A Valency Framework for the Old English Verb

RAYMONDHICKEY

A valencyframework for the Old Englishverb

The purposeof the presentpaper is to offer tentativelya descriptionof OE verbs,as they occur in attestedsentences,l in terms of the valencies2which can be establishedfor them. The term OE verb as it occursin the title refers to the set of independentverbs which havespecific and differentiatedvalency frameworks: (t) {vl = { v,u, v v,r,,} where i, j . . . n representone or more valenciesand wherei+ j.I specifythat the set consistsof independentverbs (notated as V1) as two further setsalso exist: that of modals,V-, and that of audliaries,Vu. lvhile thesehave complements(two and two only: CO, the subjectcomplement and C9, the verbative complement, a non-finite verb foim, i.e. an infinitive or past participle) they are not capable of forming a sentenceof their own. In dependency analysisthe sentenceis the basicunit and consistsof any syntacticsequence which contains a finite form of an independent verb (or a modal/auxiliary with a non-finite form of an independentverb) accompaniedby the complements demandedby its valency framework. In elliptical circumstancessome (though neverall) of thesecomplements may not be realised.3 The effectivity of applying dependencyformalisms to (Modern) English has been shown to be considerable(see Emons, 1974; Emons, l97B; and Hickey, 1980) if the formalism is adaptedto deal specificallywith the contin- genciesof Englishsyntax. The basicprinciple of elaboratinga systemof com- plementationa categorieswhich cover the totality of possiblevalencies for the verbs of a languageis maintained although the actual valenciesmay differ considerablyfrom one languageto another. The most exhaustiveframeworks developedthus far are those for German(see Engel, 1977; Engel/Schumacher, 2 1978;and Helbig/Schenkel,1969 for typical examples). In a languagesuch as Modern English position within a syntagm is used as a cue for the recognitionof complementationcategories. With OE, however, categoriescan be identified on the grounds of morphological marking and/or governmentby prepositionsand conjunctions,this last also fulfilling 200 Raymond Hickey A valencyfrantework for the Old English verb 201 an identifying function in Modern English. In the valency framework pre- quoted in the finite form in which it occurs.Adjuncts (marked simply .A') sentedhere no attempt is made to determinedeep structuress for OE verbal as will be placed outside valency brackets. If an infinitive constructions:what is of relevance(given the theoreticalbasis I affiliatemy- is quoted then the valency brackets contain the set of complementspossible with that verb. For self with) is the manifestationof actual verbal constructions.6However a reasonsof practicality these are indicated by a seriesof valencydescription goes beyond a mere taxonomy of verbalforms: in assign- dots so that if I begin with the abovesentence I may write ing valenciesto theseit attains an element of prediction:t if the valencies are correct then we know that a verb x with the valencyy will alwaysoccur (4) cwe6m in a syntagm of a given type (in nature and number of complementation categories). which I may procede to expand on collecting attestationsof largervalencies Central to any valency description is the system of complementation such as which obtains.Most sentenceelements apart from the verb itself can be a (5) He cwep sodliceto his leorningcnihtum. cwnpag4Ty complementto the verb. With OE a tenfold 'He division of complementtypes spoketruly to his disciples'. seems appropriate. This division allows a discriminating analysis of those elements which appear in a sentencedue to the demands (or possibilities) (6) vi given by the main verb. They include not only the normal four categoriesd (cwap) of surface casein OE but also a further six divisions which rely more on a I notional interpretation of complementation.It should not, however, be J imagined that theseare casecategories in a Fillmore sensef they may coin- c4 C7 (to I cide in someinstances but that is merely coincidental.The basicorientation (he) his leorningcnihtum)r (so6lice) of the system of complementationofferecl here is towards surfaceforms. which allows me to write Thesewill of coursealso reflect semanticrelations with the verb and to that (7) cwedm<024...> extent they also betray a partial origin outsideof the requirementsof surface syntax. and so forth.r2 The ordering of complementsin the stemmausually places the complementsfrom left to right in numericalorder and is not supposedto correspondto the linear sequenceof the actual sentence;again it may I Complementationcategories do so by coincidence.A subscript, is used after a complementto denotethat it is complex,i.e. that it containsmore than one occurrenceof the elementwhich The numberingof the categoriesof complementationis in itself arbitraryro is minimally requiredto representthis category(additive complexity) or that but hasthe advantageof mirroring(in most cases)the frequencyof occurence it itself governsfurther elements(dependent complexity, for examplessee of such categories.Thus the subjectof the sentencehas the designationCO asin below). This, with an instanceof CO should it consistof two nouns,obtains (2) He cwep sodlice. cwrp197y the notation CO.. This is frequently so with disjunctedcomplements in OE 'He spoketruly'. such as (8) Petrus which can be representedstemmatically as eodeut and seober leorningcniht .odr,o", ?eter and the other disciplewent out'. (3) vt (cwaP)\., The categoryCO doesnot alwaysrequire to be realisedin OE, as for example, in coordinatedsentences. In such casesthe coordinatedsentence, seen in de- cor'/ pendencyterms, is connectedof necessitywith the first one: (he) (sodlice) (9) And hi him lustliceti36odon and him biscop sendon. ti3Ooden sendonq6l3y With each sentenceI also give a valency description of its main verb which is (o3z); A valency for the Old English verb 203 202 Raymond Hickey framework

'And they granted(it) to him willingly and sent a bishopto \ (acsode) him'. (10) Nc (and)--Vr -Nc(and) (ti36odon) (sendon) co cl cl^ c8 ,l+\ (man) (hine) (hiylcne crefthe cuile) Ou) / J\ 'complement' This fact is of importance in an attempt to define the category co c3 c7 cQ cl c3 'adjunct'. (hJl (biscop)(him) and demarcate it from that of A formal criterion which is generally - _9jyl--!:*I'l F valid (preciselywith the exceptionof a doublecl) is that a complementdoes The broken-linedarrow indicatesthe referenceidentity of the CO in the first not occur twice in the samesentence whereas an adjunct may do so at will. sentencewith the non-realisedCO3 of the secondcoordinated sentence while However,even if we had no instancesof doubleCl then this would simply be the square indicates the position at a dependencynode which the subject an incidental formal concomitant to the valency deter.minationof comple- would occupy were it realised.The direct objectis markedas Cl and is either ment categories.la morphologically or positionally recognizablein a sentence: With some verbs we encounter a particular kind of complementation where the complementis not a member of a word classbut a clausein itself: (11) Hi peahmicle fierd 3eSadrodon. 3e3adrodonpronoun which they re- andrepresent it stemmaticallYas verbshave the minimal valencyCOl asin quire reflexive (16) vi (12) Hienebestrl sehere. bestal,61, (brd) 'The army stole away'. )/\ CO SLC vi (he) 0at) (bestal) + vt co +- +cl (onsenden) (sehere) (hiene) t\ )/ .t\ Furthermorea sub-groupof verbstakes two non referenceidentical C1s, co cl c3 suchas the verb ascion: (hi) (biscop) (him)

(l 3) pa acsodeman hine hwylcne crnft he cu6e. acsodeqgllgy Sentence-likecomplements should be clearly differentiated from instancesof 'Then he wasasked what his trade was'. C9, the verbative complement. The former involve a shift in sentencerank, i.e. they contain an embeddedsentence which is a valencysatellite of a verb 204 Raymond Hickey A valencyframework for the Old English verb 205

which is superordinateto it. C9s are alwaysnon-finite verb forms which clo Such verbs are to be held distinct from those which take C2 and anothet not involvea shift in rank ancias such a formal connector(suchaspr.tSwith complementsimultaneously, e.g. biddan, sceamian,6211 lforwlrnanlg23l: the governingverb. pancian,g23,.

The next categoryC2 is that of the genitive and is requiredby the valencyoi Even more than the genitivethe dative complementoccurs not only with a numberof OE verbsas in verbs but with prepositionsand certain adjectivesrTwhich require a relational (17) Sawlamoton lifes brucan. brucan,62, object,e.g. 'Souls areable to partakeof life'. (19) pu eart rihtwis and me Secweme. e4tr(02^) 'You vm are righteousand pleasingto me'. (moton) Wirc 6e twa stcnenetabulan 6am o6rum gelice. wirc(glc) .t 'Make two stonetablets like the others'. Vt (brucan) The notion of relation, however,is not containedin thoseoccurrences of the dative with verbswhich have only a CO as the remainingcomplement: t/\ (20) derian,63, CO C2 (sawla) (lifes) Him Pa stormasderian ne mahan. 'storms cannot harm him'. This sentenceshows the use of a modal verb which alwaysgoverns the independentverb which occupiesthe node below it. The designationindependent Peowanrg3, is nonethelessappropriate for the verb in this stemmabecause it can appear He Drihtne 6eowde. on its own; a modal verb is not independentin this senseas its occurrenceis 'He servedthe Lord'. concomitant with the non-finite form of an independentverb (whether realisedor not). The occurence of the dative in the valency frameworks of these and other verbs is not semanticallymotivated and showsthe arbitrarinessof syntactic Although its application in the nominal area is complicated,as a comple- caserequirements. With such verbs as take both dative and accusativethis is mentation categoryof the verb the genitive presentslittle difficulty. When not so, there being a definite relationalfeature attached to the occurrenceof specifyingthe valency of OE verbswhich take a genitivecomplement alter- the dative: nativesmust be givenwith certainverbs: (21) Hit him Romanealyfdon. alyfdon*61r, (18) frgnianrs2l4r'o Ihe Romansgranted it to him'. (02> Eeahhe prs fregnige. 'Although Formal argumentationfor the occurrenceof this relation, that is, when a he rejoicein that'. Cl co-occurs,is not tenableas it is alsopresent with other complements,e.g. (04) Frgnode min cild on minum innope. 'My with C9: child rejoicedon my womb'. (22) ehtan02n) fi:'-TJ:"t;'"'i"' <02> Ne eht he nanrewuhte. 'He However, as both the semanticallyvacuous and the relational dativeshave the doesnot attack anything'. same formal manifestation they are both subsumedhere under the category (01s8) Donnehi eow ehtapon 6yssebyrig. 'When C3. This alsoapplies to that type of relationaldative called pertinence dativers, they attack you in this stonghold' i.e. whereit is semanticallyequivalent to a possessivepronoun: 206 Roymond Hickey A valencyframework for the Old English verb 207

(23) he . . . settehis . . . hond him on pret heafod. setteq613; on dam deaPe. tweoganl62SLC) 'He placedhis hand on his head'. .Nobody need doubt that all men die'. (lit.:endin death)

dyde him of healsehring gyldenne. dydeapl3y Hine ne lyst his willan wyrcean. lyst,19^, 'He v took (the) gold ring from his neck' 'He did not wish to do his will'.

C3 is often the categoryof the subjectwith a subsetof verbsin OE which are The categoryC4 is that of prepositionalcomplementation and refersto those traditionally designatedimpersonal verbs with referenceto their lack of a CO instanceswhere an object of a verb is governedby a prepositionwhich is in in their framework.With such verbsthe frequently occurringvalency is (23): collocationwith that verb. If it variesthen it belongsto a smallset which may distinction. Prepositionalcomplements are (24) ofpyncan,23, or may not operate a semantic distinct from the categoriesC5 to C8 which may involve a prepositionbut . .bnt him 8es slrepesofpuhte. which are clearly identifiable in terms of their distinguishingcharacteristic 'that he was displeasedwith this sleep'. (location, direction, etc.). But with most complements,needless to say,bor- line casesexist as for examplein In many casesthe C2 canbe replacedby a sentence-likecomplement: der (2s) rorcum uua:,,un sestan Germanie (25) . . . bet him ofpuhte prt he efre manncynn 3esceop. ofpuhte,3 'that 51g, :iIhey :: came il" :::from the three strongestpeoples of Germany'. he regrettedever having created mankind'. where the dative complement could perhapsbe interpreted as an instance In such a casewe cannot say that we have a C2 in the form of a SLC but of C6 (seebelow). merely that the SLC fills the position in the valency framework of this verb The particulai prepositionwhich the complementC4 takescan be specified which is otherwiseoccupied by a nominal C2. A different situation some- in the valencydescription; this is advisableconsidering the rangeof preposi- times obtains where the SLC has a correlatein the sentence.This correlate tions which may occur. Thus the verbsin (usually a demonstrativepronoun) is inflected and occupiesa preverbal position with the SLC occuringpost-verbally. An examplewith an ordinary (30) . . . hwearf eft on prt weorc (Jodes word to lerenne ' ' ') '(he) (not impersonal)verb is threw himself on that task of teachingGod's word'' and (26) .IElcman 6restiolap, hu he on ecnesseswincan miege. 'Every man endeavours(to see) how he can strive after (31) . . . pa wrs 3estrangodASustinus mid trymnesse.. . 'then eternity'. Augustinewas strengthenedwith firmnes'.

When specifyingthe valencyof the verb in this sentenceC2 is includedas it can be specifiedas is presentwith the correlatedcs (contrastthe casewith bed above) strangian (32) hweorfan(04 [on]): qg14[mill) (27) tiolaF

Nane mondas tweoganne pearf, dret eallemen geendiap (33) . . . hwearf eft on pat weorc 3odesword to lrerenne' 208 Raymond Hickey A valencyframework for the Old English verb 209

Here the preposition 'he on of the C4 governsthe NP pet weorc which in its turn granted trim a site and bishop's seat on the island governsthe verbative complement lodes word to trerenne,in itself complex. of Lindesfarne'. The governingnucleus is in this casethe Np with preposition: the elementsmarked are not seenas constitutinga C5 in the valencyframe- (34) C4 [on] 5 Ce" work of sealdebut are governedby stowe and bisc^opsedlso that the verb's = C9. =C9 +Cl frameworkisthen(01"3)withCl. Cl + Cl + C5. Closelyconnected with the categoryof locationis that of directionC6; it is thus Jodes word to lrerenneis governedby on pet weorc. The arrow with a very frequently a complex complement, which when not including instances delta aboveit indicatesthat the elementit points away from governsthat it of repetition points towards. can havethe following threesubtypes: The phraseJodes word to lerenne is an element of secondary rank as it is not directly governedby the verb and complexas it consistsof a (38) origin : C6o C9 (to lerenne) which governsthe Cl (edes word). transition : C6U The necessityof a complementationcategory of location, c5, can be de- destination : C6, duced from thoseverbs where it is an obligatory requirementin the valency framework. An exampleof such a verb is lic3an ro* For purposesof illustration I have exclusivelychosen examples from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Parker Manuscript) which at the head of almost (35) . . . his lic lip et Winburnan. lib 'His

\ (39) Her for sehere from Lindesseto Hreopedune. 0ib) Ihen the army journeyedfrom Lindseeto Reptow'. C6. = C6a, C6.l .tt \ Z he for to Rome. CO C5 'and he journeyedto Rome'. (his lic) (et Winburnan) C6 = C6, Along with such instancesC5 is found with verbswhere it is not obligatory Her rad sehere ofer Mierceinnan East-Engle. but nonethelessis possible 'Then and appropriatein an expansionof valency,e.g. the army rode through Merciainto EastAnglia'. with secan C6" = C6U, C6., (36) Zponehere sohton et Eoforwicceastre. sohton,61r, 'and The most common subtype is C6r; with the verbfaran it is alwayspresent (they) soughtthe army at york'. though the occurrence of C6o is facultative. This can be shown formally as vi (40) faran,6u", = C6o 5 (sohton) C6, where the dependencyarrow showsthat C6oimpliesC6, though the converse + ->\ not "-t' does hold. The occurenceof C6o on its own is unusual,an example(in a CA Cl Cs relativeclause) being though: ! (ponehere) (retEoforwicceastre) (41) and ymb ii 3earpas 6e he of Francumcom he gefor . . . As was the case above it is necessaryto distinguish 'and ranks within valency about two yearsafter he hadcome from Francehe died'. frameworks so as to avoid classifyingan elementincorrectly. In the following sentencefor example Note that the verb is cunton, which can, however, occur with both C6o and c6r. The simplecomplement c6u is likewiserare but can be seenin (37) . . . sealdehe him stowe and biscopsedlin Lindesfarenaea. 210 Raymond Hickey A valencyframework for the Old English verb 211

(42) ehi flu3on ofer Temesebuton elcum forda . . . (47) Ea deorhi hataphranas. 'and they fled acrossthe Thameswhere thereis no ford'. Ihe animalsthey call reindeer'. Her for sehere up purh pa brycae ret paris . . . Among the possiblecomplements in the valency frameworksof OE is also fhen the army travelledup through the bridgeat Paris'. the temporal complement, C8. Its surfacerealization can vary considerably from a simple adverbialto an involvedprepositional construction. Further- It is the equivalentwith verbsof motion (e.g. of C5 with those of rest Wes more we can distinguish different meaningsof formally similar verbs by the hnlig leoht ofer westenne, 'There (a) was holy light over the wilderness'). occurrenceof C8 with certain other complements.Thus when the verb ge- Finally the occurrenceof an additive C6 should be mentioned;this is very 'to faron occurswith only CO and C8 its meaningis die': common and entailsthe useof differentprepositions: (48) Her gefor AElfred. (43) Her cuom sehere to Readingumon West-Seaxe. Ihen Alfred died', 'Then the army cameto Readingin WestSaxony'. = Wherethe C8 co-occurswith a C6 or whereit is not presentat all the meaning C6" C6" [tol + C6,, [onJ is 'to travel,journey':le The seventhcomplementation category has been labelled 'equational' as it (49) Swa feor swaman on anum gefara involves the adordinate linking of two elements. These normally belong to 'As far asman may travelalone'. the sameword class,that of nominals,as in Examplesof more complex C8 constructionsare: (aa) Du anabist eallradema. 'You aloneare the judge of all'. (50) On by ilcan3eareworhte seforesprecena here geweorc . . . 'During that same year the above-mentionedarmy did . . .' The samecategory is used when a nominal is linked to an adjective.In such pa preson sumeraon pysum tofbr sehere. instancesthe determining characteristic 3eare of C7 is the attribution of a quality fhen in the summerof that year the army dispersed'. to an object (animateor inanimate).Unlike Engel 1977or Engel/Schumacher '1978 I seeno compellingreason to createan additional categoryto cover As with other complementsC8 can alsooccur in a disjunctedform: suchinstances. The basicrelation is still that of equation.Thus in (51) Her hine bestrelse here on midne wintre ofer twelfan niht (45) Eonne ic stille beom. to Cippanhame. bestrel(0168c) 'When 'Then I am calm'. the army stole awayin the middle of winter after (the) twelfth night to Chippenham'. an equationis made betweenthe subject,ic, andthe classof objectswith the quality stille. A subclassificationof temporalcomplements is advisableas thesevary among themselves.As spacedoes not permit it I can not offer anything like a com- on first glancemany occurrencesof c7 may look iike c4 asin prehensiveclassification but can at leastattempt an initial one. For example (46) Of Jeata fruman syndonCantware and Wihtsreton. the C8 of the last sentencemay be broken down into 'The inhabitantsof Kent and of the Isle of Wight are (s2) C8" = C8 + C8 + C8 of Geatishorigin'. UNDEFI [SPEC:DEF] [REL:DEF] where [SPEC:DEF]stands for the definite specificationof the point in time inasmuchas they have a prepositionat their head, but againit is a question (on midne wintre) and [REL:DEF] for the definite specificationof the dura- of an equation between the subject CO and those who show the quality ex- tion (ofer twelfan niht). UNDEFI refersto the use of the indefinite temporal pressed in the C7 prepositional phrase. Lastly I should remark that beonf adverbial her. Slch a tentative classificationmust also distinguishdegrees of wesan is not the only verb which may have a C7 in its valency framework. definite specification so that we obtain different labelling for on sumeraand Another verb with which this is possibleis hatan as in on pysum$eare in 212 RnymondHickey A valencyframework for the Old English verb 213

(53) pa pres pysum on sumeraon 3eare. . . (57) He heht englashim to coman. heht <0t9"> 'He commandedangels to cometo him'. This may be achievedby indexing, where numeralsrefer to the degreeof the quality they are attached to, increasingin number corresponding to an in- we havea verbalelement (coman) which is directly coupled(not rank-shifted) creasein degreeso that we have to the main verb. This verbative complement is furthermore complex in that it containsa C4 of its own. StemmaticallyI representthe sentenceas (54) = pysum C8 [SPEC:DEF,I ] on Jeare - C8 ISPEC:DEF,2] = on sumera (s8) vi [rrNl Ce:\ [INF] (heht (coman) There may be some doubt about the necessityor at least about the precise ) natureof the last complementationcategory, the verbativeC9. It is necessary, \ howevet, as it denotesa categorywhich is part of the valency of a number of /\ CI ------) CA\ verbs and which furthermore is of equal rank with other posible comple- (englas) tr\ ments.Thus in the sentence

(55) . . .6a spdon hi pat 6rs hearpereswif sceoldeacwelan . . . CO >c4 'then they saidthat the harper'swife should die' (he) (to him) we do not have a C9 but a Cl which is realisedas a relativeclause (sentence- The broken arrows indicate reference identity of complements and the like complementation, see above) connected to the main verb by pet but bracketing behind the \ forms indicates that the main verb is finite and containing a finite verb form with a CO (here: a modal with an independent the C9 non-finite. This is alwaysthe case.No two finite verb forms can co- verb) which is howeveron a rank lower than that of the main verb.The stem- exist on the samerank within a sentenceunless they sharetheir CO and are ma for this sentenceis then usedadditively. The complementscontained in a complexC9 areindependent of the valen- (s6) Vt cy framework of the main verb and vice versa.A further characteristicof C9s (srdon) is that the CO of their verbsis alwaysunrealised as it is presentas a complement of the main verb. Thoseverbs which may take a C9 are not numerous I but of high frequency;as with Modern Englishthey includeverbs of percep- CO SLC C8 tion and the verblet. Typical examplesare: (hi) (bet) (6a) (59) Ic pretlondbuend . . . secganhyrde . . . hyrde,619, .t 'l haveheard country dwellers. . . say'. vm Ic seahturf tredan .vi. gebrodur seah<019.> (sceolde) 'I sawsix brotherstraverse a field'.

+ God let hi habbanagenne cyre. l.t ,019", v, 'God let them havetheir own choice'. (acwelan) Note that in the aboveexamples the Cl of eachsentenceis reference identical I with the non-realisedCO of the subsequentC9. This need not be the caseas * the CO of the main verb can also be that of the C9 (here alsounrealised): Co. (6es hearpereswif) (60) Howeverin the following sentence T,::'lilltrffi:ffiT3,;::T*0, 214 Raymond Hickey ,'l rult'rtc:yframework for the Old English verb 215

3.'I'lrus for cxarnplc tlrc long se:qucncesin the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle consisting of syn- which I representas follows: ':rrrtl' tagms conltcctt.tl lr1' r'u'ouldbe subdivided into smaller units (normally corre- 'Z') from (61) V1[FIN] ce: \ [INF] sponding lo ulrrt rs tontlrirrt:rJbetrveen two occurrencesof each of which (begann) (wepan the point ol'vicrv ol tlcpcndencyanalysis constitutes a sentence. ) 4.The tcrrn ctllnp['lllclll refersto those elementsof a sentencewhich are presentdue to the dcmantls ol llrt'nurin verb of the sentence.They may range from the (traditional) / \ governed /\t t \ subjcct to u vcrlratrvc construction and include all elements which are C7 duectly hy llrc rnain verb. On adjuncts,see below. /c8 I 5.On thc rclationslripof valency to deep structure,see Helbig, 1969. (dreorig) 6.Such manilcstutions are also the main subject of interest in the historical develop- /(F)l ment of linglish: it is precisely the differences in the surface structure in English / verbal constructions on the time axis which renders a diachronic study of them co ,1, rewiudinq. (sewer) ---+n T.Prediction is vital where dealing with a living language: by establishing it we can ac- count for all possibleoccurrences of a certainverb. 8.Dative and instrumental are taken togethcr here as C3. 2 Adjunctsand clausetypology 9.Neither in the classical exposition, Fillmore 1968, nor in that of subsequentmodifi- cations, I.'illrnore L91I: Fillmore 1977. In any given stretch of OE text we will have not only verbs and some or all 10.My system of complementation is similar but by no means identical with that pre- of the above ten complementationcategories but also a further small set of sented in Engel/Schumacher, 21978:26. Among the more important differences are the reduction of C7 ('Ernordnungsergdnzung') and C8 ('Artergdnzung') to one, C7 non-classifiedelements (some of which haveoccurred in the sentencesabove) 'verbative', ('equational'), the expansion of their C9 ('Ergiinzungssatz'),my and the and which I designateadjuncts. If the complementsare determined by the introduction of a temporal complement, my C8. valency frameworks of particular verbs then adjuncts are determined by the ll.The stemmas in this paper are all on the level of complements, i.e. they show the textual framework in which the verb with its complementsresides. The entire complement at the corresponding node. Complements which consist of more than one lexical item could be given more detailed representation; here this would be textual framework derivesultimately from the expressionalintention of the author. Thus a typical adjunct such as negationcannot be dependenton the C4: verb affectedbut stemsfrom the wish of the author to make a negatedstate- C4 -+ PREP ment. Equally we obtain a set of attitudinal adjuncts(see the two examples (to his leorningcnihtum) (to) in the text above).Other adjunctsrefer to attendant aspectsof a verbal ac- I Y tion, e.g.eac (concornitance),eft (repetition). N The syntagmsin which a verb with its complementsoccurs stand in rela- (lcorningcniltt ttnt) tionship to each other in a text. This relationship can be of various kinds I v (declarative,interrogative, causative, adversative, concessive, etc.) and its POSSPRO classification results in a clause typology. However for a valency frame- (his) work of the verb, such a typology is not a pertinent desideratum.For a text 12.I should remark that in this treatment of OIr I am not going to attempt to distinguish dependencygrammar it certainly is, but that has not been intended here. between obligatory and facultative complements as this cannot be done conclusively for an extinct language. Thus I satisfy myself with the twofold distinction complement:adjunct. 13.A complement which is not realised superficially is shown with a stroke through it in a valency description. Notes 14.A procedure for differentiating complements and adjuncts is offered in Andresen, r973. 2 1.By far the largernumber of examplesentences given here are from OE prose texts, 15. SeeEngel/Schumacher, t978:79 ff. where a similar category is described. the remainderare from poeticaltexts. I havedispensed with givingsources as they are 16.A strolie indicates that the complements immediately before and after it are alterna- of little televancefor the theme of the paper.As an aid I add a ModernEnglish gloss tives of one another. to eachsentence. 1?.A formalization of adjectival valencies (for German) is found in Sommerfeldt/ 2.I use the term valencyin the classicalsense of Tesnibre,1959, that is, the demands Schreiber, t9'14. for certain complementsplaced by specificverbs. For refinementsof the useof this l8.This type of construction, common in Modern German, is dealt with in Polenz, term, seeEngel,1972. t969. 216 Raymond Hickey

19.It should be mentioned that with this meaning the verb more frequently occurs without the prefix g e.

References

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