a stranger?
12.1.4 Monitor Yourself As what has been mentioned, knowing others is easier than knowing ourselves, for we observe others when we interact with them. In that case, we have to observe ourselves intentionally when we communicate with people. Since it is so irregular to walk around asking people if we look relaxed, argumentative, friendly, animated, and the like, we‘d better be sensitive to the feedback we receive and candid in the reading of that feedback. The process of self-observation and analysis is often called ―self-monitoring‖. Some of the advantages associated with self-monitoring are discovering what appropriate behavior is in each situation, having control of your emotional reactions, creating good impressions, and modifying your behavior as you move from situation to situation. Being self-aware is not watching actions so that you can be the center of attraction; rather, it is for the purpose of gaining honest and candid insight into your cultural and individual patterns of communication so that you can improve your intercultural skills.
12.2 Consider the Physical and Human Settings Communication is contextual. Human behaviors are shaped by the values, customs, norms, and so on in their particular cultural system. Communicators in the intercultural communication context should know appropriateness of timing, physical setting, and customs of the target culture.
12.2.1 Timing People have different time orientations, and hence develop different attitudes and behavioral modes concerning time. The effective communicators know the importance of timing and have the skill to determine the appropriate time to talk about a subject. If you are in the United States, you should be aware that, as far as business appointment is concerned, punctuality is so sacred that you are not supposed to be late. Being five minutes late calls for a brief apology; ten or fifteen minutes needs a more elaborate apology, or, if possible, a telephone call warning of the delay. American time and consciousness are fixed in the present. Americans don‘t want to wait; they want results now. They move at a rapid pace; everything about their business lives is hurried. Wanting quick answers and quick solutions, they are not used to waiting long periods of time for decisions and become anxious when decisions are not made promptly. French perception and handling of time is very different from German or American system. They don‘t always adhere to schedules or appointments, delivery dates, or deadlines. It‘s wise to reconfirm appointments one or two days in advance, and don‘t be alarmed if you have to wait.
12.2.2 Physical Setting While talking about the nonverbal communication system, we have mentioned the
162 importance of physical settings. Improper physical settings lead to tense troposphere for communicators who are not used to it, therefore lead to unnecessary risk of communication failure. In the United States, during the business negotiations, the two negotiation teams usually sit facing each other. However, for much of the world, this arrangement maximizes competition, not cooperation. In many Arab countries, people often conduct business while sitting on the floor. And in Finland, there are major corporations that use the sauna bath as a setting for meetings. Culture also plays a role in the education setting. In the United States, educational system tends to favor a more interactive classroom. In this setting, students will often move about the classroom and interact with the teacher and fellow students. This is not a physical setting that is found throughout the world. In China and Japan, there is far less student activity in the classroom. Physical settings reflect culture, so a competent intercultural communicator should have certain knowledge of the different priorities of settings in the target culture.
12.2.3 Customs Customs refer to some practice followed by people of a particular group or region. Due to the cultural diversity, people have different social customs to follow. As a competent intercultural communicator, you are supposed to know the customs of the target culture, and follow the rule that ―When in Rome, do as the Romans do‖. Just as what has been mentioned in Chapter 9, there are great differences concerning social practice of etiquette. For instance, German culture is structured by a large number of explicit rules and regulations which, written and unwritten, cover both the professional and private life of Germans. Many are obvious (all residents must register with a local office) and some are subtle (when you bring flowers as a gift, the bouquet should consist of an odd number of flowers). Since effective intercultural communication refers to the appropriate behaviors, the knowledge of appropriateness is required. It seems to be a hard work, but you can start from the most general ones to specific ones. The accumulation of experiences will help you become a competent communicator. In addition to knowledge about customs in the target culture, you also have to overcome some emotional barriers. Social customs embody people‘s beliefs and values, and the diversity of social customs usually causes a number of ethical dilemmas. Sometime it is difficult for people to change their behaviors to match the customs that contradict their own beliefs and values. For example, many American women, who were taught to value freedom and equality, may find it difficult to respond positively to the custom that requires women to wear veils in public and to use male drivers only. The ethical dilemma that intercultural communicators face is the decision about how far to go in adapting their behaviors to another culture.
12.3 Seek to Understand Diverse Message Systems When we try to develop the competence of intercultural communication, language, as one of the important ways of communication, can‘t be ignored. From Chapter 3, we know that we encode our message first with symbols. Since we humans don‘t share a common
163 code system, we have to learn the tool of communication.
12.3.1 Try to Learn the Languages of Other Cultures There are almost over 6,000 different languages in the world. If you have a plan to study, work or travel in one particular culture, you should learn their language. For example, you would be far more effective if you could speak Spanish when doing business in Mexico. In China, although there are many people learning Russian, Japanese, French, German, Spanish, Korean and so on, most people learn English as their second language. English is one of the most popular languages used in business context and official interactions. Proficient language using is a vital aspect for effective intercultural communication.
12.3.2 Understand Cultural Variations in the Use of Language In this book, the close relation between culture and language has been stressed at great level. When learning a foreign language, it is very important to be aware of the cultural factors conveyed in the language. Much of Jewish culture is reflected in the wide use of stories, parables, and allegories. People, events, and circumstances are talked about in vivid narratives. For many Jews, the story is as important as the point being made by the story. And if you were interacting with Arabs, it would be useful to understand some unique characteristics of their language code. As Nydell points out: There are many situations in which verbal statements are required by etiquette. Meeting someone’s small child calls for praise, carefully mixed with blessings; the most common are “May God keep him” or “This is what God wills.” Such statements reassure the parents that there is no envy (you certainly would not add, “I wish I had a child like this!”). In this book, other aspects of language-culture relation have also been introduced. Understanding and being aware of the cultural variation contribute a lot to developing intercultural communication competence.
12.3.3 Remember That Words Are “Cultural Bound” We learn English as a second language. Sometimes we wonder why we don‘t speak in the way the native speaker does, though we believe we can speak fluently. Some native speakers suggest that it is possibly not the problem of your language proficiency but the manner of using the language. We should be aware that words are cultural bound, so we may speak English (with English words and grammar) in Chinese way. There are some ways to improve the manner we speak English. a. Study Idioms Since most words are cultural bound, we might be extremely careful when using idioms. It is estimated that the English language has over fifteen thousand idioms that native English speakers use on a regular basis. By definition, idioms are a group of words that when used together have a particular meaning different from the sum of the meanings of the individual words in isolation. Hence idioms are not capable of literal translation. Here, we have some idioms in the following sentences. If you can‘t figure out their cultural
164 meanings, you can‘t really understand them. Now just hold your horses, you are acting like a bull in a china shop. Of course it is true, I have had my eyes and ears peeled and got it from the grapevine. Let‘s put this plan to the acid test by looking at the nuts and bolts of the deal. We need to be careful that the tail doesn‘t wag the dog. b. Avoid Ambiguity Ambiguous words and phrases represent another problem we face when speaking to native speakers. Ambiguity, when used in either speaking or writing, is confusing because what is being spoken or written can be interpreted in more than one way. This multi-meaning dimension of the discourse can cause a great deal of confusion. You can experience the ambiguous expression in the following sentence: At our school we have cut dropouts in half. It appears that red tape is holding up the new bridge. The new vaccine may contain rabies. At our school kids make nutritious snacks. The new study of obesity is looking for larger test groups. There is another aspect that we should be aware of, that is, people with different experiences will have different expressions of words and meanings. As a competent communicator, one should also consider the personal trait and experience of his counterpart in the process of decoding.
12.3.4 Be Aware of Nonverbal Codes As you learned in Chapter 10, nonverbal behaviors also shift from culture to culture. As a means of communication, misunderstanding the nonverbal codes may lead to intercultural communication failure or even conflicts. In Japan, a female may cover her mouth out of shyness, but in America, people often associate the same action with fear. Being aware of the differences in using nonverbal codes is the first step to improve intercultural communication competence. Learning what those nonverbal codes mean in the target language is the second step. Observe what other people do is a good way. You may watch films or TV programs to improve your competence. Furthermore, since culture changes, you should know that what might be acceptable before may be offensive today. Getting new materials is a good suggestion.
12.3.5 Achieve Clarity Being sensitive to your surroundings and to other people is one of the hallmarks of a competent intercultural communicator. Intercultural sensitivity is an individual‘s ability to develop a positive emotion towards understanding and appreciating cultural differences in order to promote appropriate and effective behavior in intercultural communication. Part of the sensitivity means learning about diverse coding systems and developing code sensitivity toward the message systems used by other cultures. Guirgham offers a useful checklist to use as a guide when your message system is different from that of people you are communicating with. State points clearly and precisely.
165 Adjust to the other person‘s level of understanding without being demeaning. Explain jargon. Be careful in your use of idioms. Slow your speaking down without being insulting. Speaking in smaller units. Repeat key points. Encourage others to ask questions. Check for understanding.
12.4 Develop Empathy Empathy is defined in the dictionary as the identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives. It involves a cognitive component (thinking), an affective (emotional identification) dimension, and a communication element (activity). Bell explains these three variables, and how they interact with each other: Cognitively, the empathic person takes the perspective of another person, and in so doing strives to see the world from the other’s point of view. Affectively, the empathic person experiences the emotions of another; he or she feels the other’s experiences. Communicatively, the empathic individual signals understanding and concern through verbal and nonverbal cues.
12.4.1 Hindrances to Empathy Before we look at some of the ways to improve our role-taking skills, it might be helpful to examine a few characteristics that can impede empathy. a. Constant self-focus Perhaps the most common of all barriers to empathy is a constant self-focus. It is difficult to gather information about the other person, and to reflect on that information, if you are consumed with thoughts of yourself. Attending to your own thoughts, as if they were the only ones that mattered, uses much of the energy that you should direct your communication partner. At times everyone is guilty of behaving according to the German proverb, ―Everyone thinks that all the bells echo his own thoughts.‖ b. The tendency to note only some features to the exclusion of others Focusing on only a small portion of the individual often causes you to misuse the data you gather about another person. If, for example, you notice only a person‘s skin color or that his or her surname is Lopez, and from this limited information assume you know all there is to know about the person, you are apt to do a poor job of empathizing. Admittedly, color and names offer you some information about the other person, but you must add to this type of data. Although it is an overused analogy, you should remember that most outward features represent only the tip of the iceberg. c. Stereotyped notions concerning gender, race, and culture In the former chapter, the destructive nature of stereotypes has been talked about. It is also a potential stumbling block to empathy. If you believe that ―all English people dislike the Irish,‖ you might allow this stereotype to influence your view of an English person. Stereotyped notions are so much a part of your personality that you must be careful not to allow these unsupported generalizations to serve as your models of other people.
166 d. Defensive behavior People often engage in defensive behavior that keeps others from wanting to reveal information about themselves—information you need if you are going to engage in empathetic behavior. If people feel rebuffed by your actions, they are not likely to disclose very much to you. When you appear to be evaluating other people, whether by what you say or what you do, you are likely to make them feel defensive toward you. If you believe others are judging and evaluating you, you will hesitate to offer information that will foster empathy. Furthermore, manifesting a lack of interest often makes people feel defensive. Empathy is best when it is reciprocal; hence, most of you have an aversion to revealing very much to a person who seems uninterested in you and your ideas. An attitude of superiority, which produces defensive behavior, seldom elicits the kind of information you need for empathizing. Imagine how defensive you would become if someone from France told you that Chinese used language in very dull and unimaginative manner. Dogmatism is yet another attitude that keeps you from developing empathy. If someone behaved as if he or she had doubted everything you said and had all the answers, even to questions you had not even asked, you probably would become defensive. With a dogmatic person, your defensiveness may take the form of silence or of dogmatism of your own. In either case, this defensive behavior will not be conducive to empathy. e. A lack of motivation Many of the hindrances to empathy can be traced to a lack of motivation. People are most motivated to respond to those who are close to them both physically and emotionally. We are primarily concerned about our family. As our personal circle widens, it includes relatives and friends. Interest in other people then moves to neighbors and other members of the community. As we get farther and farther away from people in the immediate circle, we will find it difficult to empathize with them. For intercultural communication to be successful, we all must learn to go beyond personal boundaries and try to learn about the experiences of people who are not part of our daily lives. We must realize that we live in an interconnected world, and we must therefore be motivated to understand everyone— regardless of how much we seem separated from them by either distance or culture.
12.4.2 Improve Empathy As one of the most important components of intercultural communication competence, empathy can be developed with certain strategies. a. Pay attention The first advice is paying attention. Trenholm and Jensen tell us “The single most important thing you do is to remind yourself to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of others.” As we know from personal experience, concentrating on one idea or one person is difficult. This high level of attention is even more strenuous when applied to empathy, for it, like our attention span, is dynamic. Barnlund underscored this idea when he writes, “Empathy tends to be a fleeting phenomenon, fluctuating from moment to moment and from situation to situation.” Thus, problems associated with concerntration
167 can be overcome if we work on staying focused on both the other person and the situation. b. Communicative empathy Since empathy is a reciprocal act, communicators must be expressive. When we communicate with others, our expressive behaviors usually promote them to be more expressive. Meanwhile, we should not only pay attention to their verbal and nonverbal expressions but also their emotional states. c. Use culturally accepted behaviors Empathy can be enhanced through awareness of specific behaviors that members of a particular culture or co-culture might find impertinent or insulting. To be successful as an intercultural communicator, we must develop empathy, and that can be cultivated if we become sensitive to the values and customs of the culture with which we are interacting. d. Avoid ethnocentric response Empathy can be increased if we resist the tendency to interpret the other‘s verbal and nonverbal actions from our own culture‘s orientation. Learn to suspend, or at least keep in check, the cultural perspective that is unique to our experiences. Knowing how the frame of reference of other cultures differs from our own will assist us in more accurately reading what meaning lies behind words and actions.
12.4.3 Be Aware of Cultural Differences in Listening One of the major themes in this book is that communication is greatly influenced by culture. Listening is one of the important ingredients of communication, so it is influenced by culture too. It means what you hear is far from the truth that people imply. People from different cultures have different communication styles. In some cultures, silence is preferred, while others favor talks. People, who get used to speaking softly, may think those, who speak loudly, rude. When we listen to others, we receive nonverbal messages, too. As we have mentioned in this book, nonverbal codes can be interpreted so differently. In the United States and other Western cultures, a good listener is seen paying attention if he or she is having direct eye contact with the person talking. However, direct eye contact is not preferred in some Asian countries and Arab countries. Another fact is that we may be bothered by different accents people have. Since English is our second language, we may speak English with Chinese accent. In the intercultural communication settings, people, who speak English, may not be native speakers (even native speakers have accents, in fact). In that case, we have to tolerate, pay attention, and practice being patient.
12.4.4 Encourage Feedback Feedback is the information generated by the person who receives the message— information that is ―fed back‖ to the person who sent the original message. This information may be a smile, the words ―No, thank you,‖ or even complete silence void of any outward expression. Feedback may be verbal or nonverbal, or both, and it may be intentional or unintentional. a. Verbal feedback
168 Positive verbal behavior can encourage feedback. In cultures that value conversation and openness, asking questions is an excellent method of encouraging feedback about the quality of your messages. Questions can also be used to ask additional clarification, but it should be in a nonthreatening manner. In some Asian cultures, the word no is seldom used. In Japan, for example, instead of responding negatively to your question, they may simply apologize, keep quiet, become vague, or answer with a euphemism for no. Our use of words also encourages feedback if we relate them directly to what the other person has said. b. Nonverbal feedback Nonverbal feedbacks take many forms. There are positive attitudes and images associated with smiling, head nodding, leaning forward, and laughing. Each of these nonverbal actions separately or in combination with verbal messages, creates an atmosphere that tells other people you are interested in them and want to hear what they have to say. There are times when silence instead of words will inspire feedback. Some cultural styles call for periods of silence and/or long pauses, and we must learn to respect these phases in the encounter. There are even occasions when the silence itself is a form of feedback. In some Asian cultures, people do not enjoy being hurried when they are negotiating or solving problems. Remaining silent is a way of sending them some positive feedback about the transaction. c. Avoid negative feedback Due to the cultural diversity, there might be many ways of avoiding negative feedback. Since we learn English and may have more chances to communicate with Western people, there are some suggestions from Western points of reference. Avoid frequent shifting of your body as if you are bored with what the other person is saying. Avoid a slouching posture. Avoid engaging in other activities (talking to someone else, writing and so on) while the other person is talking. Avoid having your arms folded in front of your chest. Avoid frowning and scowling.
12.4.5 Develop Communication Flexibility Developing communication flexibility means that we are to be flexible when deciding on how to present ourselves to another person—particularly if that person is from a culture different from our own. Many experts in communication competence actually believe that one definition of competence is having the ability to fashion and adjust to your communication behavior to fit the setting, the other person, and yourself. When speaking the issue of how communication flexibility applies to international negotiations, Foster used an analogy:
The better (international) negotiators are ultimately pragmatic. They are not oaks; rather, they are more like willows. Unable to predict every situation, every twist and turn, even in a domestic situation, they know that it is nearly impossible to do so in a
169 cross-cultural one. In the intercultural communication context, regardless of the parts we play or the techniques we employ, we need to acquire the skills that will allow us to respond to various conditions, and situations. Having the skills to play these multiple roles means being able to be reflective instead of impulsive when we interact with a culture that moves at a slow pace. It means speaking softly instead of loudly when talking to people who use a subdued communication style. It means behaving in a formal manner when encountering a culture that employs a formal style.
12.4.6 Learn to Tolerate Ambiguity A close companion of flexibility is developing a tolerance for ambiguity. Because many intercultural encounters are unpredictable and often involve dealing with a new set of values and customs, confusion and aggressive action, and we are around someone from a culture that values cooperation and interpersonal harmony, we might find his or her behavior ambiguous and confusing; yet coping with ambiguity is a key element in intercultural competence. If you are self-conscious, tense, and anxious when confronted with the unknown, you are apt to use the energy to alleviate the frustration instead of trying to decide how best to communicate to the person and situation. There are some selective behaviors that the competent intercultural communicator can employ to increase tolerance for ambiguity. For example, Guirdham suggests some specific actions that might be helpful. First, delaying the decision on how to approach a new person or situation until as much information as possible has been gained by observation. Second, using trial and error rather than the same formula until what works becomes clear. Perhaps the best advice on how to develop a tolerance for ambiguity is to accept the unexpected, be nonjudgmental, and practice patience.
12.4.7 Learn to Manage Conflict Ting-Toomey defines conflict as the perceived and/or actual incompatibility of values, expectations, processes, or outcomes between two or more parties from different cultures over substantive and/or relational issues. Conflicts usually occur because one or more of the participants perceive incompatible goals or threats to their ego. Hence, it is easy to see how personality traits, be they introvert, argumentative, extrovert, aggressive, passive, and so on, can cause conflict. Most people, without much forethought, gravitate to their basic personality whenever they communicate. Often that personality creates behaviors that, rightly or wrongly, are seen by others in a negative light. Conflicts also arise when someone else‘s meaning for a word or phrase is not fully understood. For example, some Americans misunderstood the meaning of the Islamic notion of Jihad by interpreting the word as a holy war against all non-Muslims. In fact, it means an internal struggle to follow their faith. a. Conflict: an American perspective A substantial body of literature indicates that Americans usually employ five approaches to deal with conflicts. Knowing these approaches will help us appreciate how we might deal with conflicts in the American cultural context.
170 Withdrawal Dealing with conflicts by withdrawal is very common in the United States. Avoiding conflicts can be either mental (being silent and not taking part in the interaction) or physical (moving yourself from conflicts). In either case the person is saying, ―I do not want to get involved.‖ Often when avoidance is the method used, the situation that created the conflict seems to intensify and worsen as the parties mull over what happened. Accommodating Accommodating is a form of dealing with conflict that is closely related to withdrawal, except this time we satisfy the other person‘s desire to the point that we are willing to give up our own needs and goals. However, accommodating often leads to poor conclusions because only one point of view is being discussed, and can also create a situation where one person can take advantage of another. Competing The competing approach to conflict simply means winning at all costs. Forcing your wishes on another person as a means of resolving conflict can take a variety of forms. It can involve threats, verbal aggression, intimidation, or exploitation. Compromise As Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge note, “Compromise is about finding the middle course with each party agreeing to make concessions to the others.” In this approach people usually have to give something up or make a ―trade‖ in order to resolve the conflict. Collaborating At the core of collaboration is the idea that all parties resolve conflict. By employing creative devices, everyone‘s goals and needs can be satisfied. Because the conflict is viewed in a positive manner, collaboration is the most sought-after method of settling conflicts. b. Conflict: an intercultural perspective Although interpersonal conflict is part of every culture, each culture‘s way of perceiving and dealing with conflict is part of that culture‘s value system. For example, in the United States, there is often a belief that conflict is part of competition and ―self-awareness‖ and therefore can be useful. This positive view of conflict is also seen in other cultures. In the Middle East, people perceive conflict as a natural way of life. People are expected to have intense feelings on many issues and to express those feelings in an animated and confrontational manner. A Jewish proverb says: ―where there are two Jews there are three opinions‖. Greeks also have an expressive approach to conflict and are proud of their long tradition of argumentation and debate. Japanese people perceive conflict as interpersonally embarrassing and distressing since it potentially disrupts social harmony. For them, an indirect and passive approach to conflict would be the preferred method for dealing with social discord. We Chinese people also value the importance of harmony and avoid conflict. c. Dealing with conflict Although perceiving and dealing with conflict is rooted in the culture, there are also some suggestions that may be useful at a universal level. People from an individualistic culture must discard the Western-based model of effective communication skills in dealing with conflict situations in the collectivist cultures, while people from the collectivistic
171 culture should be aware of the Western communication style and avoid judging people with the standards of their own culture. Employing strategies according to your knowledge of the target culture is an effective approach to deal with conflicts.
Summary: From the Intercultural Perspective As the last chapter of the book, this chapter offers some strategies as well as suggestions for improving intercultural communication competence. Based on the components of intercultural communication competence involving cognition, affection and behavior, the strategies cover the three aspects too. To be a competent intercultural communicator, one should know his own communication style, his own culture and his personal attitudes firstly; this can be achieved by monitoring himself. Secondly, one should consider the physical and human settings. This involves some culture-specific and context-specific knowledge. Since communication is transactional, communicators should understand diverse message systems, such as learning a foreign language with deep understanding of the cultural variation in using language. Concerning the affection, empathy is encouraged for communicators to develop. At the behavioral level, the components of communication such as listening process and feedback are highlighted along with the suggestions of developing communication flexibility, tolerating ambiguity, and managing conflict. In this wrap-up section, we can see that all the topics introduced in this book serve as components to improve your intercultural communication competence.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Can you think of some ways to improve intercultural communication that are not discussed in this chapter?
2. Why is it impossible to ―put yourself in someone else‘s shoes‖?
3. What does intercultural communication competence involve according to your understanding?
4. What can you do to improve communication with members of another culture?
5. How does communication competence and intercultural competence relate to each other?
172 Glossary of Terms Acculturation: Acculturation, or cultural adaptation, refers to an individual‘s learning and adapting to the norms and values of the new host culture. Argot: refers to a specialized language that is used by a large group within a culture to define the boundaries of their group from others who are in a more powerful position in society. Assimilation：It is the degree to which an individual relinquishes an original culture for another. When individuals are assimilated into the mainstream culture, they lose their previous culture. Channel: Channel refers to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. Chromatics: refers to the study of color use in affecting people‘s mood, emotions, and impression of others. Chronemics: is the study of how people perceive and use time. Communication competence: is part of social competence, which is an individual ability, i.e. behavior and skills, to control his or her social environment. Competent communication: is interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to the context in which the interaction occurs. Context: is the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication. Cross-cultural communication: The term cross-cultural is typically used to refer to the study of a particular idea or concept within many cultures. The goal of such investigations is to conduct a series of intracultural analyses in order to compare one culture to another on the attributes of interest. Culture: Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms which affect the behavior of a relatively large group. Cultural Identity: refers to one‘s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. Culture shock: It refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different society. Decoding: Decoding is the process in which the receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received. Dialects: Dialects are versions of a language with distinctive vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation that are spoken by particular groups of people or within particular regions. Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol. Enculturation: Enculturation is the socialization process we go through to adapt to our own culture. Ethics: addresses the question of how we ought to lead our lives. Feedback: Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning. Globalization: It is conceived as a process of increasing involvement in international business operations. Haptics: Haptics or touch refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.
173 High-context culture: Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context. Hispanic: It came into common use as a result of the 1980 Census to identify various U.S. Spanish-speakers‘ shared roots to Spain. It refers to that population segment with the capability of speaking and comprehending the Spanish language, whose ancestry is based in a Spanish-speaking country, and who identifies with Hispanic cultures. Integration: It takes place when individuals become an integral part of the new culture while maintaining their culture integrity. Intercultural communication: Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Intercultural competence: Intercultural competence refers to the ability to understand and adapt the target culture; in another word, it refers to the sensitivity to cultural diversity, i.e. the ability to behave in an appropriate way and to adapt to one‘s communication and interaction according to the context. Interethnic communication: refers to communication between people of the same race but different ethnic backgrounds. International communication: takes place between nations and governments rather than individuals; it is quite formal and ritualized. Interpersonal communication: is a form of communication that involves a small number of individuals who are interacting exclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability both to adapt their messages specifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretations. Interpretation: Interpretation refers to attaching meaning to sense data. Interracial communication: occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races that pertain to different physical characteristics. Interregional Communication: refers to the exchange of messages between members of the dominant culture within a country. Intracultural communication: is the ―least intercultural‖ end of the continuum, which is used to refer to communication between and among members of the same culture. Jargon: refers to a set of words or terms that are shared by those with a common profession or experience. Kinesics: is the term used for communicating through various types of body movements including facial expressions, gestures, posture and stance, and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral messages. Low-context culture: Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. Macroculture: It implies losing ethnic difference and forming one large society. Microcultures: refer to cultures within cultures. Marginalization: Marginalization or deculturation refers to losing one‘s cultural identity and not having any psychological contact with the larger society. Melting pot: It means a sociocultural assimilation of people of differing backgrounds and nationalities.
174 Message: Message is the encoded thought. Networks: are formed with personal ties and involve an exchange of assistance. Noise: Noise refers to anything that distorts the message the sources encode. Nonverbal communication: Broadly speaking, the term can be defined to refer to elements of the environment that communicate by virtue of people's use of them. Narrowly speaking, nonverbal communication refers to intentional use of nonspoken symbol to communicate a specific message. Norms: are culturally ingrained principles of correct and incorrect behaviors, which, if broken, carry a form of overt or covert penalty. Oculesics: The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics. Olfactics: The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics. Paralanguage / Metacommunication: are the accompanying features of the voice. Phonology: The basic sound units of a language are called phonemes, and the rules for combining phonemes constitute the phonology of a language. Prejudice: is feeling hatred for or expressing suspicion toward people who belong to a certain group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Proxemics: Communicating through the use of space is known as proxemics. Racism: refers to having feelings of hatred for or expressing suspicion toward all members of a particular race and denying this group its rights. Receiver: The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receiver response: Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message. Religion: Religion refers to belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers regarded as creator and governor of the universe. Role: A role includes the behavioral expectations of a position within a culture and is affected by norms and rules. Rules: refer to socially agreed-on behavior or to individual guidelines for behavior. Semantics: The study of the meaning of words is called semantic. Sensation: Sensation is the neurological process by which people become aware of their environment. Separation and segregation: Separation and segregation refer to maintaining one‘s original culture and not participating in the new culture. Silence: is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in various ways depending upon the situation, the duration of the silence, and the culture. Stereotype: Stereotyping is assuming that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group. Source: The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate. Subculture: Subculture refers to different cultural traditions associated with subgroups in the same complex society. Subgroups: although also part of the dominant culture, are groups with which the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communicating problems. Symbol: words, actions, objects that stand for or represent a unit of meaning. Taboo: refers to some words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.
175 Territoriality: refers to how space can be used to communicate messages. Value：Value refers to one‘s principles or standards or one‘s judgment of what is valuable or important in life. Verbal code: Verbal code is a set of rules about the use of words in the creation of messages. World culture: It is the idea that as traditional barriers among people of differing cultures break down, emphasizing the commonality of human needs, one culture will emerge, a new culture to which all people will adhere. Worldview: Worldview is the belief that we hold explaining the cosmos, God, the nature of humanity and nature.
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