THE PROBLEMS OF NATURE CONSERVATION IN

P. GRIVEAUD & R. ALBIGNAC*

With an area of about 600,000 km2, Madagascar is one of the largest in the world. But this is also a galaxy of very diverse environments, of micro-biotopes which are quite different from each other. Not only is the Great Island endowed in general with a unique flora and fauna derived from the fact of its long isolation, but this-flora and fauna vary greatly in the different parts of the island. /’ -- . -_

One need only pass through Madagascar quick ,ly to appreciate the ~ considerable difference between the rain forest of the East and the bush country of the South-West, between the xerophyte forest and the palm savannahs, between the remarkable ‘Tsingas’ of the North- West and the swamps. In the East there are beaches of Poly- nesian aspect, the massif of the Isalo which resembles alruin, and areas with canyons like those in America. The traveller in Madagascar cannot fail to be struck by this variety. The fauna itself is very special. With its many of , its carnivora, some of which, such as Cr_vptoproctafeyox, are the last survivors of ancient species which have quite disappeared from the rest of the world, its Centetidae, its couas and Vangidae, its curious Arclzaea spiders, and all its unusual insects, this fauna forms an inexhaustible scientific treasure. Unfortunately, numerous species are threatened with extinction. Some have disappeared already in our own day, such as the hippopotami, the great tortoises, the Aebyonzis and the Mullerornis, the giant running birds, and also some large species of Lemuridae. Those that remain are threatened a little more each day.

THE ACTIVITY OF MAN

Of all the phenomena capable of disturbing the balance of Nature, man is indisputably the principal force with which Nature has to contend. In Madagascar, as in other places, the impact of man in past ages has corresponded with the beginning of these disturbances of the natural balance. The first inhabitants of the island had nothing like all the means which mankind has today of upsetting what Nature has created, and

* Entomologist and Zoologist at the O.R.S.T.O.M.

727 a

Fig. 1. ‘Tavy’ in a forest. anyway they were few in number. The changes which they brought about in the original natural state of the Great Island were nevertheless quite substantial. It is indeed almost certain that we can attribute to these first inhabitants the huge fires which, at a remote period, must have swept through a large part of the forests, which scientists assume originally 1 covered the Great Island almost entirely. The chain reactions inevitably followed. The disappearance of large areas of forest led to climatic changes, particularly in the amount of rainfall, in the districts affected. ‘The botanical environment changed. The soil eroded, being inadequately held in check by the scanty vegetation. The fauna itself was badly affected. The animals found themselves cut off in a number of different environments, where the species continued to evolve more or less in isolation, giving rise to particular forms or sub-species. Finally, to this

728 historical period, going back between 500 and 5,000 years, may be dated the disappearance of all the mammals and large running birds which are completely extinct today. But as regards the latter, one may also presume that man hastened their extinction by indulging in excessive hunting.

THE PHENOMENA OF EROSION

It was at this time that various changes took place, which have sub- sequently only got worse. The notorious ‘lavaka’ erosions which we see today, veritable gnawing cankers which carry off the thin layer of arable soil and the earth itself towards the rivers and the sea, are of quite ancient origin. The ‘tavy’ agricultural methods, and the ruts made by the movements of herds of cattle are only aggravating this situation bit by bit. The ever-increasing growth in the population will only make the phenomena of erosion worse, unless appropriate measures are taken to stabilise the soil. The two most urgent measures are the suppression of ‘tavy’ methods and re-afforestation.

THE FORESTS OF MADAGASCAR

The primitive Madagascan forest formed and, where it still exists, still forms the only natural wooded environment where the animal species peculiar to the Great Island can live and evolve. For obvious reasons, as it was necessary to act quickly, we were unfortunately unable to re- plant the forests with native species, whose growth would have been far too slow. Trees of imported species were used, such as , , mimosas, etc. These species, however, are most unsuitable for the native animals of-Madagascar. Anybody, no matter how ignorant he may be of these matters, who walks through the eucalyptus or forests, will notice that they are almost lifeless and contain hardly any animals. If we want to preserve what is left of the remarkable fauna of Mada- gascar, we must above all conserve its natural habitat as much as possible by stopping the disturbance of the biological balance.

THE UNINHABITED REGIONS

There is one point, however, on which it is difficult to interfere. This is the progressive and inexorable reduction of the uninhabited regions in the face of the population growth. This phenomenon has already reached alarming proportions in other parts of the world, and is now ,beginning to make itself felt in Madagascar. Only a few dozen years ago, there was no need to go more than a few kilometers from a town in order to find

729 large numbers of birds. Continually driven away from their native marshes which have been converted one by one into fields or fish-ponds, and disturbed by farmers, hunters and, alas, more and more poachers, they are being reduced every year. It is possible to foresee that within a few decades they will completely disappear within a radius of 100 to 200 km around large towns. In this instance also, the answer is not to try and replace these creatures with , when we do not know what results these intro- ductions will have, but to save what remains by setting aside here and there enough uninhabited areas for these species to be preserved.

INTRODUCTIONS

In practice it is almost always impossible to predict what upsets introduced species will cause to the evolution of the balance of nature. Nature, in her wisdom, has established this balance everywhere, and man tends to disturb it more and more. Plants and above all the majority of animal species need well defined areas for their reproduction, which are called ‘territories’. If man introduces foreign species into these territories, very often they gradually eliminate the original flora and fauna and take their place. We shall just quote a few simple specific examples: The introduction of mimosas, although it permitted a certain amount of re-afforestation of denuded ‘tanety’ areas, gradually became an in- vasion, and no room was left for any other forest species in places where they were introduced. The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crass$es), which originaIIy came from tropical America, has invaded a large number of lakes and rivers in Madagascar, thanks to its fantastic ability to reproduce itself by runners. Certain lakes, canals and rivers have gradually been totally blocked. In the animal kingdom, some introductions have had very doubtful, if not disastrous results. Among the fishes, for example, the Tilapia has the merit oftcombatting to some extent the invasion of certain aquatic plants, and at the same time of providing tasty food, but bit by bit it is upsetting every aquatic environ- ment. Being herbivorous it eats the plants, but if it gets into the rice fields ’ it can cause serious damage, and gradually it changes lakes and ponds into bare sheets of water. As a chain reaction, many animals and insects disappear, as they can no longer find the shelter and the food they need. The lakes are abandoned by the ducks who no longer find on the banks the shelter necessary for nesting and protection of the species. The introduction of one bird, the Martin, Acridoteres tristis, on the East coast has been followed by the gradual disappearance of many other species, whose territory the Martin is invading more and more extensively

730 and to its own benefit. At Tamamave, for example, these foreign birds are practically the only ones to be seen. But other introduced animals have brought about much more dramatic results. Let us mention the case of a cochineal insect, which was unfortunately introduced into the South of Madagascar with the object of reducing the spread of cactus. In a very short time we have seen not the reduction, but the almost total disappearance of the cactus. Now in this desert region of the South, the fleshy parts of the cactus formed the essential basic food for cattle and numerous other animals, so now large sums must be spent in fighting against the cochineal and in replacing the old cacti with new selected, resistant and spineless varieties, which are not establishing them- selves easily. The certainly accidental introduction of the rat (Rattus rattus) must now be paid for dearly, since this species has gradually invaded the whole island, displacing the native species of rodents, which were much less prolific and had their natural enemies. Let us be content with these few examples, as the subject is unfortunately. too vast.

THE ABUSE OF CHEMICAL MATERIALS

We must now start on the last chapter of disturbances to the balance of nature. This deals with the consequences of the dissemination of the countless products of which our modern civilisation is ever more prolific. In Madagascar, as everywhereelse, we are playing the sorcerer’s apprentice with our often reckless use of certain insecticides, herbicides, etc. Far be it from us to condemn systematically these products of human scientific genius. They have allowed and will still allow us effectively to co-mbat many pests and enemies of mankind. But we should only use them with the greatest caution. We are using them principally against pests that attack crops and against parasites on man himself. Now what precisely does happen, and why are we witnessing in Madagascar the spread of certain pests in spite of treatment? The vast majority of these pests are to be found in the native flora, apart fi-om a few cases of accidental introduction. But in this native flora they live in balance, since they have all the enemies present whose function is to maintain the balance. When man puts large areas under one crop, he provides an unexpected feeding ground for the native pests, and they start to multiply, without their natural enemies coming to destroy them any more. That at least is what happens during the first years of production. Sometimes the predators, particularly if they have not been disturbed, gradually gain the upper hand again and restore the balance. But man cannot or will not wait for the balance to be restored naturally, and he

73 1 fights against the pests with all the weapons in the chemical arsenal which are at his disposal. Quite often, the result is that the usehl predator, a tiny delicate insect, is the first to be exterminated, and the result is the exact opposite of that hoped for. Gradually a resistant strain of pests develops and proliferates all the more. In the last few years agronomists and entomologists have appreciated the seriousness of the problem, and more and more specialist institutes are undertaking studies with a view to replacing chemical weapons with biological ones, using the natural enemies of the pests : predators, viruses, fungi, etc. Madagascar must not relax its vigilance in this matter, and the highest premium should be on the study of biological counter-meas- ures ; these should only be entrusted to qualified specialists.

FACTORS FOR IMPROVEMENT

As we have just seen, the situation is frequently precarious, if not desperate, and it justifies us in trying to improve it as quickly as possible .with all the means in our power. We are not of course the first to have thought of this, but we would hope that with the experience that has been gained, corrections would be made and more consistent support granted. The Nature Reserves, which are inadequately supervised at the moment, are often attacked by fire or by man, who gets in too easily and damages the fauna and flora. The wardens of these Reserves do not have the material resources to do their job properly. It is also necessary that the Head Wardens of the Reserves, who have many duties to perform, should attend training courses in Tananarive for example, of which a part, dealing with the knowledge of fauna and flora, could be held at the O.R.S.T.O.M. Centre in Tsimbazaza. At the same time one must frequently deplore the lack of access roads to and within the Reserves. If these were made, they would permit much better supervision by the wardens, who in addition have only very slow transport facilities at the moment, namely their own feet. Apart from these integrated Reserves, which obviously cannot cover all the micro-environments, even though there are at present eleven of them, it is equally necessary to designate new special Reserves or Tourist Reserves. These new areas could be selected on the advice of specialists in the fauna and flora of Madagascar. These reserves would thus allow tourists to see a cross-section of the remarkable fauna and flora of Mada- gascar easily and quickly. It is also absolutely necessary that the remaining primaeval forests, if they must be exploited for economic purposes, should be exploited rationally. One can in fact exploit a forest without, however, destroying everything: it is just a matter of felling the largest trees and then letting the forest restore itself over a period of 50 to 100 years. In this way the

732 fauna and flora will only be slightly affected, even though exploitation of the forest has been possible. Finally, well-illustrated literature should be produced for the better education of the general public about the flora and .

THE ACHIEVEMENTS SO FAR Nature Reserves, Zoological Reserves and National Parks Nature Reserves There used to be twelve of them, most of which were established in 1927, and the three latest in 1939, 1940 and 1952 respectively. Even at that time'the need for these Reserves was apparent, their aim being to preserve areas where only the natural biological balance prevailed. The number of twelve integrated Nature Reserves might seem at first very large for such a small country, but it is scarcely sufficient to represent the majority of the different environments of the Great Island. These Reserves permit the preservation of only a cross-section of native species. They are as follows: Nature Reserve No. I: Betampona (Tamatave) : This extends over 41,777 ha (reserve + protective zone) at a height of between 300 and 550 myand represents the fauna and flora of the low altitude eastern zone. Nature Reserve No. 3: Zaliamena (Ambatondrazaka): This covers 82,800 ha, including a protective zone of 24,800 ha, and represents a zone of greater height than Reserve No. 1, again with fauna and flora of the eastern hills. Nature Reserve No. 4: Tsaratanana (Ambanja): This has an area of 60,000 ha, excluding the protective zone, and contains the highest mountain in the island, Maromokotra (2,884 m high). It allows the preservation of high altitude environments. Nature Reserve No. 5: Andrigitra (Ambalavoa) : This covers an area of 35,400 ha, with a protective zone of 11,100 ha, at a height of between 1,000 and 2,658 m. This is a border zone between the East and the West with numerous very special xerophyte plants and animals partly of Eastern types and partly of Western. Nature Reserve No. 6: Lokobe () : This has a total area of 1,202 ha at a height of between O and 550 myand allows the preservation of a cross-section of natural low-altitude vegetation from the area of the Sambirano, in the Nosy be district. This is the only forest area on this island. Nature Reserve No. 7: Ankarafantsika (Ambato Boéni): Its total area is 70,349 ha, of which 9,139 ha form the protective zone. It enables some very characteristic animals to live in a low-altitude tropical forest. Nature Reserve No. 8: Namoraka (Saolala) : This covers a total area of 23,326 ha, including a protective zone of 94 ha, of chalky . Its

733 4

Lu

o

O

0

Fig. 2. The Nature Reserves (not on scale).

734 purpose is to conserve a cross-section of biotopes from the Western lime- stone region at a height varying between 180 and 380 m. Nature Reserve No. 9: Tsingy du Bemaraha (Antsalova) : This comprises 155,920 ha of limestone tropical forest at an altitude of 70 to 700 my and also allows the preservation of biotopes fi-om the Western limestone region. Nature Reserve No. 10: Lake Tsimanampetsotsa (Tuléar) : 15,282 ha of reserve include a vast very salty , together with a narrow strip of sand and a limestone plateau, which allow the preservation of shrub groupings from the South-West on the sand and xerophyte ‘bush’ on the limestone plateau, as well as the characteristic fauna; there are also many lakeside birds, particularly pink flamingos. Nature Reserve No. II: Andohahelo (Fort-Dauphin) : The 61,200 ha of this reserve, varying between 120 and 1,956 m in height includes land of both the Eastern and Southern regions. Its object is to preserve a cross-section of flora and fauna from the Southern part of the Eastern region, from the Mandrare area of the South region and from inter- mediate regions. Nature Reserve No. 12: Marojejy (Andapa) : This has an area of about 48,000 ha and allows the preservation intact of the only mountain range showing a continuous succession of plant levels from the Eastern region ranging in height from 100 m to 2,100 m in a very limited area. It is the plants of this mountain range which are most characteristic and unusual. Nature Reserve No. 2: It is to be regretted that Decree no. 64,381 of the 16th September 1964 removed the classification from Reserve No. 2 at Masoala, to the South of Ambohitralana in the North-East. This Reserve had an area of 27,682 ha and contained plants and animals of great interest. National Parks There are two parks. While permitting the preservation of certain biotopes, they may be visited by tourists with the permission of the Water and Department. They are : The Ambre mountain: a humid forest between 1,000 and 1,500 m in altitude, near Diégo. The Isalo: a massif of ruinous aspect, in the South East.

735 Province of Majunga: Nosy Tranja Province of TulCar : Europa Islands, Nosy Trozona, Nosy Ve, Chesterfield, Nosy Vorona, Nosy Manitsa, The colonies of waders at Manombo and Saint Auguste, Province of Tamatave : Sand Islands, Fonga, Vatomandry. Finally, several state forests also contribute towards the preservation of animals, either because they form a protective zone around the large Reserves, or because they allow a nucleus ofpriniitive forest to be preserved.

SPECIAL REGULATIONS MADE BY THE LEGISLATURE AND CURRENTLY IN FORCE It would of course take too long and be too boring to list here all the laws and decrees about nature conservation; suffice it to say that these measures specify a series of ‘protected’ animals among the Madagascan fauna, which it is forbidden to hunt or even to keep in captivity without a special permit. This applies in particular to the lemurs, to certain birds and reptiles, and may soon be applied ta the native carnivores of the Great Island. The hunting of game animals is controlled, and in particular is forbidden during the breeding season. Finally, some animals listed as ‘harmful’ (of which there are very few, at the present time only the river-hog and the crocodile) are covered by special regulations. As regards plants, special rules apply to orchids, particularly the ornamental varieties. The Appeal jar International Assistance In order to achieve better management of the Nature Reserves, the National Parks and even the future Tourist Reserves, organisations such as the I.U.C.N. and the W.W.F. have recently been actively participating in joint action. Indeed, a developing country like Madagascar cannot by itself provide all the financial resources needed for the proper running of these Reserves. Naturally, it must take a large share, but it must be supported with moral and financial assistance from these organisations. This moreover is what has already been initiated with a substantial contribution from the I.U.C.N. This aid has just allowed a Special Reserve to be established at Nosy Mangabe with the object of introducing there the Aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) among others. Therefore

736 Fig. 3. The Aye-Aye (Dauberztonia madagascarienris Gmelin). this species, which at the moment is very rare, will be able to find normal living conditions on this islet and will be saved. In addition the I.U.C.N. is to participate in making a complete inventory of all the present Nature Reserves, so that their botanical and zoological contents will be better known, and can be improved or modified as necessary. Mr. J. J. PETTER,assistant Director of the Natural History Museum of Paris, General Ecology department (at 'Brunoy), has recently been appointed chairman of the Madagascar group in the I.U.C.N. The committee of the' Madagascar group is being formed as we write these words.

The Higher Council for Nature Protection in Madagascar

At a purely local level, the Malagasy Republic, by Decree no. 62,321 dated the 3rd July 1962, set up a Council for Nature Protection, in- cluding representatives of the various Ministries, organisations and asso- ciations affected by the problem of Protection.

737 The activity of the Overseas Scient@ and Technical Research Ofice (O.R.S. T.Q.M.)

For many years the O.R.S.T.O.M. has taken a large share in the activity towards nature conservation in Madagascar, with its botanical and zoological park at Tsimbazaza and with the voluntary co-operation a of numerous research workers and technicians. A. The Mammal aiid Bird Index: With the aim of improving information for the public, the O.R.S.T.O.M., helped by a contribution from the New York Zoological Society, started to prepare a card index of birds and mammals three years ago: already 50 index-cards for mammals and 50 for birds have been printed and distributed. They will be supple- mented shortly by another 50 cards for birds and 50 for reptiles, and certainly by others in the near future. So teachers first of all, and also all those who wish to have some simple documentation on the fauna of Madagascar, will have this basic material available for their initial information. B. The Tsiinbaza,ca Park: The Tsimbazaza Park, of which the O.R. S.T.O.M. is in charge, has as its primary objective the education of as many people as possible about Nature in Madagascar and its unique- ness, so as to make them more appreciative of the protection necessary for many species. In addition, by a study of feeding, it is endeavouring to keep the maximum number of species in captivity, and to make them breed regularly. At the moment the keepers of the Park have managed to get all the lemurs to breed, including variegatus, which has been breeding regularly for three years. On the other hand they have not succeeded in keeping the Lepilemurs in captivity for more than a few months. The Microcebes, by contrast, can be brought up easily. The Phaners can now be brought up quite easily in captivity, but it is not yet known if they will breed, as they have been captured only recently. Like the Lepilemur, the Avahi can only survive a few weeks in captivity. The Propithecus is quite delicate. The Propithecus verreauxi bred once, in 1967, and it is hoped will do so regularly in future. The Itidri is also very difficult to keep alive in captivity, and no attempt to do so has been made for some time. As for the Daubentonin, it should be possible to bring them up normally, but there is always the problem of catching them. As this species is moreover very rare, it is better for the time being not to try to keep theni in captivity. In addition the O.R.S.T.O.M. research workers have largely contri- buted to a new layout of the handsome zoology hall. This hall, which is visited by thousands of people each week, contains the primary collections of the most interesting animals of Madagascar together with placards with ample explanatory texts in French and Malagasy. Being sited within the Tsimbazaza Park, it forms a vital complement to the zoological park.

738 FURTHER URGENT MEASURES

First and foremost it is vital that international aid should increase, so as to organise the Nature Reserves better; at the moment they are often too difficult of access, and because of the lack of adequate means, their protection against brush fires and poaching is still very inadequate. In addition, as has been said, Tourist Reserves should be established, with guides, in areas with easy access, where the most characteristic animals and plants can be shown in their natural surroundings in a short time. These efforts, however, limited to action mainly fi-om abroad, apart from legislation which has so far been useless in its effects, must be supplemented by more fundamental action; this means that above all one must listen to and follow those Madagascans who are themselves aware of the national interest represented by the nature conservation in Madagascar. Underlying everything else must be the education of the girls and boys of the Great Island about the great interest held by Nature in Madagascar. In the present state of things, one cannot find fault with the children of this country if they harm a national heritage, about which nobody has told them anything. One must therefore begin at the beginning and give instruction before imposing fines. Many things must be done in this respect. A whole range of school literature must be created, with carefully edited and illustrated books. All the existing youth organisations, such as students’ societies, scouts, etc., should be utilised for the purpose of creating within them a move- ment in favour of Nature. Films, lectures, discussions and placards, all in Malagasy and presented by Madagascan people, should be widely distributed. Good will is certainly not lacking, but for a long time to come this good will will have to be stimulated and encouraged by financial and technical aid. But this aid must not be forthcoming in a more or less distant and doubtful future. If we want to help the Madagascan people to save what can still be saved, a clean sweep must be made of the interminable delays due to red tape and hide-bound bureaucracy. When the house is on fire, one should not send the town clerk to help, but the fire brigade with all its fire-fighting equipment. Only at this price and with speedy and effective action will it be possible to help the Mada- gascan people to save a scientific treasure which is the envy of naturalists throughout the world.

Authors’ addresses: P. GRNEAUD,R. ALBIGNAC O.R.S.T.O.M. Tananarive, Madagascar

739 Reprint from

L Y

THE PRQBLE S OF NATURE CONSERVATION A~A~~~~A~

P. GRIVEAU94 & ALBIGNAC ”.- - -. R.

DR. W. JUNK B.V. PU LHSHXRS THE HAGUE 1972