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THE CRATER LAKE of OREGON, USA: a COLLAPSED CALDERA of MOUNT MAZAMA VOLCANO Arun Kumar

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THE CRATER LAKE of OREGON, USA: a COLLAPSED CALDERA of MOUNT MAZAMA VOLCANO Arun Kumar Open Access e-Journal Earth Science India - www.earthscienceindia.info Popular Issue, V (IV), October, 2012, p. 1-22 THE CRATER LAKE OF OREGON, USA: A COLLAPSED CALDERA OF MOUNT MAZAMA VOLCANO Arun Kumar The Crater Lake rests in a caldera and is located in Oregon in the Pacific north-west of the USA. This is the deepest (1943 feet deep) lake in the USA and the seventh deepest in the world and its average depth is 1,148 feet………… This lake is the largest clean body of water in the world because it is not connected with any stream. The northwestern part of the North American Continent ranging from northern California through Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and up to Alaska is probably the most scenic part of the Earth. To me this vast region appears to be a giant national park with numerous geological wonders. I have been visiting this region intermittently for the past fifteen years primarily for my geological research work. I have been part of a few major research projects, such as the Ocean Drilling Project (ODP) which supported investigation of multi-proxy study of Late Quaternary oceanographic and climatic history of coastal inland seas (fjords) of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. I studied benthic foraminifera from cored sections of the Saanich Inlet (Patterson and Kumar, 2002; Kumar and Patterson, 2005), dinoflagellate cysts (Kumar and Patterson, 2002; Patterson et al. 2005 and 2011) and fish scales (Patterson et al., 2002) from the surface and cored sediments of the Effingham Inlet. I also participated in oceanographic surveys and sample collections in various fjords of mainland northern British Columbia. During the past five years I visited Seattle at least once every year to see my daughter Anita and her family and toured some of the outstanding scenery and geological wonders of this region. I have already written about Mount St. Helens (Kumar, 2010) and Mount Rainier (Kumar, 2011) and here I present a popular geological account of the Crater Lake that I visited recently in August, 2012, with my daughter’s family. THE CRATER LAKE Explorers John Wesley Hillman, Henry Klippel and Issac Skeeters saw this lake on June 12, 1853 and called it “Deep Blue Lake.” In 1869 Jim Sutton, Editor of the Oregon Newspaper called it “Crater Lake.” Due to the seventeen year-long efforts by William Gladstone Steel and his mountaineering group known as the Mazamas from Portland, Oregon, Crater Lake became the seventh national park in the United States on May 22, 1902. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) conducted first systematic scientific study during 1880s. In the year 2000 USGS used a sonar mapping system and established its 1 Open Access e-Journal Earth Science India - www.earthscienceindia.info Popular Issue, V (IV), October, 2012, p. 1-22 maximum depth to 1,943 feet and produced a colorful map of the lake-floor and three- dimensional views of the under-water geologic features (Hill, 2004). Detailed physiographic information of the Crater Lake is available at the following website (http://www.nps.gov/crla/lake.htm ). The Crater Lake (Figures 1 and 2; Latitude 42.93°N: 42°56'0"N and Longitude 122.12°W: 122°7'0"W) rests in a caldera and is located in Oregon in the Pacific north-west of the USA (Figure 3). This is the deepest (1943 feet deep) lake in the USA and the seventh deepest in the world and its average depth is 1,148 feet. Maximum and minimum diameters of the caldera rim is 6.02 miles (east-west) and 4.54 miles (north-south) respectively and its surface area is 20.42 square miles. The average height of the caldera rim is 7,178 feet above sea level and 1,000 feet above the lake surface; Hillman Peak (Figure 3) is the highest point (8,151 feet) on the rim. Length of the lake shore is 21.8 miles. Wizard Island and Phantom Ship are two islands within the lake (Figure 2). This lake is the largest clean body of water in the world because it is not connected with any stream and its water (4.49 cubic miles) has accumulated since its formation when top of the Mount Mazama collapsed about 7627 ± 150 cal yr B.P. (Zdanowics et al. 1999). Water is sourced from the annual precipitation (both rain and snowfall) on the lake surface and the caldera slope covering an area of 23.3 square miles. The lake water is extremely clean thus the average clarity depth is 90-100 feet. According to the Oregon Explorer average annual rainfall in and around the lake is 66 inches and average annual snowfall is 44 feet. The lake maintains its present level because the amount of rain and snowfall equals the evaporation and seepage rate. The lake level has varied only over a range of 16 feet in the past 100 years; since its primary input of water is dependent upon the climate, the lake level is subject to abrupt changes ( http://oe.oregonexplorer.info/craterlake/facts.html). Since the Crater Lake is isolated from any streams and is primarily filled by snow and rainfall its water is very clean thus it is extremely pure and clear. According to Crater Lake Reflections (Summer/Fall, 2012, p. 7) approximately 83 % of the precipitation falls on the lake’s water surface and the rest is runoff from precipitation landing on the slopes of the caldera. Clarity was measured to a depth of 142 feet in 1997 (a world record) with a secchi disk (Figure 4) lowered in the water with a cable. The clarity of the lake water varies from year to year and seasonally by storms and erosion that brings sediments and rocks from the steep cliffs affecting clarity (Figure 5). The striking blue color of the lake is due to clarity of its water where sunlight is able to penetrate much deeper and water molecules absorb the longer wavelengths of red, orange, yellow and green light while shorter wavelengths of blue light scatters and shoots back to the surface (Hill, 2004). The USGS Open-File Report on Water Balance for Crater Lake is available on the website (http://oe.oregonexplorer.info/craterlake/facts.html). Rock fragments, sediments and chemicals are introduced into the lake through precipitation and run-off of the caldera walls. 2 Open Access e-Journal Earth Science India - www.earthscienceindia.info Popular Issue, V (IV), October, 2012, p. 1-22 The caldera wall is composed of volcanic rocks that do not react with or dissolve easily in cold water, but warm water seeping from the caldera floor adds a small amount of dissolved solids ( http://oe.oregonexplorer.info/craterlake/facts.html). Plankton in the lake and wind- borne pollen seasonally effect water clarity as well. The lake has 163 species of phytoplankton and carpets of mosses exist 85 feet below the lake surface to evade Ultra Violet (UV) light in the lake. Between years 1888 and 1941 six species of fish were introduced but only rainbow trout and kokanee salmon remain today. Mats of bacteria flourish at the bottom of this lake in total darkness. A remarkable example of the life cycle is observed among Midge flies. They lay eggs on the lake surface; and eggs sink around 2,000 feet to the lake bottom to hatch, feed as larvae, and mature as pupae. Pupae eventually float to the surface and emerge as adults. GEOLOGY OF THE CRATER LAKE The Crater Lake rests in a caldera formed when a 12,000 feet high volcano collapsed following a major eruption. It is part of a long series of volcanic features of the Cascade Mountain range of the Pacific north-west of the United States and Canada. In my previous articles I have written about the geology and volcanoes of the Cascade Mountain ranges (Kumar, 2010, 2011). The Crater Lake caldera is a bowl-shape depression that partially fills the collapsed caldera of the ancient Mount Mazama Volcano. Figure 6 shows major geological and geomorphic features of the floor of the Crater Lake. 3 Open Access e-Journal Earth Science India - www.earthscienceindia.info Popular Issue, V (IV), October, 2012, p. 1-22 Figure 1: The Crater Lake (looking towards north) and its beautiful blue water; Wizard Island (left side) in the Crater Lake showing distinct smaller crater on top. (author video- graphing the lake, Anita with little Diya in foreground. Photo: Paresh, August, 2012) Figure 2. Sunrise over the Crater Lake showing Wizard Island on the western part of the lake.(Photo: http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=crater+lake+national+park&view=detail &id=33C6AB7D06FF2B8882533981CB7B4ED46B3D141E&qpvt=crater+lake+national+pa rk&FORM=IDFRIR ) According to the website http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1202- 16-) the Crater Lake caldera was formed about 6,850 years ago as a result of the collapse of a complex of overlapping shields and stratovolcanoes called Mount Mazama. Figure 7 provides geological details of the Mount Mazama volcano, and Figure 8 (A, B, C and D) explains in four stages the formation of Mount Mazama volcano, its collapse and eventual formation of the Crater Lake. At least five andesitic and dacitic shields and stratovolcanoes were constructed between 420 and 40 thousand years ago. The explosive eruptions triggering the collapse of the caldera about 7,500 years ago were among the Earth's largest known Holocene eruptions that distributed tephra as far away as Canada and Greenland and produced pyroclastic flows that traveled 40 km from the volcano. This eruption spewed about 12 cubic miles of magma from the magma chamber 3 miles below the surface causing the top of the mountain to collapse and its top plunged 4,000 feet on itself and formed a bowl-shaped caldera (Hill, 2004).
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