Green Structure of Stockholm and Xi’an: from a historical perspective (Draft 3)

Na Xiu, Maria Ignatieva, Kenneth Olwig, Cecil Konijnendijk, Rolf Johansson

Abstract: Green structure and city structure have seen many different schemes for how a city looks like. Their history provides a way of filling the gap of understanding between Western and Eastern sides from ancient to the beginning of the present era, and will influence open space planning currently and in the future. Many similarities and differences indeed exit when we investigate how green structure evolved in Stockholm (Scandinavia) and Xi’an (). At the back of the phenomenon (similarities and differences), we can also read how people’s world view and nature view developed. In terms of both cities- even every city in the world, re- reading history especially under a comparative perspective will bring a way to bridge past, nowadays and future, western, eastern and any geographical locations. In this globalized world, understanding among countries becomes extremely important and starting from city would be an available way of realizing. Present era also requires new design and planning responses based on historical and comparative precedents and humanistic considerations. Hence, this paper is an attempt to describe and compare the planning and viewing process of green structure accompanied by city structure in Scandinavian and Chinese cities from ancient to the beginning of the present era (Stockholm and Xi’an are the two case studies). Our purpose is to dig out that with the evolvement of green structure, how world view and landscape planning view changed in both regions. All of them will be valuable references for current and future green structure planning.

Keywords: green structure, cityscape, scheme, grid, city planning, world view, nature view, Stockholm, Xi’an

Introduction

How a city looks was influenced by differentiated schemes of city planning and green space planning history and it affected the modern green space planning as well. Like Konijnendijk et al. (2006) noted, green space planning and management have much older roots in every part of the world. In terms of the two cities, one might think that the history and role of the green structure in a European city like Stockholm and in an Asian city like Xi’an in China would be very different. From the natural science perspective, the differences were affected by the geographical environment; from a social science perspective, philosophical foundation, aesthetic ideology and cultural background which are resulted in formulating different sense of nature and a world’s understanding (Zhou, 2003; Byoung & Kaplan, 1990).

As the two case study areas of this paper, Andersson et al. (1998) manifested that Stockholm developed in an orderly and methodical way with the result of centuries’ changing city planning ideals. Different parts of Stockholm built during different historical periods have distinctive individual characteristics. Xi’an, as an ancient capital city in China, has seen over a period of more than three thousand years from empire dynasty to democratic revolution to modern urbanization and globalization. City planning changes accompany with the changes of social development because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment (Antrop, 2005). At the moment, Xi’an, like many developing country cities, is in the process of searching for its own approaches to addressing local cultural history. These histories provide the qualities that can be regarded as being typically “Stockholm” and “Xi’an” and how shall we preserve and develop them.

However, behind what we can see from green structure history, such as landscape gardens and notable architectures, and when we compares the two cities in the light of the thinking of Yi-Fu Tuan, a geographical scholar with a deep knowledge of both cultures, we can see that there are certain structural similarities related to the way people in both places have tended to structure the organization of the city in terms of cosmological binaries, especially the space of the heavenly cosmos and the place of the organic earth - the way we think about the world (world view), the nature (nature view) and human beings. In this globalized world, international innovative planning and design approaches should be researched and implemented (Ignatieva et al., 2011). From a landscape architect point of view, understanding among regions before communication and cooperation became extremely important for national and cross-boundary inventories and assessments. We suppose that following the traces of green structure history current and future open space planning theory can be benefited from its own history on one hand and from other’s history on the other. So, the purposes of this paper is, first to review city and green area planning history of Stockholm and Xi’an from phenomenal and theoretical perspectives, second to compare and contrast the similarities and differences of two cities for improved comparability, compatibility, and consistency, establishment of linkages.

1. Up-Down view: City and green structure of Medieval Age of Stockholm and of Xi’an

In early times, the capital city was indicated according to people’s cosmological perception (in Oxford Dictionaries, cosmology is defined as the study of the origin and development of the universe. Its first miniature is religious cosmology based on the historical, mythological and esoteric literature and tradition) and often treated as the place where a vertical cosmic order, with the cosmos above and earth below, is transposed to the earth, through the mediation of the regent or ruler as the minister of a heavenly god, or gods. These relatively small cities were surrounded by the organic nature of the countryside and the organic form of green structure antithesis the geometric pattern of city. Relationship among Heaven, Earth and Human beings can be explained as a typical Chinese form- the domed-like heaven embraces the vast earth (orbicular sky and rectangular earth, theory of canopy heavens) (Fig.1). Absolutely up and down made sense and the earth occupies the lowest place in the heavenly hierarchy. Following are the two examples from Western and Eastern cities- Stockholm in Sweden and Xi’an in China.

Fig.1. Theory of canopyheavens, one of the ancient Chinese cosmologies that thinks heaven is dome-liked, embracing the rectangular earth. Human being is in between of them. Source: depicting by the author from literature.

1.1 Stockholm in Medieval time

The first time that the name “Stockholm” appears is in the year 1252. This city, capital of Sweden and Scandinavia, is situated on a number of islands between the fresh water lake Mäklaren and brackish Baltic Sea. In the medieval age, Stockholm consisted only of the small Stadsholmen Island between Lake Mälaren and the inner Stockholm archipelago (Old Town) (Fig.1). The street pattern inside the medieval city walls was an irregular and dense network (Hall & Källström, 1999). Green spaces were quite rare in the Old Town. The kitchen garden (Slottets Örtagård) at the Royal Castle was the dominating green area (Stahre & Wikström, 1986). Outside the Old Town was the unwrought virgin land – the freeform organic earth. The most exalted architectural expression was the Royal (Kungliga Slottet) and Stockholm Cathedral (Storkyrkan). The cathedral served as an symbolized image of the transcendental relations between the human soul and God in Sweden (also in the whole European countries) (Tuan, 1974). The regent was the minister of the god and the close distance between royal palace and cathedral shows supreme imperial dignity and its mediation position between god and normal people. But even the coronation of throne approved formally by cathedral illustrates everyone’s equal position in the presence of God. Green structure was only a tiny piece of functional accessory of the whole city.

Fig.2. upward is Stockholm in 1590s, location of Royal Palace and the Cathedral in the Old Town and below is the cosmological thinking between heaven, cathedral, royal palace and city, the red square is Royal Palace, the Blue one is the Cathedral and the green ones are the two markets location where the goods can be exchanged, Source: top is from Stadsmuseum of Stockholm and below is from Stockholm Medieval Museum (photo and noted by the author)

Heavenly God

Palace Cathedral

The city

1.2 Xi’an in Han Dynasty

Accordingly, Xi’an (so-called Chang’an in emperor dynasty) is a city with history of more 3,000 years and experiences from Emperor Dynasty to democratic revolution to modern urbanization. It was the capital city of several important dynasties in China’s history (Fig.3).

Fig.3 Locations of Xi’an in Zhou, Qin, Han, Tang, Ming and modern time. Source: (Yu, 2009)

Although tiny location differences exist, from ancient astrology and Fengshui (literally Wind and Water) its location does not change (Fig.4). The pursuit of telepathy between human and heaven occupied a very important position in ancient China, the location and layout of the city tended to be given some symbolic significance. Xi’an is located in the north of the Qingling Mountains and the south of Wei River. There are other seven rivers going around and combined as the run-off system of Chang’an. The city is surrounded by three sides of water and one side of mountain. From Fengshui perspective, this pattern is called 安(an) that means stability and then the city was named Chang’an means long-term stability. It is one of the most suitable place for building the capital city(Han & Zhao, 2010). From ancient astrology perspective, the location corresponds to the main star belt (Ziwei Yuan) as Ziwei (Polaris) centered (Zhao, 2007). Imperial Palace stood for Polaris, Imperial City was the main stars (Ziweiyuan) that surrounded Polaris and the Outer City was other stars in the sky. Imperial City and Outer city sitting around the Imperial Palace like the protected stars locating around the Polaris (Zhang, 1987). The three parts- imperial palace, imperial city and outer city- are indispensable in city layout in no matter which dynasty.

Fig.4 Location of Chang’an (draw by the author)

In terms of Han Dynasty, Xi’an had another name- Dipper City (or Ladle City) (Fig.5). The layout was not strictly clear and neat but substantially in the shape of square. The reason is that the layout has adopted the idea of Modelling Heaven and Making out the capital (Make out capital with the imitation of the heaven). Northwest part of the fortification was twisted like the Northern Ladle (Big Dipper), the central part of south wall protruded and the eastern part was circuitous like the Southern Ladle, and Weiyang Palace was the Purple Forbidden Enclosure where Polaris sits and also the emperor sits. According to ancient Chinese astrology, Northern Ladle means stability and order, symbolizing the completed state system and harmony between government and people. Northern Ladle is regarded as the fate of the patron saint. Northern and Southern Ladle embraces function of blessing and constructing the Ladle City is to obtain God’s sanctuary and achieve long- term stability. Purple Forbidden Enclosure is the center of heaven and its core is Polaris. Therefore, Polaris is the King Star and the emperor power is divine. This can be seen from the name of Weiyang Palace (Weiyang means endlessness). Weiyang Palace or the Palace of Endlessness illustrates that the heavenly astrology never ends and so as the emperor power. Weiyang Palace (on behalf of Purple Forbidden Enclosure), Western part of north wall (Northern Ladle) and central and east of south wall (Southern Ladle) make up a traditional Chinese star chart (Fig.6), and the composition and distinction are the base of Four Emblems in Fengshui theory (see Chang’an in ). He (1981) noted that one general intention of Modelling heaven is to emphasize the emperor city’s central location on the earth and also in the universe. Imitation of the heaven is to demonstrate one thing that the power of emperor is ordered on the heaven, the other that Southern and Northern Ladle bless long-term stability of the city.

Fig.5 Layout of Chang’an in Western Han Dynasty, Source: Chen and Han (2007), translated by the author

Fig.6 Ancient Chinese star chart, source: depicting by the author from Suzhou stone astronomical map (1247)

Green structure in Han was the privileged landscape gardens of royal family, such as Jian Zhang Palace (the palace is not only the palace itself but also includes its green and rivers backyard) (Fig.7). The area was the extension of formal of imperial city and still took north-south axial symmetrical layout, putting business palace in front and free-formed landscape gardens back. The north-south axis is not only the orientation order line but also the linkage from earth to heaven (Fig.8). Water (Taiye Pool) occupied as much as the same percentage of green space and there were three hills in this pool- named Fangzhang, Yingtai and Penglai. Taiye Pool with three hills is the basic theory from Daoism that it is where the celestial beings live. It is actually from JianZhang Palace on, Daoism- Lake with three Hills- started to come into play in almost every Chinese ancient and modern gardens. The green space pattern (gardens) antithesis to the city, the arrangement of landscape gardens took a natural and organic way. Every piece of garden was designed by human but looks like a real nature outside the city (it is also one of the main influential factor from Daoism on how a garden should look like).

Fig.7 Top is the layout of Jian Zhang Palace in Han Dynasty and below is the cosmo order between heaven, royal palace and the city , Source: top is from Zhou (1999), modified by the author and below is from Shiren (1963), explained by the author

Heavenly Gods

Royal palace

The city

2. From vertical to horizontal: Green structure of Stockholm 1600-1800s and Xi’an in Tang Dynasty

Gradually, as the pace of city expedition, absolutely vertical was replaced by horizontal and people’s eyes started to look around instead of look up and down. In both cities, the built environment was firstly structured geometrically with inspiration from the cosmos surrounded by the organic earth. The organic nature of the earth came to form a green organic structure within the geometrical spatial structure of the built environment. This campaign was accompanied by humanistic Renaissance in Stockholm and literal development in Tang Dynasty. A new cosmology thus generated in which the geometric order of the heavenly cosmos provides the basic horizontal planned structure with which the organic green structure is placed. Landscape here turned from vertical to horizontal and encompassed by the geometric built environment and the organic green structure (gardens and parks), fields and nature generally (Cosgrove, 1985).

However, there is still a binary structural difference between the geometry of the built environment and the organic green structure in Stockholm and Xi’an. During Renaissance and Baroque times, the green structure was cut so as to have the same geometric forms as the buildings. Green structure was consociated with built environment for this time from its original antithesis form. In the enlightenment, admittedly at least in part influenced by the Chinese garden, a new organic ideal for parks and gardens developed which was known as the Anglo-Chinese garden (simply the English landscape garden). One example is the Chinese Pavilion of Drottingholm palace in Stockholm (Fig.8). It is clear to see that geometric built pavilion was surrounded by a park in the natural style translated from Chinese garden. This more “natural” style eventually became the dominant model for the landscape of the urban green structure of Stockholm’s parks and environs. No longer was the vertical cosmos dominant, with the heavenly geometry above, and the organic place of the earth below. Geometry perspective carried the eye out horizontally through the landscape scene (Cosgrove, 1985; Tuan, 1974). In China (emperor time), gardens were inspired by the organic nature of the lands encompassing the city. So although horizontal made sense, vertical and organic perspective still came into play. Moreover, from Tang Dynasty on, garden is no longer the privileged belonging to royal family but literal scholars started to express their perception as well. Confucian and Daoism, as the two parts of literal education, play an increasingly larger role in how the garden looks. Nevertheless, the essence of organic natural style did not change and geometric built environment and organic green structure conflicted and opposed.

2.1 Renaissance-Baroque-Enlightenment time in Stockholm

Since the 1630s, a Renaissance and Baroque grid plan with the tower of the castle as main direction was drawn up in the south and north of the Old Town- Norrmalm and Södermalm. As a result of the planning ideal in this period, Stockholm has a structure of different grid nets radiating from tower “The Three Crowns” at the centre of the Royal Castle. This can be regarded as a boundary line between the more spontaneous way of building during Middle Ages and the carefully planned city of the Renaissance (Andersson et al., 1998). And it can be also regarded as a boundary line from vertical world view (Medieval Time) to horizontal one.

Parts of the green structure of Stockholm has today is originated from this time especially in Norrmalm, including King’s Garden (Kungsträdgården), Hulme Garden or Hop Garden (Humlegården), Vasa Park (Vasaparken) and the Royal Gamepark (Kungliga Djurgården). For instance, King’s Garden (Kungsträdgården), the first park that public could visit, opened in this era. Humle Garden was used for growing fruits, spices and later hops (Humle in Swedish and were one of the major grown in this garden) (Stockholmsstad) in the 16th century. André Mollet, the designer of King’s Garden and Humle Garden, introduced French garden pattern to both of them in the end of the 1600s (the left of Fig.9). Rule-based geometric lines and axial symmetry are the theme of these gardens. A century later, this pattern has been replaced by Baroque with deliberate and exquisite curve (the middle of Fig.9). Furthermore, English park style influenced these gardens in the next one-hundred years and for this time, large scale of impression of nature is the trend (the right of Fig.9).

Fig.9 Layout of King’s Garden and Humle Garden in the 1670s (on the left), 1790s (in the middle) and 1880s (on the right), the blue one is King’s Garden and red one is Humle Garden, source: Stockholm stadmuseum

In 1866, Albert Lindhagen introduced a boulevard system that cut through grid plan (Fig.10). He proposed wide, tree-planted avenues and boulevards as George-Eugène Haussmann’s boulevards in Paris. In Norrmalm he proposed the 70 meters wide Sveavägen, as wide and long as the Champs Elysees in Paris. In Södermalm, Lindhagen suggested a semi-circular Södra Esplanaden (later Ringvägen) which was a precursor of ring-road in Stockholm (Selling & Lindhagen, 1970). Lindhagen city plan was partially realized after lengthy negotiations. Sveavägen became only 33-meter wide and shorter than Lindhagen had suggested; The Ring Road was also shorter than the proposal. Karlavägen, Narvavägen and Strandvägen were implemented as intended. Not only that the boulevards came with planted avenue, but public parks were also added since quite few parks were previously open to the public in Lindhagen’s plan. Adolf Fredrik Square (nowadays Maria Square), Mosebacke Square, and Berzelilgatan Park are new parks from this time (Asker, 1986). Furthermore, this plan made it as a rule that all the city undeveloped mountain heights need to be reserved for parks and plantings. Lindhagen utilized public parks as the starting or ending point of esplanade as well, like the Södra Esplanaden started from Skinnarvik Park until Vita Bergen. Gustav Adolfs Park and Nobel Park are the ending points of Karlavägen and Strandvägen.

Fig.10 Albert Lindhagens generalplan från 1866 för Norrmalm, Södermalm och Kungsholmen. Source: Selling and Lindhagen (1970)

2.2 Green Structure of Xi’an in Tang Dynasty (600-900BC)

Xi’an in Tang Dynasty (still called Chang’an) (Fig.11), is the combination of the passage in the Kaogongji (Record of Trades) section of the classical layout of capital cities, ancient Chinese astrology, Fengshui, Confucian and Daoism. 8310 ha of area was organized by clearly articulated and directed spaces, confined by geometric shapes for within and outside walls. It was formed by the Outer city (108 neighborhoods and 2 business markets), Imperial Palace (location of the emperor’s residence and the residence of his closest family members as well as his main hall of audience) and Imperial City (housed important offices and bureaus) (Steinhardt, 1986). Central axis and symmetrical layout are the main characteristics of the entire layout. Establishment of the central axis is to emphasize the centrality of feudal emperors and symmetrical layout is to reflect the strict order and hierarchy. Road system is spread out along the central axis line symmetrically to form a weft crossover style network and every Gate faces the main road straightly and thus bridges the road outside the city. A temple for the imperial ancestors stands to the east of the city center, alters to soil and grain to the west.

Fig.11 Layout of Chang’an City in Tang Dynasty, Source: Lianhu District Archives of Xi’an. From ancient astrology perspective, 108 neighborhoods of Outer City symbolized 108 main. 13 rows of residential areas stood for 13 months of a year, including the intercalary month and 4 lines of neighborhoods in the south of Imperial City corresponded four seasons of a year. Oriented north and facing south, as an important principle of Fengshui theory, was not only a reflection of layout guiding ideology but also intended to embody the supreme imperial dignity. The names of main Gates in four directions were also from Fengshui- the left is Azure Dragon, right is for White Tiger, front is for Red Bird and back is for Black Tortoise (four Emblems). They represented East, South, West and North according to their directions in the sky (Mak & Thomas Ng, 2005; Dingzeng, 1998).

Green structure existed as gardens (royal and scholar gardens) and boulevards (street trees or planting trees along streets and roads) (Fig.11). From Tang Dynasty, garden is no longer the privileged gift for royal family but literal scholars started to design their own- where the Scholar Garden from. But both royal and scholar gardens were inspired by the organic nature of the lands encompassing the city. Geometric built environment was still antithesis with organic earth. Street tree plantings became state law and special officials were assigned to be in charge of planting and managing street trees (Yu et al., 2006). In Tang Dynasty, all of the roads and streets in Chang’an were planted with pagoda tree (Sophora japonica L.), elm tree (Ulmus pumila), or willow tree (Salix babylonica) (Fig. 12). Tree planting along city streets were considered as good moral behavior and a blessing to the local people, and state officials were always recognized and memorized for their contribution to the construction of road greenery (Yu et al., 2006; Wang, 1955).

Fig.11 Layout of Daming Palace in Tang Dynasty, blue is the water area and green is garden area. source: Zhou (1999), modified by the author

Fig. 12 The boulevards and street tree planting of Chang’an, in Tang Dynasty, drawn by the author from literature Yi (1993) 3. Place and Space: modern green structure in Stockholm 1900- and Xi’an 1911-

During the modernist era, the city planners, inspired for example by Le Corbusier combined plans for a geometric built structure with a more organic green structure, along the lines of the natural Anglo-Chinese garden in Stockholm. Even though there is no longer a cosmos dominated by the horizontal relationship between earth and sky, there is still a binary between the geometric spatial organization of the built environment, and the organic character of the green structure. However, Chinese modern green structure experienced a vibrated path that ancient theories lost in several decades but many western theories imported without any adaption. Xi’an went through from zoning theory, Soviet model to self-positioning (ancient city) and fusion of traditional and western theories. The boundary between Western and Eastern green structure is blurring but the conflicts between geometric built environment and organic green structure tensed.

Nowadays, the densification of the built environment threatens the organic green structure which was key to functionalist planning. The conflicts of geometric built environment and organic green structure we tend to see today exists in both Stockholm and Xi’an between those who favour the spatial organization of the built environment, and those who are reducing the area of the green structure through densification, and those who favour giving more priority to the green structure of the landscape when designing cities (Whiston Spirn, 2005).

3.1 Modernism and Functionalism in Stockholm

Many different aimed and systematic city plans were formulated throughout the whole 1900s in Stockholm focusing on much more outer spaces. Garden City of Stockholm (Trädgårdsstäder i Stockholm) is the campaign that large parts of the outer areas of Stockholm were built on with houses by citizens themselves. People’s Park (folkpark) is the main movement aimed at finding a way for the working class to get out into nature from crowded housing in the city. Park and green space were no longer the exclusive privilege of royal family and nobles but access to normal people’s options of culture, lectures and entertainment.

Functionalism in architecture and planning had its breakthrough in the early 1930s and then implemented in a wide range of urban plans, including the northern and southern Ängby, Traneberg, Midsommarkransen and Västertorp. One of the examples is Vällingby about 15 kilometres from the city centre, and planned to have housing, services and workplaces for its habitants, but all separated by function (Fig.13). Green structure in the modernist era shared the idea that every park should have a new and functional content. The functionalist view was to keep and follow natural organic way that the parks and other green structure turned to nature as the source of their form instead of untouched territory and counterbalance of garden design. The healing powers of nature were considered more important than the pleasures gained by the bourgeoisie from having a pleasant place to stroll (Andersson, 1940). The public would use the parks in an active way to play, socializing, theater, picnics and also demonstrations. Playground and Park Theater were two important ingredients.

Since 1970s, functionalist ideal embossed in Stockholm urban planning and more and more detailed city plans have been set out and realized, such as Kista (1977-1980), Skarpnäcks gård (1980s) and South Station area (Södra Stationsområdet) (1986-1990). The updated comprehensive plan for Stockholm is called “the Walkable City” (Promenadstaden)” which was approved in 2012 and aimed for sustainable growth and letting the city to grow far beyond the boundary. Accordingly, parks and green areas represent over 40 percent of the Municipality of Stockholm’s surface now. They are both recreational areas and nature reserves (Stockholmstad).

Fig.13 Vällingby town center, 1954. Source: Stockholm Stadmuseet

3.2 From the first public park to modern green space planning of Xi’an 1911(ending of Dynasty) to present

The starting point of modern planning of Xi’an is Municipal plan of Chang’an city which was accomplished in 1927 since the end of feudal society in 1911. After that, many different theories influenced green structure planning of Xi’an. The first one was the zoning city plan which divided the city as different zones, such as ancient, administration, commercial, industrial, agricultural and scenery areas (Long, 2010). Public parks became a part of civic construction and were regarded as an effective tool for the government to cultivate civilized manners (Shi, 1998). Revolution Park (accomplished in 1927) is the first specially designed park of Xi’an for commemoration of soldiers and civilians dead in the Northern Expedition (1926-1928).

After the establishment of People’s Republic of China (PRC in 1949), green structure plan companied with urban plans witnessed close association of political and economic campaign of the country, for example, the first master plan (1953-1972) took the typical Soviet model- the Park of Culture and Recreation theory-green spaces for working class (Zhao, 2009). The second master plan (1980-2000) divided the resident areas as three scales- district, street office and neighborhood (the inherent of long history of neighborhood management from feudal society). In this age, Ring Park was the greenery belt park along the ancient fortification of Ming Dynasty and Qujiang Park was based a Buddhism temple. The third master plan (1995-2010) aimed at sorting out outer new space of urban development instead of the original inner city and constructing an environmental protection system. Planning system was scaled as city, county and village level. Park construction began to take citizen’s need into consideration, such as Fangzhi Park (Textile Park) in 1994 is the first park constructed in the industrialized area that for recreation of ordinary working people. City Sports Park in 2004 is the park that aims at encouraging outside sports and improving physical health of citizens.

The ongoing fourth plan (2008-2020) is the comprehensive plan includes two parts as regional and city plan, separately. Ancient city is no longer the only one center of the city but there will be other four centers as well. Connection and co-development of urban and rural areas are the main emphasis with ecological preservation. Green space planning and management are one of the important parts that will be shared by all the residents and contain more contexts rather than park construction, such as neighborhood green space, road greenery, and productive green space (nurseries provided for city greenery) etc. (Fig.14).

Fig.14Major Road system and city expansion of Xi’an city, Source: Xi’an Urban Planning Bureau (2007)

4. Discussion of green structure history in both regions

Table1. City structure and green structure history of Xi’an and Stockholm

Table 1 provides a brief comparison overview of green structure development history of Stockholm and Xi’an. Although both regions experienced a different way of evolvement, several concepts are shared, such as nature, world, place and space.

Before nature view, another concept we need to resolve first- world view. The term- world view-is a fundamental cognition toward a wide world perception. It is the framework of ideas and thinking formed in an individual, a group or a nation’s culture. It interprets into how a city looks like and how people interrelate with it. Nature view (view of nature) is usually accompanied with world view and evolved with the development of world view, since nature refers to the phenomenon of the physical world around us which is a part of the world we view. There are a vast variety of natural stuff from this sense, such as the earth, sky, water, life, and even human activities. Other two concepts are mostly referred with nature- landscape and scenery. And both of them can be changeable with nature (Olwig, 1993) from their visual perspective. Nature is also people’s feeling toward his surrounding that can be perceived from distant or close.

Nature view is simultaneously with world view since nature view is always expression through the relationship between human and nature and nature view leads to how people recognize and utilize this world- world view- at the same time. Tuan (1974) noted that how a city looks is precisely what the man considers this world, the city is a symbol of the cosmos, which takes on the regular geometric shape, such as circle, square, rectangle, and so forth. Additionally, I may argue how a city looks is what the man interrelating with nature as well and all of them represent the city itself but also extend the representation of city (it is the reason why ancient city can live) (Olwig, 2004).

As for Stockholm (Medieval Age) and Xi’an (Han Dynasty), two different but actually served as the similar pattern that they took- square (Fig.1 and Fig.4). Although some one may argue that the Old Town of Stockholm is not a precise square shape, it is mainly as a result of the geographic shape of island. If we take a closer eye on how the two cities form- royal palace (with cathedral) stands for ordered life, two markets and other resident areas represents material property and the fortification walls (security from enemies). In terms of world view and nature view, both Sweden and China experienced the axial transformation - from vertical to horizontal.

In Sweden (Medieval Age) and China (Emperor Dynasties), cathedral and royal palace took the dominating role in a city. However, both of them are human’s interpretation for the relation between heaven, earth and human beings- a world view of vertical where cosmology works. In Stockholm, cosmology is illustrated through the cathedral, royal palace and the city. However, Chinese cosmology was demonstrated throguh the entire city (Xi’an in Han Dynasty for instance) - not one specific part- indicates another philosophy- there are more than one God. It can be saw clearly in that no matter which dynasty, the God of heaven, the God of earth, the God of Grains and ancestors must be indispensable part. The power of emperors is given by the Heaven instead of one single God. From another perspective, it is precisely as a result of people’s reverence of nature and human’s tiny knowledge and strength in front of nature, world view was confined in vertical.

Since the Renaissance in Europe and Tang Dynasty in China, the position of human was increasingly recognized and human’s world view changed from vertical to horizontal accordingly. In Stockholm, people started to explore outer area (Norrmalm, Södermalm, Kungsholmen) of Old Town with dedicated intention that grid pattern shows clear order and also the regent’s position (Sveavägen in Normalm was supposed to link the royal palace and Hagar Park) as a mediator between the heavens and earth (Benveniste et al., 1973)- which is exactly the same manifestation of meaning of Chinese imperial palace and Chinese cosmology. In terms of the Stone City (Stockholm), although tiny planning efforts applied, no substantive changes happened that the Royal Palace and cathedral still sat in the same location and served with the same functions. However, in Tang Dynasty, grid pattern was utilized as well from a huge scale using vertical and horizontal road systems as the boundary. The consideration of grid netting is not only to show order and hierarchy but also the basic Confucian philosophy (4-5th BCE) - nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards- grid is the standard. As for landscape gardens, humble literal-minded scholars have the similar right as royal family to plan and design in suburban areas of city (Wangchuan Garden for example). People’s world view was changed to horizontal as well from Tang Dynasty. But if we take a closer eye on the imperial city and imperial palaces, they are still the interpretation of heaven and human, they still follow the basic rules of ancient astrology (Polaris, Alphard and other stars). So, both vertical and horizontal views exist in Renaissance and Tang, but again, with different expressions.

At modern time, the exploration of horizontal spaces is going and scientific thinking and explanation going, it means that the world view is more and more horizontal instead of vertical. However, the essence of Chinese society- an agricultural society- does not change. There are still many peasant farmers rely on their observation of heaven and not to mention Fengshui theory and Daoism which were concluded through natural observation in 4000BC and still applying in harmonizing the human with the surrounding environment. It backups the planning and design of Xi’an in every dynasties and also supports green structure planning of modern Xi’an. Overall, the same origin of world view existed in both Swedish and Chinese philosophy. As increasing number of scientific understanding and exploration of horizontal world, vertical view becomes more and more blurring in Western countries but still surviving or flouring in Eastern side.

Another significant similarity and also difference is symbolic meaning of the geometric built environment and organic green structure (garden in pre-modern time and parks and many other kinds of green spaces nowadays). As what we discussed above, as a symbol of cosmos, city always takes geometric shape as its representation. Shepard (1967) noted that the garden stands for the organic vulva of the earth, expressing humanity’s yearning for ease and the assurance of fertility. In Sweden, this idea corresponds to the heavenly city in the Bible and the Garden of Eden (geometric city form and irregular organic green structure). In China, this idea follows ancient astrology that city represents exactly the heaven and green structure is what the earth seems. Hence, green structure is originated antithesis of the city in both sides. Tuan (1974) argued that rectilinear geometry comprised the city and natural lines and spaces were the main theme of the garden. Rigid geometry line shows hierarchy and order but natural lines illustrate complicated informality which integrates human with their surroundings- which is also the basic philosophy of Daoism (one of most influential principle on how the garden should look like). Everyone is equal when he enters a garden and he is free to contemplate and commune with nature without considering social distinctions. Seeing is not only an aesthetic but also intellectual activity that everyone can be obsessed. When he walks along the trail, he is exposed to be involved and encompassed with the garden through constantly shifting scenes.

However, in the Medieval Ages of Sweden, garden or the monastic garden was places for contemplation and provide fruits, vegetables, and herbs for the monastic community (such as the Kitchen Garden and the Humle Garden of Stockholm). There was usually a fountain at its center with rising out of water symbolized the geography of Eden in Bible. They were not for pleasant scenery but always for Christian tradition: white lilies stand for purity, red roses are love, and the table in the garden with apples suggests human’s sin by Christ (Landsberg, 2003). As the pace of human’s powers were manifested in Renaissance and onward, the symbolistic and multi-dimensional significance of garden became more and more difficult to read and the garden started to emerge with geometrical city lines. One noticeable example is the Humle Garden (fig.3) that in 1670s (Renaissance and Baroque style) emphasized on privileged views by means of straight paths, rows of trees, and linear ponds. They were places that people can seek for pleasant views and also flattering the human ego- overcoming difficulties and manifesting human powers- where is also a supportive evidence from vertical to horizontal world view. In the next century, pursuing of natural beauty is the mainstream of green structure and was embodied in manor garden. Geometric lines of boulevards, planting and neatly built pond were replaced by natural pastures, dominating by grassland, natural growing trees, meandering streams and ponds. Deeper, more twists and more poetic views were explored for romantic temperament. It is the time that human recognizes nature’s power again and implicates it into his surroundings. And English romantic garden is the first time that Chinese and European garden get close (although it was influenced by Chinese garden in part, we still need to admit why the influential factor can be achieved is that people re-recognized and re-evaluated nature again) - where nature is the meeting point.

As the step of modern urbanization, multiple meaning of garden faded and human’s power was exaggerated again. Human exploited earth as much as they could for horizontal exploration but no consideration of naturalness. Until recently (after WWII), garden, park or other kinds of green structure came into horizon as places that for human activities on one hand and for natural connection on the other. However, Sweden and China took a seemingly similar but indeed different way. In Stockholm, functionalist planning and design (Le Corbusier’s Contemporary City- Ville Contemporaine for example) admit the contrast between the geometry of the buildings and roads, and the organic shape of green structure. He recognizes the value of geometric shapes and also uses green structure with geometric shapes to penetrate the elevated buildings. This idea goes along the line of Anglo-Chinese garden in the case of geometric built environment and irregular organic green structure, appreciate their value and meaning and utilize green structure as a plastic factor to go through the geometric buildings. Moreover, green structure is more and more explained and recognized by different significances after Modernism and Functionism, with its organic shapes. So it is obvious to see that an increasing number of green structures is realized and worked as its natural functions- constructing nature (Spirn, 1996). However, in China, we are kind of losing our recognition that we had in ancient times but imported many western approaches without any adaption, for instance large area of grassland even in arid cities, which never appears in any Chinese landscape history. Messed up phenomenon exists since modern and traditional garden theory conflicts and the concept of Landscape was not even appeared before Modernism knocked at the door. From this point of view, functionalism in China is weak. Although a lot of discussions keep on going for direction of Chinese future landscape and city planning between traditional theory, western models and balanced fusion, trying to conclude the clear definition of Landscape in China is the foremost question. And it is what Chinese landscape scholars need to answer and maybe green structure history of Stockholm could give us some hints. Similarly, Stockholm also faces with the conflicts between geometric built environment and organic green structure, between different groups favor different priorities. Re-examination and re-sorting of green structure history would provide some cues for current and future city planners.

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